L1 - The Age of Conflict and Chola Empire - 1680006115

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The Age of Conflict

(1000-1200 AD)
Introduction

Period from 1000-1200 AD saw rapid changes in north India.

Break-up of the Gurjara - Pratihara empire led to a phase of political uncertainty in


north India, and a new phase of struggle for domination.

Little attention was paid to the emergence of aggressive, expansionist Turkish states
on the north western border of India.

Led to incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their rule towards the end
of the period.
Rise of the Rajputs

With the break-up of the Pratihara empire, during the period 1000- 1200 AD, a
number of Rajput states came into existence in north India and in different parts of
the country.
Note: Term Rajput has originated from Sanskrit word Rajputra, means
the son of a king or someone of royal lineage.

Several theories regarding the origin of Rajputs.


Diverse elements shaped the Rajput clan.
They became homogenous by constant intermarriage and by
adopting common customs.

Characteristic feature → “attachment to land, family and


honour”.
The Rajput States

• Chahamanas/Chauhans ruled between 7th and 11th centuries


AD, in Rajasthan and its adjoining regions.
• Feudatories of Pratiharas and later declared independence
during rule of king Simharaja.
• Capital: Shakambhari (modern Sambhar near Jaipur). Capital was
shifted to Ajmer, also known as Chahamanas of Ajmer.
Chauhans/
• Founder: Simharaja (944 – 971 AD)
Chahamanas
• Important Rulers:
• Ajayaraja Ⅱ (1110 – 1135 AD): Founder of city Ajayameru
(Ajmer).
• Vigraharaja Ⅳ/Visaldev (1150 – 1164 AD): Famous
play Harikeli Nataka. The structure that was later converted
into Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhopra was constructed during his reign.
The Rajput States

• Prithviraj Ⅲ (1177 – 1192 AD): Prithviraj Chauhan/Rai


Pithora and most famous of all Chauhans. First Battle of
Tarain (1191 AD), defeated Mohammad Ghori. Second Battle
of Tarain (1192 AD) he was killed. Prithviraj Raso and
Chauhans/ Prithviraj Vijaya are two poems that were written by court
Chahamanas poets.
• Hari-raja (1193 – 1194 AD): Qutub-ud-din Aibak defeated
Hari-raja and conquered Ajmer. 1301 AD , Alauddin Khilji
captured Ranthambore and uprooted last stronghold of
Chauhan power.
The Rajput States

• Chandellas of Bundelkhand were feudatories of Gurjara-


Pratiharas of Kannauj.
• Founder: Nannuka (831 – 845 AD)
Chandellas of • Capital: Khajuraho
Bundelkhand • Important Chandella Rulers:
• Jayashakti (865 – 885 AD): Mahoba inscription mentions
that Chandella was named ‘Jejakabhukti’ after Jayashakti.
• Yashovarman (925 – 950 AD): famous Lakshmana temple at
its capital Khajuraho.
The Rajput States

• Important Chandella Rulers:


• Dhanga Deva (950 – 999 AD): Khajuraho inscription claims
that ruler of Kosala, Kratha, Kuntala and Simhala humbly
Chandellas of adhered to commands of Dhanga’s officers. Claims that the
Bundelkhand wives of kings of Andhra, Anga, Kanchi and Radha resided in
his prisons. Vishvanatha temple at Khajuraho was built.
• Vidyadhara (1003 – 1035 AD): Mahmud of Ghazni invaded
the kingdom and Vidyadhara had to pay tribute to him.
Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built.
The Rajput States

• Harsola copper plate inscriptions by Paramara king, SiyakaⅡ,


Paramaras were feudatories of Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta and established in 10th century AD.
• Earliest known Paramara king was Upendra.
• Paramaras (slayer of enemies) ruled at Malwa, with its
capital at Dhara (Madhya Pradesh).
Paramaras of • Due to frequent attacks on its capital city Dhara, later
Malwa Paramara rulers had to shift their capital to Mandapa-
Durga (Mandu).
• Followed Shaivism and patronised Jainism
• Important Rulers:
• Sindhuraj(990-1010 AD): His biography, Nava-Sahasanka-
Charita, was written by Padmagupta, his court poet.
The Rajput States

• Important Rulers:
• Bhoja (1010 – 1055 AD): Bhoja supported Hindu-Shahi ruler
Anandapala in his fight against the Ghaznavids. He has
written about grammar, poetry, chemistry, yoga, etc. Built a
temple of Sarasvati in Dhara and established a centre of
Paramaras of Sanskrit learning; founded the city of Bhojpur, built
Malwa Bhojeshwar temple and three dams in that region.
• Lakshmadeva (1086 – 1094 AD): As per Nagpur Prashasti
inscription, Lakshmadeva achieved a number of military
successes.
• Decline: Paramara king, Mahalakadeva was killed by the army of
Ala-ud-din Khilji of Delhi in 1305 AD.
The Rajput States

• Chalukyas of Gujarat are different from Chalukyas of Badami,


Vengi and Kalyani. They exercised their power in Gujarat and
Kathiawar between 950 – 1300 AD.
• The dynasty had three main branches:
• Oldest branch ruled central India’s Mattamayura region.
• Another branch ruled Lata (south Gujarat) and important city
Chalukyas of
was Bhrigukachchha (Broach). Branch was founded by
Gujarat/Solanki
Barappa.
Rajputs
• Mulraja Ⅰ founded other branch, capital at Anahilapataka
(modern Pattan).
• Important Rulers:
• Mulraja Ⅰ (940 – 995 AD): Built the Mulavasatika temple for
Digambaras and Mulanatha-Jinadeva temple for the
Shvetambaras.
The Rajput States
• Important Rulers:
• Bhima Ⅰ (1021 – 1064 AD): Built the Sun temple of
Modhera and queen Udaymati built the Rani-ki vav (Queen’s
step well) in his memory, listed in UNESCO’s World Heritage
Site list. Vimalsha, minister of Bhima Ⅰ, built Vimal Vasahi
temple dedicated to Jain lord Rishaba. One of the Five
Chalukyas of
famous Dilwara temples. Mahmud of Ghazni attacked
Gujarat/Solanki
Gujarat and plundered Somnath during Bhima Ⅰ’s reign.
Rajputs
• Karan (1065 – 1091 AD): Founded Karnavati (present-day
Ahmedabad).
• Jaya Simha Siddharaja (1092 – 1142 AD): Rudra Mahakala
temple at Siddhapur was built during his reign.
• Kumarapala (c. 1177 – 1240 AD): Rebuilt Somnath temple.
The Rajput States

• Important Rulers:
• Bhima Ⅱ (1177 – 1240 AD): Successfully resisted the
invasions of Mohammad Ghori at the battle of Kayadara. In
1195, Mohammad Ghori’s deputy, Aibak invaded again but
Chalukyas of
Bhima Ⅱ defeated him.
Gujarat/Solanki
• Decline: After 1243 AD, Chalukyas of Gujarat lost to the Hindu
Rajputs
Vaghela dynasty of Dholka (feudatories of Solankis). After 1292
AD, Vaghelas became tributaries of the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty
of Devagiri in Deccan plateau. In 1297, Alau-din-Khilji conquered
Gujarat.
The Rajput States

• Tomaras were feudatories Pratiharas and ruled Haryana territory


with its capital at Dellika (Delhi).
• They were one among 36 Rajput clans and medieval bardic
literature names the dynasty as “Tuar”.
• A 13th century Palam Baoli (step well) inscription mentions
that land of Hariyanaka was first enjoyed by Tomaras, then
by the Chauhans and thereafter by Shakas (Delhi Sultans).
Tomaras • Anangapala Tomara was famous king of the dynasty who
established Delhi. Issued the coins featuring the horse man
and bull and also bore title “Shri Samanta Deva”.
• Anangapala Ⅱ was founder of the citadel of Lal Kot in
Mehrauli area and also built Anang Tal (tank).
• Famous Suraj Kund reservoir at Faridabad, Haryana was
commissioned by a Tomara king named Surajpala.
The Rajput States

• Gahadavalas were Suryavanshi Kshatriyas and ruled Kannauj for


over a hundred years. Threw the Palas out of Bihar and made
Banaras their second capital city.
• Founder: Chandradeva(around 1090 AD).
• Important Rulers:.
• Jaichandra (1170 – 1194 AD):During his rule, Prithviraj
Gahadavalas of
Chauhan (Ajmer) annexed Delhi. Jaichandra sought help
Kannauj
from Muslims of north to invade the Chauhans of Ajmer-
Delhi. Defeated by king Lakshmansena of Bengal.
• Decline: After fall of Delhi (around 1194 AD), city of Kannauj was
attacked by Mohammad of Ghori. Believed that Jaichandra was
defeated in the battle of Chanawar and was drowned in the
Ganga. His kingdom was conquered by the army of Ghori.
Causes of Decline of
Rajput's
Reasons behind the decline of Rajputs

• Rajput society was feudal in its organisational set up.


• It was divided into various clans and states. These clans and states
lacked unity and fought with each other.
Political
• Lacked political vision and foresight and displayed lack of national
Reasons
consciousness.
• No written law land and most of the Rajput states were ruled on
the basis of local customs and traditions.
Reasons behind the decline of Rajputs

• Flawed military organization


• Did not keep a permanent army .
• Frequently sent untrained soldiers to battlefield.
• Lack of mobility: It was the 'age of horses,' and a well-equipped
cavalry while Rajputs lacked in this.
Military
• Defensive War strategies: Frequently fought defensive wars and
Reasons
attempted to stop the enemy, but never waged offensive wars.
• Lack of new arms: Weapons were traditional spear and sword,
which were ineffective at long range.
• Weak espionage system: Rajputs were limited in their ability to
keep an eye on movements of their neighboring ruling dynasties,
never aware of the movements of the foreigner.
Reasons behind the decline of Rajputs

• Rajput rulers adored luxuries and used to spend a lot of money on


their personal needs.
• Depletion of the royal treasuries forced Rajputs to submit to
Economic
foreign invaders.
Reasons
• Foreign invasions were primarily motivated by India's gold which
was kept in temples and religious buildings and not allowed to
circulate.
• Plundering of this wealth increased foreigners resources.
• Islam was a relatively new religion, and adherents were filled with
Religious
zeal.
Reasons
• Muslims' motto was "expansion of Islam" and "destruction of
infidels".
Reasons behind the decline of Rajputs

• Rajput had a strong sense of caste superiority and saw other


castes as inferior. Never mix or dine with people from other
Caste
castes, caused discord among the people.
Consciousness
• Believe that Kshatriyas can only fight and entitled to pursue a
career in warfare.
• Never attack at night or to a sleeping enemy or on unarmed
Morality and
civilians.
ethics Observed
• Turks did not distinguish between moral and immoral
by the Rajputs
conquest.
The Chola Empire
(850 -1200 A.D.)
Introduction

Most famous empire in south India because of their local self-government.

Developed India’s sea trade in Indian Ocean and developed a powerful navy.
Origin of the Empire
Chola kingdom is mentioned in early Tamil literature, and one of the Pillars of
Ashoka (273 - 232 BCE).

Year 300 CE, Pallava and Pandya Kingdoms spread their influence over most of the
Tamil heartlands of southern India, and Cholas went into a decline.

When war broke out between the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms in about 850 CE, the
Cholas seized their chance.

King Vijayalaya renounced his Pallava overlord and captured the city of Thanjavur
(Tanjore), making it his new capital.

Chola dynasty in the Tamizh/Tamil region was known as Cholandu/Chonad.

Kingdom was mainly concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta called Cholamandalam.


Political History: At a Glance

▪ Feudatory of the Pallavas.


▪ In about 850 AD, conquered the Kaveri delta and re-
Vijayalaya established the Chola empire.
(850-871 AD) ▪ His lineage as Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas.
▪ Built the city of Thanjavur and constructed temple of goddess
Nishumbhasudini there.
▪ Son of Vijayalaya.
▪ Maintained matrimonial alliances with the Pallavas and
defeated Pandyas at Battle of Shripurambiyam (879 AD).
Aditya I
▪ In 893 AD, he put an end to Pallava kingdom by defeating
(871 -907 AD)
Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam (southern Tamil
country).
▪ Built Lord Shiva temples on both banks of the Kaveri river.
Political History: At a Glance

• Defeated the combined armies of Sri Lanka and Pandyan rulers


at the Battle of Vellur (917 AD).
• Battle of Takkolam (near Arkonam) in 949 AD, Rashtrakuta
Parantaka I
Ruler Krishna III defeated Parantaka I.
(907- 955 AD)
• Known as Madurantaka (destroyer of Madurai) and
Maduraikonda (capturer of Madurai).
• Gifted Vimana for Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
• Defeated joined forces of Pandya-Sri Lanka army and invaded
Parantaka II
Sri Lanka.
/Sundarchola
• Recaptured lost territories (like Tondaimandalam) from
(957-973 AD)
Rashtrakutas.
Uttama Chola • Rashtrakutas again occupied Tondaimandalam during his reign.
(973-985 AD)
Political History: At a Glance
• Defeated the Chera navy at Trivandrum and attacked Quilon
(Kollam).
• Occupied Madurai and established his control over Pandayas.
• He annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka and named this
region as Mummudi-Cholamandalam and assumed the title of
Mummudi Choladeva.
• Chola official appointed at Sri Lanka built a temple at
Rajaraja I Mahatitta, locally known as Siva Devale (shrine of Shiva).
(985-1014 AD) • Defeated the Western Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
Defeated the Chalukyas of Kalyani who clashed for the
overlordship of Vengi (Rayalseema) and Tungabhadra doab
against Cholas.
• Annexed north-western parts of Ganga kingdom (north-west
Karnataka).
• Achieved naval victories against Sailendra dynasty (Malaya
peninsula).
Political History: At a Glance

• Devout follower of Shaivism and was known as


Sivapadasekhara.
Rajaraja I • Also known as Ulakalanada Perumal because he standardised
(985-1014 AD) the collection of taxes.
• During his reign, Coromandel and Malabar coast were the main
centres of India’s trade with the countries in South- East Asia.
Political History: At a Glance

• Continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and


expansion.
• Whole of Sri Lanka was made part of Chola empire.
• Shifted the capital of Sri Lanka from Anuradhapura to
Polunaruva where a Shiva temple was built.
Rajendra l
• Reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and
/Vijayrajendra
Pandya countries.
(1014-1044 AD)
• Defeated Jayasimha Ⅱ
• Most famous military enterprise was his expedition to North
India.
• Chola empire crossed Ganges by defeating a number of rulers
on its way, including Mahipala Ⅰ (Pala empire) of Bengal.
Political History: At a Glance

• Founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed


famous Rajesvaram temple.
• Excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam.
Rajendra l
• Venture of RajendraⅠwas his naval expedition to Kadaram or
/Vijayrajendra
Sri Vijaya.
(1014-1044 AD)
• Assumed title Kadaramkondan.
• Great patron of learning and was called Pandita Cholan
(scholarly Chola) and Mudikondan Cholan (crowned Chola).
Political History: At a Glance
• Know as Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king).
• Destroyed the Chalukyan cities such as Kalyani and planted a
Jaystambha at Yadgir.
Rajadhiraja I • Killed on the battlefield while fighting in the battle of Koppam
(1044-1054 AD) against Someshwar (western Chalukyan king).
• Earned the title of Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died
on the back of an elephant).

• Son of Rajadhiraja I, crowned in battlefield (Koppam battle) and


Rajendra II turned his father's defeat into victory.
(1054-1063 AD) • Defeated Someshwar and erected a Jayastambha at Kolhapur.

Virarajendra/ Vira • Built a victory pillar on the Tungabhadra river after defeating
Chola Chalukyan king Someshwar II, at Kudalasangama in 1064 AD.
( 1063-1067 AD) • Laid the foundation of a Vedic college of learning.
Political History: At a Glance
• United the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola empire.
• Sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China.
Kulothunga Chola I • Carried out a land survey between 1086 AD to 1110 AD and
(1070-1120 AD) assumed the title of Sungam-tavirtta Cholan (abolisher of
tolls), Talakadgonda and Tribhuvan Chakravarti.
• Court was adorned by Kamban who wrote Ramayan in Tamil.
Vikram Chola • Gave donations to the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
(1120-1135 AD) • Adopted the title of Ahalanka and Tyagasamudra.
Kulothunga Chola • Ordered to throw away the image of Govindaraja into the sea
II and made handsome donations to Chidambaram Temple
( 1135-1150 AD) (Tamil Nadu).
Kulothunga Chola • In 1193 AD, performed Vijayabhisheka at Karuvar.
III • Built the Kampahareshvara temple (dedicated to lord Shiva) at
(1163-1218 AD) Tribhuvanam.
Key Features of Chola
Empire
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Emperor or king was at the top of the administration. Chola


inscriptions refer to him as Ko, Perumal Adigal (the great one)
and Ko-Konmai Kondan (king of kings).
• Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire) consisted of eight
Mandalams (provinces).
• Provinces were further divided into Valanadus or Kottams and
Chola
each Valanadus were divided into Nadus (districts) under
Administration
Nattar.
• Nattar performed fiscal, administrative and judicial
responsibilities of the empire.
• Landholders of the nadu held honorific titles such as
asudaiyan (possessor of land), araiyan (leader) and kilavan
(headman).
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Autonomous corporate organisations were also set up, in


which persons belonged to same castes and known as shrenis
or pugas or samaya (guilds).
• Governed by code of conduct (banaju- dharma). Ayyavole (The
five hundred) in Aihole, Karnataka and Manigramam were
Chola powerful and important guilds.
Administration • Assembly of the mercantile groups/merchants was known
as Nagaram and specific to different trades and specialised
groups.
• For example, Shankarappadi Nagaram were ghee and oil
suppliers, Saliya Nagaram and Satsuma Parishatta
Nagaram were associated with the textile trade.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Two types of villages at the local level :


• One type of village consisted of people from different caste and
assembly which ran this type of village was called ‘ur’.
• second type of village was ‘agrahara’ types of village which were
settled by Brahmins in which most of land was rent-free.
• Assembly of this agrahara type of village was a gathering of adult
Local
men in brahmana villages called ‘Sabha’ or ‘mahasabha’.
Government • Villages enjoyed a large measure of autonomy.
• Affairs of the village were managed by an executive committees
to which educated person owning property were elected by
drawing lots or by rotation.
• Uttarameruru inscription issued by Prantaka Chola gives details of
election to these committees.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Six main committees :


• Tank Committee: Erivariyam
• Revenue Department: Puravuvari-tinaikkalam
Local
• Garden Committee : Thotla Variyam
Government • Annual Committee : Samavatsara Variyam
• Standing Committee : Pancha Variyam
• Gold Committee : Pon Variyam
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Chola army consisted of infantry, cavalry (kudirai sevagar), the


elephant corps (anaiyatkal), bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers
(valilar) and spearmen (konduvar).
• Royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai and within
thispersonal troops to defend the king, called Velaikkarar.
• Two types of ranks in the army: upper and lower i.e. perundanam
Army/
and cirudanam respectively.
Military
• Commander-in-chief was called senapati or dandanayagam.
• Captain of a regiment was known as nayagam and later he assumed
the title of padaimudali.
• Soldiers enjoyed padaipparru (military holding) rights.
• Cantonments (padaividu) were established in capital city.
• Military outposts in conquered territory were called nilaipadai.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Land Revenue: Purposes of assessing tax, Cholas undertook


extensive land surveys and revenue settlements.
• Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I (1086) and Kulotunga III (1226)
appointed people for land survey.
• Units of land measurement were kuli,ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc.
Revenue/ • Department of land revenue was known as puravuvari-tinaikkalam.
Taxes • Tax rates were fixed depending on fertility of soil and status of the
land.
• Taxes: Nulayam (Tax on cotton thread), Achchu tari (Tax on
patterned loom), Teri irai/ tari kadamai (Loom tax), Panjupeeli (Tax
on cotton yarn), Parutti Kadamai (Tax on cotton), Tari pudavai (Tax
on cloth)
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Agriculture was main source of revenue of the Chola empire so


they encouraged irrigation system. For example, Vativaykkal
was the criss-cross channel and a traditional way of harnessing
rain water in the Kaveri delta.
• Some canals were like Uttamachola- vayakkal, Panca-
Irrigation system
vanamadevi- vayakkal and Ganavathy- vayakkal.
• Chola Inscriptions list some big size irrigation tanks such as
cholavaridhi, kaliyaneri and vairamegatataka.
• Valanciyar (a group of traders) dug a tank for irrigation purpose
called ainutruvapperari in Puddukottai.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Economy was mainly agrarian.


• Reclamation of forest land, development of irrigation system,
expansion in variety of crops led it to agricultural prosperity.
• Chola kings also maintained close commercial ties with south-east
Asia and China.
Economy
• Important centres of maritime trade during this period were:
• Kanchipuram
• Kudamukku
• Palaiyarai
• Munai
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Chola inscriptions mention two main dominant groups in society:


• Valangai -mainly agricultural groups
• Idangai – mainly artisans and trading class
• Caste system was prevalent in the society.
• Brahmanas enjoyed privileges and exempted from taxes.
Society • Trading communities belonged to Vaishya status and called
themselves as Kamati, Vanijiya and chettiar.
• Rest of the society was divided into two groups- Sat Sudras (higher)
and Asat Sudras (lower) :
• Serious clashes were started between shaivites and vaishnavites.
• Sati system was prevailed only among the royal families.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• No evidence of systematic educational system for the masses,


• Tamil was the medium of education for masses ;
Education Sanskrit education was restricted toBrahmins.
• Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of
learning; Vocational education was through hereditary training.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)
• Cholas continued temple-building traditions of Pallava dynasty
and contributed significantly to Dravidian temple design.
• Brihadeshvara Temple (Rajarajisvaram): magnificent Siva
Architecture temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, achievements of
time of Rajaraja.
• Temple of Gangaikondcholapuram → Rajendra Chola
• Darasuram Temple → Rajaraja II(1146–1172)
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)
• Nataraja has been excavated at Ravana phadi cave at Aihole,
was made during early Chalukya rule.
• Vaivahika-murti and Panigrahana-murti, is iconographical
depiction of wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati.
Sculpture • Ardhanarisvara Murti: Union of Shiva and Parvati is very
ingeniously represented in a single image.
• Bhudevi (the earth goddess): Later phase of Chola art, in
13th century, illustrated by sculpture showing Bhudevi , or
earth goddess as the younger consort of Vishnu.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Age of Imperial Cholas was golden age of Tamil culture


• Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkadevar: Marked by all
qualities of great poetry.
• Sulamani by Tolamoli: Handles a jain puranic theme in
verse form.
• Ramavatharam by Kamban: Kamban flourished during the
Literature
reign of Kulothunga Chola III. Greatest epic in Tamil
Literature, and states that followed Valmiki, his work is no
mere translation or simple adaptation of the Sanskrit
epic.
• Kalingattuparani by Jayamkondar: Masterpiece is an
example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary
between history and fictitious conventions.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Kulothunga Solan Ula by Ottakuttan: Famous Tamil poet


Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I.
Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Solan Ula a poem extolling
the virtues of the Chola king.
• Arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books by Nambi
Andar Nambi, who lived close to end of 10th Century.
Literature
• Periya-Puranam of Sekkilar composed in reign of
Kulottunga II is a landmark in the history of Tamil Saivism.
• In field of Tamil grammer, Yapparungalam and
Yapparungalakkarigai, two authoritive works on prosody,
were composed by Amitasagara,
• In lexicography, concise nigandu (lexicon) called Pinglam
after its author belonged to this period.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Cholas were the adherents of Saivism and Hinduism ; not swayed


by rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were Pallava and Pandya kings.
• Cholas were staunch Saivites, sense of toleration towards other
sects and religions.
Religion
• Parantaka I and Sundara Chola endowed and built temples for
both Siva and Vishnu.
• Rajaraja Chola I even patronised Buddhists , and built Chudamani
Vihara (Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• During the period of Chalukya Cholas (later cholas), there were


instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites—especially
towards Ramanuja, leader of the Vaishnavites.
Religion
• Intolerance led to persecution and Ramanuja went into exile in
the Chalukya country.
• Kulothunga Chola II is reported to have removed a statue
of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• Indian agriculture also continued to be in a flourishing


condition.
• The ministers, officials and feudal chiefs lived in great
ostentation and splendour.
• They aped·the ways of the king in having fine houses which
sometimes were three to five storeys high.
Condition of the • They used costly foreign apparel such as imported woollen
People clothes, Chinese silk, and costly jewels and ornaments made of
gold and silver to adorn their bodies.
• They maintained a large number of women in their households
and had a train of domestic servants to look after them.
• They assumed high sounding titles, such as
mahasamantadhipati.
• They had their own distinctive symbols, such as banners,
decorated umbrellas and the yak-tail to whisk away flies.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)

• As in the earlier period, women were generally considered to be


mentally inferior.
• Their duty was to obey their husbands blindly.
• The wife's duty was of personal service towards her husband,
she shall shampoo his feet and render him such other services
Condition of as befits a servant.
Women • The husband should follow the righteous· path and should be
free from hatred as well as jealousy towards a wife.
• Women continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas.
• The marriageable age for girls was lowered, thereby destroying
their opportunities for higher education.
Chola Empire ( 850 -1200 AD)
• There was considerable strengthening of the position of the
Brahmans.
• Brahmans not only expanded cultivation, but also acted as local
revenue officials, ministers, accountants, etc.
• During this period, a large numbers of states were being ruled
by Rajputs.
• During this period, there was 'the gradual elevation of the
social position of the Shudras'.
Caste System
• Although they were not allowed to study the Vedas, they
became eligible for smarta rituals, like birth, death, nanie giving,
etc.
• As compared to the Shudras, the position of the Dalits seems to
have deteriorated.
• These people were called the antyaja or untouchables, and
formed the fifth social grade, outside the four-fold varna
system.
The CHOLA Empire
850 1200 AD

Pala

rattatanisman
chad

Q pandya

OriginofEIire
o
Foundar Vijayala
captured Thanjavur

vijayaled
Feudatory of Pallava
temple of
constructed goddess Nishumbhasudin
Aditt
Matrimonial alliance with Pallavas
defeated Pandya
Built Lord Shiva temple
Put an end to Pallava Kingdom

Prantakf
fight with Rashtrakutas 110 t
Changes in Natraj shiva temple at
Chidambaram
Temple of Music

Manta Recaptured lost territory from Rashtrakuta


Defeated
joint forces of Pandya and
Sri Lankan
army

Ramrod
Defeated the Shera Navy
Real Name Armoli Varmana
title Hammadi choladeva
Defeated
Chalukya
Rashtrakuta
Annexted north western
part
of Ganga Kingdom
victory against shailendra dynasty
Malaya Peninsula
Called himself shavite

dr
captured whole Sri Lanka
crossed and defeated Mahipala I
Inga
took title Gangaikondcholpuram

constructed Rajisuarm temple


title Kadaramkondan

defeated Kadaram

RajadhivayI

Rajendra
Erected Jayasfambha at Kolhapur

Virajendrashed
foundation of Vedic college of learning
Ghatika 4 Paliahhandas
Knhugachold
Kamban wrote in Tamil
Ramayana

Ivambataram

Latercholas

Not important for military ambitions


Main focus was Art and culture

KFeaures
ofchol cAdministration

King Top

Mandalam I provinces state


I
Valanadu I Kotfami
I
Nadus district
Nattar Performed fiscal administrative and
Judicial functions

Landlord titles Asudaiyan


Avaiyan
Kilavan

Uttarmerur inscription Chola Admin

MT common people
Sabha Brahamin
Nagaram Merchants

o
shernis Guilds

different name
f Pagar

I samaya
Manigram

o
Agrahara Land to Brahaming

village committees qualification for selection


Know atleastIveda
Offarimerur Inscrip
I some portion of Land
No criminal case
Segmentary from local temples
statepsystem
Hence
every
ruler making temples

Arindam
Two types

Param
grant
t
cirudaym

upper army lower


army

Captain Nayakam

Revenueftaxes

Units of land measurement


G Kuli Ma Veli ele
patti Padagam
Tax rates based on fertility of soil and
status of Land

Also faxes on clothe products

Arghatta and
o
Ghatiyantra

mechanism to draw water from


canals and wells

Irrigation Tank Near temples

Ezonomy

Mainly agrarian
o

close commercial ties with SE Asia 4 ching

Important trade centres

Kanchipuram
Kudaimukku
Palaiyavai
Manal
said
two
M
valangat Idgngat
f
Agricultural group Artisans and traders

Education

Tamil Medium of education

Religio

Ghatikar
Y paliahhandas

Literature

Ramavatharam Kamban

Jivaka Chintamani Tirotackadwar

o
Saiva Canon Nambi Andar
Religion
o
Buddhism Jainism Shaivism

Siffanvasal
I
caves
Chudamani
vihara

Condition ofwoiman

o low
marriageable age

o considered inferior
mentally

o
duty to obey their husbands

Castesystem

Sanskrifisation toward vedic


society going
Brahamanism
f
following chatarvarna system
RAJPUTS

iÉna Tom

solar

origin
Mount Abu
Rajputfe
f
vashitharishi Yagyal
u Chandrarainy
Suryavanshi

myth
o
Inter marriage
Kshatriya
1

Integration with
u
Huna Gurjar Pratihara

origination of new caste


1
Rajputs

cans shahamant

Feudatories of Pratihara
Founder Simhavaja
Imp rulers Ajayraja
vigrahavaja
Prithviraj Battle with Md ahori

haaf Bundelkhand

o
Founder Nonaka
capital Khajuraho
King vidyadhara Mahmud 9hazari invaded
4 Khandaniya mahadev temple
Parmarasof Malwa

Feudatories of Rashtrakuta
Harsola Copper plate inscription

king Bhoja supported Anandapala Against


Ghaznavids

Kalasorfujrat I solankrajput
o
Bhima I successfully defeated
Ghaznavids

Making of somnath temple


Dilward temple
Sun temple
Rani ki vav

Tomary

Anangapalattining Tae
Surajpala SurajKund
0
Tradition of Baoli step well
Gekas okannay
o
Jailhandra supported Ghori
against
Prithviraj

Torongfandidatht time
I
Polity dented by feudalism
o
fighting to increase own area

Rajput

tfysup
E E E D
K

9h01

limiting
Ahoy straddle free hands
I
can use bow and arrow

If lost I can run back

Reasonsfordefeatof Rats
Ahadavalas attacking chauhan
Infighting

The Logistics 1
Infantry Cavalang etc

invaders
EIspirit among

themselves
unity in
common Enemy

Caste Hierarchy in Rajputs

Politically Rajputs divided in clans state


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