NOTES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH & EVALUATION

Research – is a process of identifying possible solutions to the complex problems of man. It is the ultimate
remedy when he is not capable of rationalizing the nature, causes and effects of his problems in a
short span of time.

- a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about

the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Sevilla, et.al., 1992).

- A purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing,

presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for intervention, for
the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the
preservation of human life (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993).

- Means searching for a theory, testing a theory or solving a problem.

Importance of Research

All educational research is premised towards the extension of knowledge and solution of problems.
By influence the over-all function of research is to improve various processes, whether educational,
economical, social, political and cultural through the refinement and extension of knowledge.

Purpose of Research

1. Discover new facts of known phenomena

2. Find solution to problems that are only partially solved
3. Improve or develop new products
4. Discover unrecognized substances or elements
5. Validate generalizations into systematic order
6. Provide basis for decision making in any undertaking
7. Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity
8. Acquire better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon to another
9. Verify existing knowledge
10. Improve educational practices by raising the quality of school products
11. Enhance man’s basic life.

Kinds and Classification of Research

1. According to purpose:
a. Predictive or Prognostic – to determine the future operation of the variables under
investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better
b. Directive – determines what should be done based on the findings to remedy unsatisfactory
condition
c. Illuminative – concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being
investigated

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2. According to goal:
a. Basic Research – discover fundamental concepts and principles by exploring the unknown
to extend new boundaries of knowledge vis a vis new facts and investigation usually carried
on laboratory setting.
b. Applied Research – improve a product or process through new applications of scientific
knowledge to solve a problem. Most educational research is applied research, for it attempts
to develop generalizations about teaching-learning process, instructional materials, the
behavior of the children and various ways to modify it and learning outcomes.

3. According to the level of Investigation:

a. Exploratory – studies the variables pertinent to specific situation
b. Descriptive – studies the relationships of the variables
c. Experimental – studies the effects of the variables on each other
4. According to the Types of Analysis:
a. Analytical Approach – identify and isolate the components of the research situation
b. Holistic Approach – begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and
on its internal relationships.
5. According to Scope:
a. Action Research – application of the steps of the scientific method in the classroom
problems used by teachers, supervisors, administrators and managers, to improve the
quality of their decision making and actions and its focus is on immediate application, not on
the development of the theory but it has an emphasis on a problem existing in a local setting
designed to improve school practices such as habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously
in the group, and enhance professional spirit.
6. According to the choice of answer to problems:
a. Evaluation – possible courses of action, which are specified and identified in which
researchers try to find out the most advantageous
b. Developmental – focuses on the findings or developing a more suitable instrument or
process than has been available
7. According to Statistical Content:
a. Quantitative or Statistical Research – one in which inferential statistics are utilized to
determine the result of the study usually includes comparison studies, and cause and effect
relationships
b. Non-quantitative Research – used for quantity or statistics which is practically nothing but
zero like in alternative research such as anthropological ethnocultural studies, indigenous
and participatory where description is usually used.
8. According to the Types and Kinds of Research:
a. Proprietary Research – conducted for a specific audience and not shared beyond that
evidence
b. Scholarly Research – promotes public access to knowledge
c. Behavioral Research – based on the beliefs that objective knowledge is obtained through
careful and systematic observation and measurement of what people do.
d. Phenomenological Research – based on the belief that what people do depends on what
they perceive or what goes on their minds and focuses on the internal, psychological
meaning that guides behavior, describe how people understand their life experience, tends
to be theory generated or inductive and aims to shape the development of a theory.
e. Communication Research – investigation of five communication elements:
i. Control Analysis (Source) – refers to the performance of the communicator such as
their credibility, capability, expertise, functions, structures and needs/problems

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 ii. Content Analysis (Message) – determines the nature and characteristics of message,
manifestations of any of the scopes and themes, slant and treatment, text or visuals
and the message appeal
iii. Media Analysis (Channel) – refers to the media’s comparative advantages, media
features, and costs
iv. Audience Analysis (Receiver) – concerns audience behavior, tastes, interests,
opinions, where they reach and can be conducted on the following feedback level,
audience level and expectations
v. Impact Analysis (Effects) – know the current trends in such areas as community
media system, information diffusion, media socialization, children and television, and
media motives, uses and gratifications and can be done on an awareness, attitude,
change, behavior change and practice level

Types of Research

1. Basic Research – (Pure Research) is done for the development of the theories or principles. It
consists of those which seek the understanding of a process or subject with little expectation of
direct payoff.

Ex.
1. Studies on the Relationship between Home Environment and Academic Performance
2. Determining the Predictive Efficacy of Leadership Dimensions on the Effectiveness of
the Organization
3. The Relationship between Parents’ Own Child Experiences and Engaging in
Subsequent Child Abuse Practices
4. The Dependence of Seasonal Cycles on Room Utilization in Hospitals

2. Applied Research - aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification, application,
development, support and their relationships to the existing fond of knowledge. It consists of probing
the unknown for a specific goal or reason using directly the results to present a problem.

Ex.
1. Studies on Leather Substitutes
2. Techniques for Gall Bladder Operation
3. Uses of Different Contraceptives

3. Action Research – is simpler than basic and applied researches. The focus is on immediate solution of
the problem without necessary using scientific principles in order to fine solutions to a problem.

What are the Sources of a Problem?

Tips on where to find a Research Problem:

1. Experiences that may have an impact on daily life.

Ex.
1. The Advantage of Paying Cash of Household Items
2. Buying Imported or Local Dairy Products
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 3. Using the Washing Machine against Manual Laundering

2. Problems in the Work Environment.

Ex.
1. Interpersonal Relations with Co-workers
2. Problems on Communication Processes
3. Conflicts on Loci Decision- Making Process
4. Leadership Dimensions and Styles of Managers
5. Effects of Management Innovations such as:
a. Management by Objectives (MBO)
b. Management Information System (MIS)
c. Organizational Management (OD)

6. Community Linkages
7. Sources of Stress
8. Resolving Conflicts

3. Classroom Discussions

Ex.1. Theories which needs empirical support like:

a. Dependence of Performance on Level of Job Satisfaction Using the Motivation –

Hygiene Theory
b. Intelligence Theories and Factors Related to Academic Performance
c. The Predictive Efficacy of Drill on the Teaching of Mathematics
d. Application of Froebel Theory of Self – Activity

4. Technological and Scientific Advancement

Ex.
1. Problem on Pollution
2. Drug Addiction
3. Use of Nuclear Energy in the Treatment of Certain Diseases
4. Personnel Displacement Due to Automation
5. Advantage of Using Unleaded Gas for Automobiles
6. Use of Computers for Satellites in Navigation

5. Offshoots of Other researches. At the end of a research report are recommendations for further
research which on can avail of.

6. Suggestions from Friends or Administrators

Certain Factors in the Selection of a Research Problem:

A. External Factors:

1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication

- element of newness
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 - duplication permissible but there should be necessity and justification

2. Importance in the field/practical value of the problem

- with practical value in the life of persons, respondents and end-users

3. Special Equipment
– unique working condition.

4. Availability of Data

5. Institutional and Administrative Cooperation

B. Personal Factors

1. Researcher’s interest in the Problem

2. Time required to finish the study
3. Special qualification of the Researcher
4. Cost of investigating the problem
5. Hazards, penalties and hardships

Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic

1. The research must be chosen by the researcher himself (not by anyone else) to avoid blaming
others or offering excuses for any obstacles encountered later.
2. The research problem must be within the specialization of the researcher.
3. The research problem must be within the interest of the researcher.
4. The research problem must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5. The research problem must be within the ability of the researcher to finance. There should be a
budget which the researcher must be able to shoulder
6. The research problem must be researchable and manageable. A research problem or topic is one in
which:
a. The data are available and accessible
b. The data meet the standard of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability
c. The answers to specific questions (subproblems) can be found or collected
d. Hypotheses formulated are testable (can be accepted or rejected)
e. The equipment and research instruments are available and can give valid and reliable
results

7. The research problem can be completed within the reasonable period of time except if it is a
longitudinal research which takes a long period
8. The research problem must be significant and relevant to the present time and situation and of
current interest.
9. The result of the study are practical and implementable
10. The research problem must be original or novel and requires reflective thinking to solve it

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 Qualification of a Good Researcher

1. He is tactful
2. He has patience and perseverance in research work
3. He is a positive thinker
4. He has high levels of reasoning, imagining, judging, and abstracting.
5. He has a good working knowledge of statistics
6. He has a good working knowledge in grammar
7. He is creative and innovative
8. He is a wide reader
9. He is abreast of developments in all fields of discipline
10. He has a good sense of humor or good relationships with all classes of people
11. He has organizational skills
12. He enjoys the field of research.

A researcher must be:

R – research oriented
E – efficient
S – scientific
E – effective
A – active
R – resourceful
C – creative
H – honest
E – economical
R - religious

Research Format

PRILIMINALARIES

1. CERTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCHER/S

2. TITLE
3. APPROVAL SHEET
4. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6. TABLE OF CONTENTS
7. LIST OF TABLES
8. LIST OF FIGURES
9. ABSTRACT

Chapter I – INTRODUCTION

 Background of the Study (Rationale/Situational Analysis)

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  Statement of the Problem
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and Limitation
 Definition of Terms

Chapter II – REVIEW OF LITERATURES

- Related Literatures (Published Materials)

- Related Studies (Unpublished Materials)
- Framework of the Study (Theoretical/Conceptual Framework)
 Assumptions/Hypothesis

Chapter III – METHODOLOGY

- Research Design
- Research Locale
- Respondents of the Study
o Sources of Data
 Population of the Study
 Sampling
- Research Instrument
- Data Gathering Procedure
- Measurement of Variables
- Data Analysis

Chapter IV – RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Chapter V – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Chapter VI - REFERENCES

APPENDICES

The Research Title

The Research Title should have the following characteristics:

1. The title signifies a very timely and significant contribution to the needs of society in general and to
the agency in particular;
2. The title of a thesis or dissertation should be a specific and concise statement of the topic;
3. It should refer to the major variables or theoretical issues investigated;
4. Its principal function is to inform the reader about the study, therefore, it should be explanatory by
itself;
5. The title should focus on the topic investigated and the main variables studied;
6. The recommended maximum length for the title is 10 to 14 substantive words.
7. It must be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in capital letters

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THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem:

1. It must be relevant to the need of time.

2. It must be within the researcher’s interest and capabilities.
3. It must be clear, specific, attainable within a given period of time.
4. Information should be available.
5. It should not be harmful to people and society.
6. It must be new.
7. It should provide information for planning, development, and legislation.
8. If you are writing research titles, avoid redundancies like, “A review of…,” “An evaluation of …,”
An assessment of …,” “An analysis of …,” etc. because even without those terms, the researcher will
review, evaluate, assess and analyze the problem anyway.

SMART
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time Bound

Sources of a Problem

1. When there is dissatisfaction in services and information.

2. Problems may be encountered in classrooms or at work.
3. Breakthroughs in science and technology may present unexpected problems.
4. Research thrust and priorities of certain organizations.
5. Misconceptions on culture.

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

This is a paragraph sidehead which begin in chapter 1. It introduces the study and signifies its
importance to create an interest and intense desire on the reader to know more about the investigation.
This is the preliminary part of the problem, leading to its main part and objectives. It may include legal or
other basis related to or for conducting the study.

Guidelines:

The introduction maybe composed of three or four paragraphs which will enable the readers to see
at a glance the entire contents of the research work
1. The first paragraph is intended to provide the readers a mental readiness, thus giving them the
information as to what the problem of the research is all about. It introduces the study and its
justification
2. The second paragraph carries the greater part of this introduction and the problem that is used as
frame of reference. It tells the readers the scope, circumstances and the coverage of the study
3. The third paragraph revolves around the various conditions that accompany and determine the
purpose of the study
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 4. The last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that arouse the curiosity and interest of the readers to
know the result of the study

Rationale/Background of the Study/Situational Analysis

- first part of chapter 1

- some call it background of the study while others call it situational analysis (both refers to the
introduction of the study)
- there should be a theme in writing that will serve as an outline to have a continuity of idea based
on the important variables of the study, their scope, nature, and characteristics from macro to
micro (deductive approach) data presentation
- introductory statement must be eye-catching
- issues related to the investigation should be quoted and documented to encourage the readers
to read on
- last part – brief situational analysis to present information on the problem and what prompts the
researcher to venture into such study and show that the study is relevant and contributes to the
existing fund of knowledge

Background of the Study

Note: write here in sequence the following information:

- Importance of your topic

- Support statements/readings
o Include 2 to 3 studies conducted already related to your topic
- Situationer
o In the Philippines
o In the locality
o
- Your observations
- Purpose statement

Statement of the Problem

Guides/Tips in writing:
1. The major problem of the study can be stated by briefly pointing out to the objectives, the subject
and the coverage as well as the time frame.
2. Specify the sub-problems of the main problem.
3. Include all possible components under the sub-problems of the study.
4. State the sub-problem in either interrogative or declarative form. If the study is experimental, it is
advisable to state it in the declarative form.
5. You should also have advance information on the instruments to be used for data gathering. This
will help you prepare the methodology of the study.
6. The statement of the problem must be brief, clear, specific and relevant.
7. The problem should be stated both in general and specific terms. The general statement of the
problem is a reiteration of the title of the study
8. The problem is stated in an interrogatory form. It must ask a question and sub-problems must follow
the main problem which are the key issues for investigations in the research

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 9. The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words in research) such as examine,
analyze, determine, assess, evaluate, find out, among others.
10. Specific questions should be stated using the following guide words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is
there,”.

Levels of Inquiry

Level 1 – questions are usually used in descriptive researches. They usually starts with “what” and are
exploratory in nature
Level 2 – questions ask relationships or differences between independent and dependent variables
Level 3 – research questions are usually stated in “why” and “how” questions

Significance/Importance of the Study

- specify the direct beneficiaries of the study

- states the contribution to the fund of knowledge
- states the need for the study to be made in that field
- from macro to micro is ideal
- benefits to the ff:
o legislatures
o school administrators
o curriculum planner
o faculty
o researchers
o students

What should be included in the Importance or Significance of the Study?

1. The rationale, timeliness and relevance of the study to existing conditions/situations covered by the
investigation
2. What motivated the researchers to conduct the study?
3. The possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions
4. Shows the individuals, groups, or communities who maybe placed in a more advantageous on
account of the study
5. The possible contribution to the fountain of knowledge
6. It should consider and discuss the implications, including the possible causes of the problems, and
the remedial measures to solve the identified problems

The use of these phrases could keep express the significant of the study:

Result could help benefit ….

The study will keep enhance involvement in….

Similar organization/institutions will benefit from this study…..

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 This study can help improve…

The finding may also serve as guides to …

This study will serve….

This study will contribute…

The result of this study will provide some insights and understanding on how to….

This study will help them aware of ….

This could motivate and challenge school authorities to ….

Scope and Limitation/Delimitation of the study

- Scope and limitation of the study answers the “what”, “where”, “when”, “who”, and “why” of the
study
- Sets the delimitation and establishes the boundaries of the study
- Limitation points out the variables not included thus discusses the reasons why they are
excluded
o Reasons:
 the study appears to be vague; may lose the emphasis the main objectives
 coverage of the study is very broad
 thesis/dissertation partial requirement for the degree, if not accomplished within a
given period, it can delay graduation

The scope identifies the boundaries in terms of time, location and samples, subjects and the
limitations which are beyond the control of the researcher

The use of the following phases could help the researcher express the scope/limitation of the study:

This study is focused on….

This study is limited to…

The coverage of this study….

The investigation is concerned on….

The researcher limited this study to…

This study does not seek to include….

Definition of Terms

Ways of Defining Terms:

Conceptual definition
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 - mostly concerned with attributing authorities like books, magazines, etc. including unpublished
materials
- terms are quoted by a researcher

Operational definition
- when a researcher defines the terms as he uses in the study
- define according to the variables included in the instrument of the study

Note:
These definitions must indicate the indicators and operations that need to be done to test the
presence or absence of variable under study. The key terms should be substantially and clearly defined
according to how they are utilized in the study in order to facilitate understanding of the problem. It is
important to avoid ambiguous meaning in using terms which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways.
The definition of terms/variables maybe either lexical/conceptual or operational or both. Operational
definition expresses the meaning of the terms/variables as used in a particular field of study. On the other
hand, the lexical or conceptual definition is usually taken from the dictionary and carries the universal
meaning easily understood by the readers.
The usual or common practice in dealing with this portion of research is to state first the conceptual,
then, the operational definition, however, using either one of them is acceptable
The terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order. Acronyms should be spelled out fully,
especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first time.

In writing definitions of Terms/Variables:

1. Define terms, which, though common, may have a special specific meaning or are differently used
2. Define terms that are absolutely necessary in the study and do so precisely by using an
authoritative document
3. It is difficult to find an authoritative definition, find one or two such definitions, cite them and try to
create your own definition as used in the study
4. Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in Science or Mathematics, should be
placed in the Appendix

Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

- all related ideas, concept, theories and principles are to be reviewed to support the investigation

Two Parts:
1. Professional Literature – comes from published materials like books, journals, magazines,
pamphlets, etc.
2. Related Studies – are from unpublished materials like theses, researchers reports and dissertations

Advantages:
1. It helps the researcher look for possible theories, concepts, or principles to support the
investigation.
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 2. It is essential in formulating a sound research problem or research title, hypotheses, assumptions,
etc.
3. It enlightens the researcher as to the direction of the study.
4. It proves that the study is researchable and possesses novelty.
5. It helps to identify the statistical instruments to be used in the study
6. It serves as a guide to write the findings, conclusions, and recommendations

Types of Literature:

1. Conceptual Literature (related literature) pertains to the articles or books written by authorities
giving their opinions, experiences, theories, or ideas of what is good or bad, desirable or
undesirable within the problem area

2. Research Literature (related studies) refers to published or unpublished reports on actual

research study done previously

Four Types of Entry Reference Notes:

1. Quotation
- the exact words of an author are reproduced and enclosed in a quotation marks
2. Paraphrase
- restate the author’s thought in your own words
3. Summary
- restate in condensed form the contents of the article
4. Evaluation
- reaction indicating agreement or disagreement or interpreting the point of view of the writer

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

- a study should be supported with various theories and concepts to show that the study is
researchable on a scientific basis
- theories relative to the investigation provides directions on undertaking the study
- theories are formulated after reviewing related literature
- in looking for theories, you must be organized and logical because you are gathering date for
Chapter II
- after incorporating the theories and concepts, the conceptual framework is made
- concepts are presented in the form of a paradigm or model showing the steps or process to be
used in the study
- the paradigm illustrates important variables of the study (independent, moderator and
dependent)
o independent variables – input variables; in descriptive research, they are not
manipulated
o moderator variables – secondary input variables, which affect or influence the
independent variable
o dependent variables – outcome of the study

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 - paradigm can be illustrated using the inputs, throughputs and outputs but sometimes does not
necessary indicate dependent and independent variables, but it explains the steps to be taken in
the study
- the paradigm also serves as the basis for conducting the study together with the statement of
the problem. All sub-problems are reflected in the paradigm in order to map out the direction of
the study
- the core theory should relate to the major variable of the study and the other supporting theories
should be linked to the other research variables. The theories are then made operational in the
conceptual frame of the study

Theoretical Framework

When formulating theoretical framework, it is suggested that authoritative theories be presented on

which the researcher can constantly lean on. The research should identify the important concepts that are
utilized in the research work for better understanding and insights of the theory which is a set of unrelated
prepositions that purports a given phenomenon.
The practice of constructing theoretical framework is to cite different theories, models, and
paradigms related to problems and hypothesis.
The other way of constructing theoretical framework is to modify or reconstruct the theory into
general framework containing the variables and relationships for the purpose of the research to be
undertaken
In planning and writing the theoretical framework, it is necessary to mention the theory that will be
utilized by giving the assumptions, defining the key terms and concepts , identifying the variables and
stating the relationship of the hypothesized variables

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is a mental image or perception anchored on the theoretical framework. It is

the detail presentation of the variables to be observed in the on-going study; the concepts defined in a way
the investigator wants, the way the variables are operationalized and the method of measuring the
variables

The conceptual framework is drawn from the review of related literatures and studies. It should
clarify the relationships between and among the major variables of the study. It should be illustrated further
by drawing a conceptual paradigm

A paradigm is a research perspective or view that holds about what research goals and methods
should be a paradigm as “a pattern, example, or a model”. It is a mental window through which the
researcher views the problem

VARIABLES

A variable is a concept- a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects, such as chair, gender,
eye color, achievement, motivation or running speed

If all members of a class are identical, there will be no variable. Such characteristics are called constant

Quantitative VS Categorical Variables

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Quantitative Variables - exist in some degree (rather than all or none) along a continuum from “less” to
“more” and we can assign numbers to different individuals or objects to indicate how much of the variable
they posses.
Ex. Height, weight, interest, length
Categorical Variables – do not vary in degree, amount or quantity but are qualitatively different.
Ex. Eye color, gender, religion, occupation

Note: Independent variable may be manipulated or selected

Manipulated Variable is one that the researcher creates

Ex. “amount of reinforcement”
G1 – Praise
G2 – Points
G3 – Reward

Whenever a researcher sets up experimental conditions, one or more variables are created. Such variables
are called Manipulated Variables, experimental variables, or treatment variables

Extraneous Variables – are independent variables that have not been controlled
Ex. Size of class, gender of students, gender of teacher, age of teacher, time of day class meets, days of
week class meets, ethnicity of teacher, length of class

Variable – any characteristics of objects/entities that can change in quality/quantity

- the heart and soul of statistics

Ex. Objects; Public School Teachers

Quality Quantity

Sex age
Marital status height
Religion weight
Educational attainment teaching experience
Salary (gross/take home pay)
Self-concept
Level of aspiration
Level of motivation
Attitude towards teaching

Note: Qualitative variable can be converted to quantitative but not vice versa
Ex. Age(quantitative) can be changed to young/old (qualitative)

Constant (control variable) – characteristics of the object that does not change
Ex. Nationality

Classification of Variable

B. According to functional relationship

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 a. Independent variable ---------------------- Dependent variable
(cause) (effect)

in experimental researches:
moderator
intervening
control
nuisance(influence not impt./included in the study)

C. According to continuity of scale

a. Continuous or Discrete
- variable can take place in - assume or take place in a finite
set of value
any real value (all number) (not necessary whole
number)
ex. 6.5 shoe size

Teaching experience number of children

Weight score in a standardized test

D. According to scale of measurement

- assignment of numbers to the categories of the variables based on the standard rule/arbitrary or
agreed upon rule

a. Nominal Scale
- Numbers are used as labels only of the categories of the variables
- Numbers used cannot be meaningfully ranked; arithmetic operation
Ex. Sex male – 1
Female – 0

Marital Status single-1

Married – 2
Widow – 3

b. Ordinal Scale
- numbers are labels but can meaningfully ranked
ex. Socio-economic status
Upper Class – 3
Middle Class – 2
Lower Class – 1

Salary Grade 20
25
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 30

c. Interval Scale
- posses the ordinal character but talks about equal differences
- numbers are labels
- ranked
- equal differences between successive categories
ex. Temperature in C 40 C
30 C
20 C
0 C
IQ 115
110
105
0

d. Ratio Scale
- scores
- labels
- ranked
- equal differences
- true zero point

ex. Age
W/H/D
Speed

Numbers – from lowest level to highest level

Hypothesis – is, simply put, a prediction of some sort regarding the possible outcomes of the study
- educated guess
- working guide in research
- based on the statement of the problem and sub-problems

Significant Hypothesis – is one that is likely to lead, if it is supported, to a greater amount of important
knowledge than a non-significant hypothesis

Directional VS Non-directional Hypothesis

Directional Hypothesis is a prediction about the specific nature of a relationship

Ex. Method A is more effective than method B

Non-directional Hypothesis is a prediction that a relationship exists without specifying its exact nature
Ex. There will be a difference between method A and method B (without saying which will be more
effective)

Types of Hypotheses
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Descriptive Hypothesis – is for descriptive questions
Statistical Hypothesis – is for questions on the relationship or differences of data obtained in descriptive
questions

Positive Hypothesis is the opposite of null hypothesis. In some researches, statistical hypothesis is
presented in positive form and becomes negative or null before the interpretations of the findings. The null
form of hypothesis is usually applied in statistical hypotheses.

Assumptions – in some researches, assumption is optional. When hypotheses are stated together with
the sub-problems, the assumptions are most likely given.

Adanza (1995) says that assumption is the opposite of hypothesis. However, assumptions are not
necessarily answered or proven because they are assumed to be true or correct which are beyond the
control of the researcher, while hypotheses are to be answered after the data has been collected and
processed accordingly.

Chapter III

METHODOLOGY

Research Designs

Two Groups:
1. Qualitative Design – involves in an in-depth analysis of problems. Its focus is to provide accurate
descriptions of problems without attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical tools to solve
or describe problems.

a. Historical – collects, evaluates, describes and explains activities occurring in the past.
b. Ethnographic – provides a holistic view of the problem. The instruments used in data
gathering is usually observation, interview and participation
c. Case Study – similar to the ethnographic and historical research in almost all approaches. It
is closer to ethnographic study because it uses the past present to describe the future of the
problem.

2. Quantitative Design – the focus is to describe problems descriptively and numerically and treats
relationships and differences of variables involved in the study

a. Descriptive – most commonly used method of investigation in educational research. It is

useful in obtaining the prevailing condition or status of the problem which are essential in
understanding the past and the future.
Types:
Descriptive- survey RD – collects information on people, events, objects and other
topics of interest to the researcher
Descriptive-documentary RD – (Content Analysis) – involves analysis of content. It is
used when the data cannot be obtained through questionnaires or observation

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Descriptive Methods are:

1. Descriptive Survey Method – used to analyze, interpret, and report the

present status of their subject matter or problem
2. Descriptive Normative Method – describes the status of events and people
or subjects as they exist.
3. Descriptive Correlational Method – used to determine whether or not there
is a relationship that exists between two or more quantifiable variables, and if
there is, to what extent or degree the relationship is.
4. Descriptive Evaluative Method – judges the goodness of an existing
program
5. Descriptive Assessment Method – a fact finding activity that describes
conditions that exist at a particular time such as practice and beliefs
6. Descriptive Comparative Method – provides an explanation about the
extent of relationship between two or more variables
7. Descriptive Continuity Method – (genetic method) – researcher is
knowledgeable about the operation of natural or social forces which maybe
obtained by watching them analytically at stated intervals in their development
over a long period of time as seen desirable and possible
8. Descriptive Trend Method – based upon a longitudinal consideration of
recorded data, indicating what has been happening in the past, what the
present situation reveals, and on the bases of these data, it projects of what is
likely to happen in the future.
9. Descriptive Narrative Method – tells about the result of the study. There is
no comparative nor correlational analysis made
10. Descriptive Ex-post Facto – (causal-comparative research or after the fact
research) – tries to establish a causal effect between existing conditions
11. Descriptive Case Study Method – intensive and descriptive analysis of a
single subject. It examines a social unit as a whole, and a unit maybe a single
typical individual, a family, a social group, a social institution, or a community.

b. Correlational – (Associational Research)- measures the extent or magnitude of

association between two variables
c. Experimental – describes what will be. It is considered the most powerful educational
research because the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent
variables to see the effects on the dependent variables

Population and Sample Sizes

Population
- the totality of all entities that are considered in a particular situation

Sample
- subset of a population

Parameter – index computed from a population

- fixed with same value whoever will study

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Statistics – index computed from the sample only
- vary from sample to sample

Sampling – is the process which involves taking a part of the population, making observations on these
representative groups, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger population

Common Formula: Slovin (1960)

N= N/ 1+Ne2

Minimum acceptable sizes (Gay: 1976)

Descriptive Research – 10% of the population; smaller population – 20%

Homogenous Group – small percent; Heterogeneous Group- large percent
Correlational Research – 30 subjects
Ex-post facto or causal comparative Research – 15 subjects/ group or 30/group

Case Study – can be only 1sample

Experimental – can be below 30 samples
Survey – at least 30 samples

Types of Sampling:

1. Probability Random Sampling – provides equal opportunities for the population to be

chosen as participants of the study; commonly used in descriptive research

Types:
i. Simple RS – can be done through lottery or fishbowl technique or with the use of
table of random numbers
 sample frame is available
 population is homogeneous (share common characteristics)
 lottery/fishball technique with replacement

ii. Stratified RS – used in making a subdivisions of the total population into smaller
groups to represent the sample of the study
 population is heterogeneous
 how to draw?
 Divide the population into homogeneous group (strata)
 Draw a sample from each stratum
o 2ways
 equal allocation
 proportional allocation
 used when respondents are picked out from all
levels or groups of the population

iii. Systematic RS – draw samples by taking every nth element in the population

iv. Cluster Random Sampling

 groups/cluster are randomly selected instead of individual elements

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  When to use?
 When the population size is NOT known, so sampling frame is not
available
o CRS (cluster random sampling)
 Heterogeneous within a cluster
 Homogeneous between groups
 All elements in each selected cluster are included in the
sample

0 SRS (stratified random sampling)

- homogeneous within a stratum
- heterogeneous between strata/group
- sample is drawn in each sample

v. Multi-Stage Random Sampling

 samples are drawn in different stages
 When to use?
 When the area of coverage of research is wide

2. Non-Probability Sampling – the selection of respondents is based on the convenience of

the researcher for the purpose of study.

Types:
1. Convenience Sampling – the respondents are obtained based on the availability or
preference of the researcher
2. Purposive Sampling – the respondents are chosen based on the criteria or purpose of the
study
3. Quota Sampling – the respondents are chosen based on the characteristics needed in the
investigation
4. Snowball Sampling – requires the identification of few people who met the requisite
characteristics important to the study

Data Gathering Instruments

Factors to consider:
- the instruments; their sources; modes of collection

A research instrument is a devise designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering

Classification:

1. Researcher Instrument – the researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct
involvement of other people
2. Subject Instrument – the data is colleted by directly involving the respondents
3. Informant Instrument – the data is collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the subject.

Commonly-Used Research Instruments

1. Questionnaire – is a written or printed form containing the objectives of the study

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 a. Open-ended Questionnaire – respondents are free to answer the questions asked in the
questionnaire
b. Closed-ended Questionnaire – guided response type, closed form or restricted

2. Interview – involves in a face to face contacts between the interviewer and the interviewee.
a. Structured
b. Unstructured

3. Observation- used to enrich findings in descriptive studies where questionnaires and interviews
have been employed

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