Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Nanoparticle Assisted PCM Based Battery Thermal Management System
Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Nanoparticle Assisted PCM Based Battery Thermal Management System
Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Nanoparticle Assisted PCM Based Battery Thermal Management System
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13052-4
Abstract
Li-ion batteries generate a large amount of heat in the electric vehicles. The poor heat dissipation from the battery causes
temperature rise and affects its performance and life. If the battery temperature is not controlled, it may lead to serious dam-
age to the battery cells; in extreme scenario, it may lead to fire hazards. A properly designed battery thermal management
system (BTMS) controls the battery temperature ensuring its safe and efficient operation. In the present work, a nanoparticle
assisted phase change material (PCM) and active cooling based BTMS technique has been investigated. The study employs
both experimental and numerical approaches in the development of a water-composite PCM-based hybrid BTMS (combi-
nation of active and passive cooling techniques). Firstly, the investigation is performed to optimize the amount of PCM in
the BTMS as it affects the thermal performance and mass of the system. It is found that an excess amount of PCM results
in heat accumulation at the heating surface, which leads to rise in the cell temperature. The reduction in thickness of PCM
from 40 to 5 mm results in 26.98% reduction in the maximum temperature. Moreover, it is found that introduction of nano-
particles between 1 and 20% (by volume) in PCM results in improved thermal conductivity. The melting fraction of PCM
is improved by 29.33% and 28.0% with 20% concentration of CuO and A l2O3 in the PCM, respectively. It further helps in
70.79% improvement in the thermal non-uniformity in PCM-based hybrid BTMS.
Keywords Battery charging · Battery thermal management system · Electric vehicles · Nanoparticles · Phase change
material
Vol.:(0123456789)
K. A. Swamy et al.
eff Effective EVs [5]. However, there are some current issues to tackle
liquidus PCM–liquid state and challenges to overcome in the efficient utilization of
max Maximum Li-ion batteries such as ageing caused by electrode plating,
npcm Nano-enhanced PCM decomposition of electrolytes at high and low temperatures,
pcm Phase change material cyclic stability, etc. [6]. In this regard, thermal runaway is
ref Reference the most considerable issue in the battery packs, where not
Solidus PCM solid state only the performance loss, but safety becomes the major
s Solid nanoparticle concern. When the battery temperature reaches in the range
of 90–120 °C, the thin passivating layer known as solid elec-
Acronyms
trolyte interface (SEI) breaks down, followed by a reaction
BTMS Battery thermal management system
between the electrolyte and anode. When the temperature
EVs Electric vehicles
reaches around 130–160 °C, the separator contracts and
HEVs Hybrid electric vehicles
possibly collapses, causing an internal short circuit. If the
Li-ion Lithium-ion
temperature keeps rising, the cathode materials will com-
OM Organic material
mence degradation. At temperatures surpassing 200 °C,
PCM Phase change material
the electrolytes start breaking down. Once the temperature
SEI Solid electrolyte interface
crosses 260 °C, the anode material (LixC6) reacts with the
binder. The resulting flammable gases mixed with oxygen
can ignite, leading to fire [7]. When fire is triggered in the
Introduction first cell of a battery pack, the neighbouring batteries will
catch fire and probably initiate the runaway reaction in some
With a growing emphasis on environmental sustainabil- specific scenarios. This phenomenon is called the thermal
ity and the challenges of global warming, researchers are runaway propagation and may lead to catastrophic hazards
increasingly engaged in the quest for a clean and viable within a battery pack [8]. Thus, a battery thermal manage-
energy solution. Conventional energy systems are driven ment system (BTMS) becomes essential to avoid thermal
by fossil fuels; automobile industry is the main contribu- runaway situations and increase the lifetime of battery cells
tor in releasing toxic gases to the atmosphere. According to by regulating their temperature. Furthermore, the perfor-
IEA [1], emissions from the transport sector accounted for mance of a battery depends considerably on the operating
23% of global CO2 emissions from fuel combustion by sec- temperatures. Therefore, BTMS is also vital for safety and
tors categorization. A suitable alternative for conventional stability of the battery pack [9]. It is reported that tempera-
vehicles are the electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric ture of the battery cells should be maintained in the range of
vehicles (HEVs) that utilize renewable electricity. In addi- 25–45 °C in order to ensure the high efficiency and extended
tion to the environmental benefits, EVs and HEVs have the life of the battery pack. Moreover, the maximum tempera-
other advantages such as high torque, better performance, ture difference between the battery cells should be less than
and low noise. However, there are some major disadvantages 5 °C across various operational conditions. [10]. Batteries
as well like range anxiety, long charging time, and high cost operated below and above this optimal temperature range
compared to the conventional vehicles [2]. In addition to tend to accelerate in degradation of health and performance
that few EVs have shown reliability and safety issues in the [11].
recent times due to the incidents of battery fire [3]. Keeping Several BTMS technologies are investigated in the lit-
aside the extreme safety issues such as fire hazards, the long- erature such as air cooling systems [12], liquid cooling
term operational reliability and maintenance of EVs have not systems [13], direct refrigerant cooling systems [14], phase
gained the same level of confidence as that of conventional change material (PCM) cooling systems [15], and thermo-
vehicles. Nevertheless, recent developments in the battery electric cooling as well as heating systems [16]. These sys-
technology have significantly pushed the EV range and effi- tems are analysed through a trade-off between parameters
ciency. Among all the electrochemical batteries, lithium-ion such as performance, mass, size, cost, reliability, safety, and
(Li-ion) chemistry is widely used in the automotive industry energy consumption. These technologies could be based
due to its high energy storage capacity and energy-to-mass on an active cooling, passive cooling, or a combination of
ratio [4]. Note that the efficiency and performance of the these two methods [17]. The challenges involved in this
EVs directly depend on the battery's health and efficiency. task include a BTMS that is effective in heat transfer with
In the beginning, Li-ion batteries were created and intro- minimal consumption of energy, light in mass, and compact.
duced for applications in laptops and consumer electronics. Several investigations are available in the literature aiming
Due to their elevated energy density and extended lifespan, to maintain the battery at an optimal temperature. Among
they have emerged as the dominant battery choice for the these, various techniques have been introduced using passive
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…
cooling methods to minimize the energy consumption and use of nanoparticles to enhance the thermal conductivity of
mass of the battery thermal system [18]. Organic PCM has PCM appears a feasible solution. Sushobhan and Kar [31]
gained universal interest due to its high latent heat storage observed that nano-enhanced PCM improves the PCM per-
capacity and excellent cycling stability [19]. Hallaj and formance and melting rate when experimentally examined
Selman [20] incorporated PCM in BTMS to check its ther- by adding 5% and 2.5% CuO nanoparticles. Abdullah et al.
mal performance. Their results showed that the maximum [32] numerically studied the nano-enhanced PCM and found
temperature of battery is much lower with the introduction that it significantly improved the performance and decreased
of PCM as compared to air cooling. Moreover, PCM not the maximum temperature of the battery. Aditya et al.
only helps in cooling but also in heating of the battery pack [9] numerically studied the performance of Al2O3 nano-
in low-temperature conditions by reversing the heat stored enhanced PCM and critical thickness of PCM. The usage
during non-operating condition. Subbah et al. [21] com- of nano-enhanced PCM was found to increase the melting
pared the performance of battery thermal system between air fraction; it was also found that the increase in mass fraction
cooling and PCM. It was observed that air cooling majorly of nanoparticles increased the melting fraction. They were
depends on the ambient temperature, mass flow rate, and able to maintain the battery temperature within the optimal
battery charge rates. Air cooling failed to keep the batteries temperature range using nano-enhanced PCM. Ravindra
at optimal temperature range during moderate charge rate et al. [33] experimentally studied the effectiveness of PCM
and high ambient temperatures. Whereas, the PCM thermal when the system was placed at an ambient temperature of
management system managed to satisfy both the thermal 40 °C. It was observed that the rise in cell temperature was
factors (peak temperature and maximum temperature dif- below 6 °C with Al2O3 nano-enhanced PCM.
ference) under the same operating conditions. It was also The main issue addressed in this study is to improve the
observed that the thermal uniformity was better in the case heat transfer from the battery system in order to increase the
of PCM thermal management system. Yaussef et al. [22] efficiency and life of the battery, which directly affects the
conducted an experimental study to access the performance performance of EVs. According to the literature, a PCM-
of PCM on a prismatic battery and found that the battery based BTMS incorporating nanoparticles could provide
surface temperature was reduced from 47.27 to 41.06 °C. an efficient design and improve the system performance.
Knog et al. [20] conducted both numerical and experimental However, only a few researchers have studied the effect of
investigations, where they coupled PCM and liquid cooling. nano-enhanced PCM-based BTMS, where only the effect
The developed model was able to maintain the battery pack of volume fraction of nanoparticles is studied. In the pre-
below maximum temperature of 41.1 °C and the thermal sent study, a comprehensive investigation is presented to
non-uniformity was 4 °C that are in optimal range under develop a nano-enhanced PCM-based BTMS. Following are
an ambient temperature of 30 °C. It was also mentioned the main features of the present investigation: (1) two most
that PCM has the capability to effectively absorb the heat widely used nanoparticle, viz. A l2O3 and CuO, are consid-
rejected by the battery. Weijun Xiong et al. [23] investigated ered for the investigation and demonstration, (2) BTMS is
battery cooling using PCM and PCM combined with liquid investigated to satisfy two thermal criteria, i.e. maximum
cooling. They found that under low charge and discharge battery temperature and maximum temperature difference
conditions, PCM alone can meet the cooling requirements. within the battery cell, (3) optimization of the PCM mass for
However, additional forced cooling was necessary to be system mass consideration, and (4) examination of a hybrid
integrated with PCM in demanding operating conditions cooling technique with PCM–liquid coolant BTMS.
for temperature control. The study indicated that coupling
PCM with liquid cooling effectively controlled the battery
temperatures within the optimal range, particularly at high Problem description and modelling
discharge rates [23, 24]. However, solely relying on PCM approach
cooling is discouraged due to its limited thermal storage
capacity, particularly in challenging conditions [25]. The performance of PCM and nano-enhanced PCM in
On the other hand, the major disadvantage of PCM is the BTMS is studied under a typical fast charging (at
its low thermal conductivity, which restricts the applica- charge rate of 4C) condition of Li-ion battery cell. In such
tion of pure PCM in many thermal systems. The thermal designs, the incorporation of the PCM in the BTMS is
conductivity of most of the available PCMs is below 1.0 crucial as it influences the heat transfer characteristics.
W m−1 K–1 [26]. This issue is commonly addressed by the Furthermore, there are numerous possible combinations
introduction of high thermal conductivity external agents in and test conditions that make the study cumbersome and
the PCM such as expanded graphite [27], metal foam [28], time consuming, especially with many parameters in the
copper foam [29], and fins [30]. However, considering fac- present investigation. Therefore, in this study, some initial
tors such as mass, complexity in design, and fabrication, conditions and assumptions are taken based on which, a
K. A. Swamy et al.
dT 25
–kAl = hatm(TAl – TAmb) mm
dx Al
m
1m
100 mm
ry
tte
Ba
Aluminum cover
(T)Amb = 20 °C dT
=0
dx B
PCM
y
z
mm
75
dT dT
kB = kPCM
dx B dx PCM
x m
5m
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Physical model of the proposed PCM-based battery thermal management system a battery module with proposed PCM-based BTMS, b
dimensions and boundary conditions of battery cell
Table 1 Key thermo-physical properties of the battery cell used in the Table 2 Thermo-physical and electrical properties of PCM material
study [35]
Parameters Details PCM (OM27)
Parameters Details
−3
Density/ρ, kg m 2101
Thermal conductivity/k, W m−1 K−1 [34] 0.813 Solid density/ρ, kg m −3 971.1
Specific heat/cp, J kg−1 K−1 1014 Liquid density/ρ, kg m −3 870
Specific heat/cp, J kg−1 K−1 2570
Solid thermal conductivity/k, W m−1 K−1 0.2
Liquid thermal conductivity/k, W m −1 K−1 0.16
numerical model of PCM-based BTMS is developed for –1 –1
Viscosity (μ, kg m s ) 0.001372
the analysis. Thereafter, the experimental investigations
Pure solvent melting heat/L, J k g−1 171,000
are performed for the validation of the selected numerical
Solidus temperature/T, °C 27
results.
Liquid temperature/T, °C 28
Thermal stability/cycle ~ 2000
Maximum operating temperature/°C 120
Physical model
Thermocouple
Natural convection
enhanced PCM-based BTMS
Natural convection
P2
a 2D representation of BTMS
position
P2
model and quadrilateral
dominant mesh, b experimental
set-up with 5 mm PCM in the
battery module
Battery module
(Cartridge heater)
Battery module
PCM in liquid
Aluminum cover
PCM
form
T amb = 20 °C
Aluminum cover
Direction of heat
flow
P1 P1
(a) (b)
( )
v18.1 design modular. The meshing is performed using the 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ( 2) 𝜕P 𝜕 𝜕v
(𝜌v) + (𝜌uv) + 𝜌v = − + 𝜇
ICEM CFD meshing tool, and quadrilateral dominant mesh 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕x 𝜕x
( ) (3)
is generated in all the domains as shown in Fig. 2a. Follow- 𝜕 𝜕v ( )
ing are the main assumptions considered in the study: + 𝜇 + 𝜌g𝛽 T − Tm − Sv
𝜕y 𝜕y
1. The left and right sides of the 2D model are in contact where S is the momentum source term; it depends on the
with ambient and PCM, respectively. All the other sur- porosity in the mushy zone and is expressed as.
faces are assumed to be adiabatic.
2. The heat generation within the cell at different charge (1 − 𝛽)2
S= ( ) Cmushy (4)
rates is constant and uniform. 𝛽3 + 𝜀
3. The motion of liquid PCM is considered incompressible,
and its expansion is ignored. ϵ is a very small value to avoid the division with zero, which
4. All the thermo-physical properties of the PCM are taken is taken as 0.001 and β is the liquid volume fraction. The
constant except density. value of Cmushy in melting process is generally greater than
105 and lesser than 106 [38]. Its value is taken as 500,000 in
Governing equations the present work.
The enthalpy-porosity method is used for modelling of
In the numerical model, PCM acts as a Newtonian fluid and the melting and solidification of PCM. In this method,
the natural convection dominates during the melting process. each cell is associated with an enthalpy balance, calculated
The following continuity and momentum equations are used at every iteration. The solid–liquid interface is mentioned
in the numerical solution [36] [37]: as a mushy zone, where the porosity is rated between 0
and 1. When the cell is in the solid state, its porosity is
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 0 and when it is in the liquid state, its porosity is 1. The
+ (𝜌u) + (𝜌v) = 0 (1)
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x liquid fraction is represented with respect to the porosity
of the element.
𝜕 𝜕 ( 2) 𝜕 𝜕P ( ) ( )
(𝜌u) + 𝜌u + (𝜌uv) = − 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T
𝜕t 𝜕x (
𝜕x ) 𝜕x (𝜌H) + (𝜌uH) + (𝜌vH) = k + k
𝜕
(
𝜕u
)
𝜕 𝜕u (2) 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y
+ 𝜇
𝜕x 𝜕x
+
𝜕y
𝜇
𝜕y
− Su (5)
where H is the specific enthalpy and can be expressed in
terms of sensible enthalpy (h) and latent heat content (ΔH):
K. A. Swamy et al.
The sensible enthalpy (h) is expressed as: where the enhancement in thermal conductivity term due to
T
thermal dispersion is given by:
h = href + ∫ ⋅Cp ⋅ dT (7) �( )
Tref kd = C 𝜌cp npcm ||ui ||𝜙ds (16)
The latent heat content (ΔH) of the PCM changes Constant C is evaluated following the work of Wakao
′
between the solid (0) and liquid state (L), where L is latent and Kaguei [40].
heat of fusion which is related to liquid fraction (∅) as: The latent heat is evaluated using following relation:
ΔH (𝜌L)nf = (1 − 𝜙)(𝜌L)f (17)
�=
L
⎧0 if Tpcm < Tsolidus Prandtl number for the nano-enhanced PCM is given by
⎪ (8) the following equation:
� = ⎨1 if Tpcm > Tliquidus
T −T
⎪ pcm solidus if Tliquidus < Tpcm < Tsolidus ( )
⎩ Tliquidus −Tsolidus 𝜈npcm 𝜇eff cp npcm
Pr = = (18)
𝛼npcm keff
Al2O3
Density/ρ, kg m −3 997.1 3600 1023.13 1127.25 1257.39 1517.68
−1
Specific Heat/cp, J kg K 2570 765 2506.48 2281.78 2053.22 1713.69
Latent Energy (L, J kg−1) 171,000 396,000 164,983.16 143,694.48 122,041.44 89,876.18
Thermal Expansion Coefficient /𝛼, K−1 9.1E-05 1.0E-05 8.81E−05 7.81E−05 6.78E−05 5.26E−05
Viscosity/μ, kg m s−1 0.0016 NA 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0024
Thermal Conductivity/k, W m K −1 0.2 36 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.35
Prandtl Number 17.99 16.71 15.87 13.69 11.75
CuO
Density/ρ, kg m −3 997.1 8954 1076.67 1394.95 1792.79 2588.48
−1
Specific Heat/cp, J kg K 2570 383 2381.85 1843.89 1440.04 1004.77
−1
Latent Energy/L, J kg 171,000 206,000 156,778.97 116,118.48 85,594.91 52,696.29
Thermal expansion coefficient/𝛼, K−1 9.1E-05 1.6E-05 8.48E−05 6.69E−05 5.35E−05 3.91E−05
Viscosity /μ, kg m s−1 0.0014 NA 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0024
Thermal Conductivity/k, W m K −1 0.2 39 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.35
Prandtl number 17.99 15.88 12.83 9.60 6.89
40 dT dT
kB = kPCM (20)
dx B dx PCM
35
The aluminium cover is exposed to ambient:
30 PCM_18000
PCM_36000 ( ) ( )
dT
25 PCM_54000 −kAl = hatm TAl − TAmb (21)
PCM_72000 dx Al
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Ambient is considered at the constant temperature of
Time/s
20 °C:
Fig. 3 Grid independency test for the numerical model (T)Amb = 20◦ C (22)
Environment chamber
PCM
Proposed model.
Data logger
DC power supply
Rotameter
55
50 validation with the temperature profile is shown in Fig. 5,
45 where numerical model shows good agreement with the
Temperature/°C
40
experiment results. The experimental and simulation results
35
show a deviation of 2.96% in the temperature values at 900th
30
second. Furthermore, similar patterns of the melting fraction
are observed with the numerical and experimental works as
25
P2_5mm_PCM_Experiment shown in Fig. 6.
20 P2_5mm_PCM_Numerical
15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time/s Results and discussion
Fig. 5 Comparison of PCM temperature profile with the numerical Effect of variation in the thickness of PCM
model and the experimental work
The effect of thickness of PCM on the performance of
high-temperature leak proof adhesive paste. Then OM27 BTMS is investigated. Figure 6a shows the images of melt
type PCM is filled into the cavity in liquid form to avoid air fractions obtained from experimental and numerical analysis
entrapment at PCM-heater wall interface. The whole system with 40 mm PCM thickness in the BTMS. It can be seen that
is placed in an environmental chamber as shown in Fig. 4. melting of the PCM remains low, suggesting presence of an
The environment chamber is maintained at 20 °C using an excessive amount of PCM. Additionally, there is a notice-
external chiller system. Uncertainties for the equipment used able heat build-up on the battery surface, where average sur-
in the experimental set-up are reported in Table 4. Before face temperature is measured at 64.1 °C in case of 40 mm
starting the experiment, let the whole system reach 20 °C. PCM thickness. Whereas average surface temperature for
Then the cartridge heater is set for 10 W of power supply, 5 mm PCM thick is 46.8 °C that is 26.89% higher compared
which approximates to the 4C battery charge rate. to 40 mm PCM thickness. It can be reasoned that excess
In this paper, the numerical model is validated by compar- amount of PCM not only increases the mass of the system
ing the temperature profile at point P2 and melting fraction but also acts like an insulation layer leading to temperature
observed with the experimental results. The experimental rise in the system. Figure 6b shows the melting fractions of
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…
Mass fraction
0.5
0.4 and increased density. The reduction in latent heat leads to a
0.4
0.3 greater demand (mass) of PCM for the same heat absorption
0.3 from the battery. Moreover, the increased density diminishes
0.2
0.1 convective forces in the liquid PCM, consequently lower-
0.1 ing the rate of heat transfer. Due to these constraints, the
0.0
0.0 quantity of nanoparticles that can be effectively utilized is
restricted.
0s 900 s The change in melting fraction with respect to time for
(a)
Al2O3- and CuO-enhanced PCM at 1%, 5%, 10%, and 20%
volume fractions is presented in Figs. 7 and 8, respec-
tively. The addition of nanoparticles enhances the thermo-
physical properties of PCM, which allows for increased
heat transfer and therefore improves the melting fraction.
1
1
0.9
0.8
0.8
Melting fraction
0.7
0.6 840 860 880 900
0.4
Only_PCM
Al2O3_1%
0.2 Al2O3_5%
Al2O3_10%
Al2O3_20%
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time/s
0s 900 s
Fig. 7 Variation in melt fraction with time for various volume frac-
(b) tions of Al2O3 nanoparticles
0.7
5 mm PCM thickness in BTMS. It is seen that around 96% 0.6 840 860 880 900
Increase in thermal conductivity allows the heat transfer Table 5 Melt fraction of PCM and nano-enhanced PCM with various
within the solid PCM, which helps in its fast melting. It volume fractions of nanoparticles at every 180 s
can be seen that melting fractions increase from 0.75 to Time 0s 180 s 360 s 540 s 720 s 900 s
0.97 and 0.96 with addition of 20% A l2O3 and CuO nano-
particles, respectively. It corresponds to 29.33% and 28.0%
increase in the melting fractions, respectively, which are
significant improvements compared to only PCM cases.
It can also be observed that melting fraction of PCM
increases with the increase in volume fraction of nanopar- PCM
ticles. Melt fraction contours for all the cases are shown
in Table 5.
Since, addition of nanoparticles considerably improves
the thermal properties of PCM and melting fraction, it is
also expected to improve the average surface temperature of
battery cells. The change in average surface temperature of
the battery module with respect to time is shown in Figs. 9
and 10 for Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles, respectively. Three
phases of temperature rise can be seen in these profile.
CuO CuO
Maximum temperature
50
46
45
44
Temperature/°C
10% Al2O3 40
840 860 880 900
Fig. 9 Temperature at the PCM and heater interface for various vol-
ume fractions of Al2O3 nanoparticles
CuO
Maximum temperature
50
46
45
Temperature/°C
44
40
840 860 880 900
20% Al2O3 Fig. 10 Temperature at the PCM and heater interface for various vol-
ume fractions of CuO nanoparticles
6 5.3 5.2
available for heat dissipation is low, neither PCM nor nano-
4 3.6
enhanced PCM can keep the batteries at optimal temperature
3.3
range. However, nano-enhanced PCM is capable of main-
2
taining the batteries at more uniform temperatures than only
0 PCM cases. Therefore, a hybrid PCM–liquid cooling based
M
1%
0%
0%
0%
PC
_5
_1
_5
3 _
_1
_2
_1
_2
y_
uO
uO
2 O
2 O
3
uO
uO
2 O
2 O
3
battery system.
nl
Al
Al
C
Al
Al
O
C
Fig. 11 Values of thermal non-uniformity (ΔT) with only PCM and Effect of PCM–liquid cooling based BTMS
nano-enhanced PCMs
It is found that a passive cooling method may not be able
Table 6 Thermal non-uniformity with A
l2O3 and CuO nano- to maintain the battery under optimal temperature range,
enhanced PCM especially under abusive operating conditions. Therefore,
Nano-material Volume frac- Maximum Minimum ΔT a hybrid thermal management technique is proposed to the
tion temperature temperature existing system by replacing aluminium cover with a cooling
(P2) (P1) jacket as shown in Fig. 12a. A constant water mass flow rate
PCM – 52.3 41.0 11.3
of 0.1 kg s–1 at the temperature of 20 °C is maintained at the
Al2O3 20% 50.7 47.1 3.6
inlet of the cooling jacket.
10% 51.2 45.9 5.3
A single battery module is experimentally studied as
5% 51.6 41.6 10.0
shown in Fig. 12b in which important boundary condi-
1% 52.3 41.0 11.3
tions and dimensions are mentioned. The cooling jacket
CuO 20% 51.3 48.0 3.3
is made of aluminium having one inlet and outlet. Experi-
10% 51.5 46.3 5.2
mental test set-up for the proposed PCM–liquid cooling
5% 51.7 42.1 9.6
based BTMS is shown in Fig. 13. The water flow can be
1% 52.0 41.1 10.9
measured and controlled using a rotameter (in the range
of 0.1–1 kg s −1). Similar to the previous set-up, two
25
mm
ket
jac
ing
Cool
10
mm
100 mm
ttery
t Ba
Inle
PCM
mm
75
t
tle m
Ou 5m
mm
25
(a) (b)
Fig. 12 Proposed PCM–liquid cooling based battery thermal management system a battery pack with proposed BTMS, b module dimensions
and boundary conditions
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…
Environment chamber
Thermocouple
Proposed model.
Data logger
DC power supply
Rotameter
Fig. 13 Experimental test set-up for the proposed PCM–liquid cooling based hybrid BTMS
44.38/°C
Author contributions Conceptualization, validation, formal analysis, Therm Eng. 2023. https://d oi.o rg/1 0.1 016/j.a pplth ermal eng.2 022.
writing—original draft preparation, review, and editing, and data cura- 119466.
tion were performed by KAS, SV, and S.B. Methodology was ana- 15. Sarchami A, Kiani M, Najafi M, Houshfar E. Experimental inves-
lysed by KAS and SV. Software, investigation, and visualization were tigation of the innovated indirect-cooling system for Li-ion battery
performed by KAS. Resources and funding acquisition were provided packs under fast charging and discharging”. J Energy Storage.
by SV. Supervision and project administration were done by SV and 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106730.
SB. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the 16. Yao M, et al. Performance simulation of a heat pipe and refrig-
manuscript. erant-based lithium-ion battery thermal management system
coupled with electric vehicle air-conditioning. Appl Therm Eng.
2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116878.
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