Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13052-4

Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted

PCM‑based battery thermal management system
Kundrapu Ayyappa Swamy1 · Saket Verma1 · Suvanjan Bhattacharyya1

Received: 31 August 2023 / Accepted: 1 March 2024

© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2024

Abstract
Li-ion batteries generate a large amount of heat in the electric vehicles. The poor heat dissipation from the battery causes
temperature rise and affects its performance and life. If the battery temperature is not controlled, it may lead to serious dam-
age to the battery cells; in extreme scenario, it may lead to fire hazards. A properly designed battery thermal management
system (BTMS) controls the battery temperature ensuring its safe and efficient operation. In the present work, a nanoparticle
assisted phase change material (PCM) and active cooling based BTMS technique has been investigated. The study employs
both experimental and numerical approaches in the development of a water-composite PCM-based hybrid BTMS (combi-
nation of active and passive cooling techniques). Firstly, the investigation is performed to optimize the amount of PCM in
the BTMS as it affects the thermal performance and mass of the system. It is found that an excess amount of PCM results
in heat accumulation at the heating surface, which leads to rise in the cell temperature. The reduction in thickness of PCM
from 40 to 5 mm results in 26.98% reduction in the maximum temperature. Moreover, it is found that introduction of nano-
particles between 1 and 20% (by volume) in PCM results in improved thermal conductivity. The melting fraction of PCM
is improved by 29.33% and 28.0% with 20% concentration of CuO and A ­ l2O3 in the PCM, respectively. It further helps in
70.79% improvement in the thermal non-uniformity in PCM-based hybrid BTMS.

Keywords Battery charging · Battery thermal management system · Electric vehicles · Nanoparticles · Phase change
material

Abbreviations Tavg Average temperature of the cell, °C

ΔT Temperature difference, °C
List of symbols
u Velocity in x direction, m ­s−1
cp Specific heat, J ­kg−1 ­K−1
v Velocity in y direction, m ­s−1
g Gravity, m ­s−2
x, y Position along axis, m
H Specific enthalpy, kJ ­kg−1
h Sensible enthalpy, kJ Greek symbols
ΔH Latent heat content, J ­kg−1 ɛ Energy dissipation rates
k Thermal conductivity, W ­m−1 ­K−1 k Turbulent kinetic energy
L Latent Energy, J ­kg-1 ϕ Liquid fraction
P Pressure, Pa β Liquid volume fraction
S Momentum source term, kg m −2 ­s−2 ρ Density, kg ­m−3
t Time, s μ Viscosity, kg m ­s−1
T Temperature, °C 𝛼 Thermal expansion, ­K−1
Tmax Maximum temperature of the cell/module, °C φ Volume fraction
Subscript
Al Aluminium
* Suvanjan Bhattacharyya
[email protected] amb Ambient
avg Average
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute B Battery
of Technology and Science Pilani, Pilani Campus, d Dispersion
Vidhya Vihar, Pilani, Rajasthan 333031, India

Vol.:(0123456789)
 K. A. Swamy et al.

eff Effective EVs [5]. However, there are some current issues to tackle
liquidus PCM–liquid state and challenges to overcome in the efficient utilization of
max Maximum Li-ion batteries such as ageing caused by electrode plating,
npcm Nano-enhanced PCM decomposition of electrolytes at high and low temperatures,
pcm Phase change material cyclic stability, etc. [6]. In this regard, thermal runaway is
ref Reference the most considerable issue in the battery packs, where not
Solidus PCM solid state only the performance loss, but safety becomes the major
s Solid nanoparticle concern. When the battery temperature reaches in the range
of 90–120 °C, the thin passivating layer known as solid elec-
Acronyms
trolyte interface (SEI) breaks down, followed by a reaction
BTMS Battery thermal management system
between the electrolyte and anode. When the temperature
EVs Electric vehicles
reaches around 130–160 °C, the separator contracts and
HEVs Hybrid electric vehicles
possibly collapses, causing an internal short circuit. If the
Li-ion Lithium-ion
temperature keeps rising, the cathode materials will com-
OM Organic material
mence degradation. At temperatures surpassing 200 °C,
PCM Phase change material
the electrolytes start breaking down. Once the temperature
SEI Solid electrolyte interface
crosses 260 °C, the anode material ­(LixC6) reacts with the
binder. The resulting flammable gases mixed with oxygen
can ignite, leading to fire [7]. When fire is triggered in the
Introduction first cell of a battery pack, the neighbouring batteries will
catch fire and probably initiate the runaway reaction in some
With a growing emphasis on environmental sustainabil- specific scenarios. This phenomenon is called the thermal
ity and the challenges of global warming, researchers are runaway propagation and may lead to catastrophic hazards
increasingly engaged in the quest for a clean and viable within a battery pack [8]. Thus, a battery thermal manage-
energy solution. Conventional energy systems are driven ment system (BTMS) becomes essential to avoid thermal
by fossil fuels; automobile industry is the main contribu- runaway situations and increase the lifetime of battery cells
tor in releasing toxic gases to the atmosphere. According to by regulating their temperature. Furthermore, the perfor-
IEA [1], emissions from the transport sector accounted for mance of a battery depends considerably on the operating
23% of global ­CO2 emissions from fuel combustion by sec- temperatures. Therefore, BTMS is also vital for safety and
tors categorization. A suitable alternative for conventional stability of the battery pack [9]. It is reported that tempera-
vehicles are the electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric ture of the battery cells should be maintained in the range of
vehicles (HEVs) that utilize renewable electricity. In addi- 25–45 °C in order to ensure the high efficiency and extended
tion to the environmental benefits, EVs and HEVs have the life of the battery pack. Moreover, the maximum tempera-
other advantages such as high torque, better performance, ture difference between the battery cells should be less than
and low noise. However, there are some major disadvantages 5 °C across various operational conditions. [10]. Batteries
as well like range anxiety, long charging time, and high cost operated below and above this optimal temperature range
compared to the conventional vehicles [2]. In addition to tend to accelerate in degradation of health and performance
that few EVs have shown reliability and safety issues in the [11].
recent times due to the incidents of battery fire [3]. Keeping Several BTMS technologies are investigated in the lit-
aside the extreme safety issues such as fire hazards, the long- erature such as air cooling systems [12], liquid cooling
term operational reliability and maintenance of EVs have not systems [13], direct refrigerant cooling systems [14], phase
gained the same level of confidence as that of conventional change material (PCM) cooling systems [15], and thermo-
vehicles. Nevertheless, recent developments in the battery electric cooling as well as heating systems [16]. These sys-
technology have significantly pushed the EV range and effi- tems are analysed through a trade-off between parameters
ciency. Among all the electrochemical batteries, lithium-ion such as performance, mass, size, cost, reliability, safety, and
(Li-ion) chemistry is widely used in the automotive industry energy consumption. These technologies could be based
due to its high energy storage capacity and energy-to-mass on an active cooling, passive cooling, or a combination of
ratio [4]. Note that the efficiency and performance of the these two methods [17]. The challenges involved in this
EVs directly depend on the battery's health and efficiency. task include a BTMS that is effective in heat transfer with
In the beginning, Li-ion batteries were created and intro- minimal consumption of energy, light in mass, and compact.
duced for applications in laptops and consumer electronics. Several investigations are available in the literature aiming
Due to their elevated energy density and extended lifespan, to maintain the battery at an optimal temperature. Among
they have emerged as the dominant battery choice for the these, various techniques have been introduced using passive
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

cooling methods to minimize the energy consumption and use of nanoparticles to enhance the thermal conductivity of
mass of the battery thermal system [18]. Organic PCM has PCM appears a feasible solution. Sushobhan and Kar [31]
gained universal interest due to its high latent heat storage observed that nano-enhanced PCM improves the PCM per-
capacity and excellent cycling stability [19]. Hallaj and formance and melting rate when experimentally examined
Selman [20] incorporated PCM in BTMS to check its ther- by adding 5% and 2.5% CuO nanoparticles. Abdullah et al.
mal performance. Their results showed that the maximum [32] numerically studied the nano-enhanced PCM and found
temperature of battery is much lower with the introduction that it significantly improved the performance and decreased
of PCM as compared to air cooling. Moreover, PCM not the maximum temperature of the battery. Aditya et al.
only helps in cooling but also in heating of the battery pack [9] numerically studied the performance of ­Al2O3 nano-
in low-temperature conditions by reversing the heat stored enhanced PCM and critical thickness of PCM. The usage
during non-operating condition. Subbah et al. [21] com- of nano-enhanced PCM was found to increase the melting
pared the performance of battery thermal system between air fraction; it was also found that the increase in mass fraction
cooling and PCM. It was observed that air cooling majorly of nanoparticles increased the melting fraction. They were
depends on the ambient temperature, mass flow rate, and able to maintain the battery temperature within the optimal
battery charge rates. Air cooling failed to keep the batteries temperature range using nano-enhanced PCM. Ravindra
at optimal temperature range during moderate charge rate et al. [33] experimentally studied the effectiveness of PCM
and high ambient temperatures. Whereas, the PCM thermal when the system was placed at an ambient temperature of
management system managed to satisfy both the thermal 40 °C. It was observed that the rise in cell temperature was
factors (peak temperature and maximum temperature dif- below 6 °C with ­Al2O3 nano-enhanced PCM.
ference) under the same operating conditions. It was also The main issue addressed in this study is to improve the
observed that the thermal uniformity was better in the case heat transfer from the battery system in order to increase the
of PCM thermal management system. Yaussef et al. [22] efficiency and life of the battery, which directly affects the
conducted an experimental study to access the performance performance of EVs. According to the literature, a PCM-
of PCM on a prismatic battery and found that the battery based BTMS incorporating nanoparticles could provide
surface temperature was reduced from 47.27 to 41.06 °C. an efficient design and improve the system performance.
Knog et al. [20] conducted both numerical and experimental However, only a few researchers have studied the effect of
investigations, where they coupled PCM and liquid cooling. nano-enhanced PCM-based BTMS, where only the effect
The developed model was able to maintain the battery pack of volume fraction of nanoparticles is studied. In the pre-
below maximum temperature of 41.1 °C and the thermal sent study, a comprehensive investigation is presented to
non-uniformity was 4 °C that are in optimal range under develop a nano-enhanced PCM-based BTMS. Following are
an ambient temperature of 30 °C. It was also mentioned the main features of the present investigation: (1) two most
that PCM has the capability to effectively absorb the heat widely used nanoparticle, viz. A ­ l2O3 and CuO, are consid-
rejected by the battery. Weijun Xiong et al. [23] investigated ered for the investigation and demonstration, (2) BTMS is
battery cooling using PCM and PCM combined with liquid investigated to satisfy two thermal criteria, i.e. maximum
cooling. They found that under low charge and discharge battery temperature and maximum temperature difference
conditions, PCM alone can meet the cooling requirements. within the battery cell, (3) optimization of the PCM mass for
However, additional forced cooling was necessary to be system mass consideration, and (4) examination of a hybrid
integrated with PCM in demanding operating conditions cooling technique with PCM–liquid coolant BTMS.
for temperature control. The study indicated that coupling
PCM with liquid cooling effectively controlled the battery
temperatures within the optimal range, particularly at high Problem description and modelling
discharge rates [23, 24]. However, solely relying on PCM approach
cooling is discouraged due to its limited thermal storage
capacity, particularly in challenging conditions [25]. The performance of PCM and nano-enhanced PCM in
On the other hand, the major disadvantage of PCM is the BTMS is studied under a typical fast charging (at
its low thermal conductivity, which restricts the applica- charge rate of 4C) condition of Li-ion battery cell. In such
tion of pure PCM in many thermal systems. The thermal designs, the incorporation of the PCM in the BTMS is
conductivity of most of the available PCMs is below 1.0 crucial as it influences the heat transfer characteristics.
W ­m−1 ­K–1 [26]. This issue is commonly addressed by the Furthermore, there are numerous possible combinations
introduction of high thermal conductivity external agents in and test conditions that make the study cumbersome and
the PCM such as expanded graphite [27], metal foam [28], time consuming, especially with many parameters in the
copper foam [29], and fins [30]. However, considering fac- present investigation. Therefore, in this study, some initial
tors such as mass, complexity in design, and fabrication, conditions and assumptions are taken based on which, a
 K. A. Swamy et al.

 dT  25
–kAl   = hatm(TAl – TAmb) mm
 dx  Al

m
1m

100 mm

ry
tte
Ba

Aluminum cover
(T)Amb = 20 °C dT 
  =0
dx  B

PCM
y
z
mm
75
 dT   dT 
kB   = kPCM  
 dx  B  dx  PCM
x m
5m

(a) (b)

Fig. 1  Physical model of the proposed PCM-based battery thermal management system a battery module with proposed PCM-based BTMS, b
dimensions and boundary conditions of battery cell

Table 1  Key thermo-physical properties of the battery cell used in the Table 2  Thermo-physical and electrical properties of PCM material
study [35]
Parameters Details PCM (OM27)
Parameters Details
­ −3
Density/ρ, kg m 2101
Thermal conductivity/k, W ­m−1 ­K−1 [34] 0.813 Solid density/ρ, kg m ­ −3 971.1
Specific heat/cp, J ­kg−1 ­K−1 1014 Liquid density/ρ, kg m ­ −3 870
Specific heat/cp, J ­kg−1 ­K−1 2570
Solid thermal conductivity/k, W ­m−1 ­K−1 0.2
Liquid thermal conductivity/k, W m ­ −1 ­K−1 0.16
numerical model of PCM-based BTMS is developed for –1 –1
Viscosity (μ, kg m­ ­s ) 0.001372
the analysis. Thereafter, the experimental investigations
Pure solvent melting heat/L, J k­ g−1 171,000
are performed for the validation of the selected numerical
Solidus temperature/T, °C 27
results.
Liquid temperature/T, °C 28
Thermal stability/cycle ~ 2000
Maximum operating temperature/°C 120
Physical model

Figure 1a shows the proposed PCM-based BTMS for

the battery pack, and Fig. 1b shows the components Numerical model
and dimensions of the model. A cell module is made to
resemble the prismatic battery cell as shown in Fig. 1b, A numerical model is developed to study the BTMS perfor-
and its thermo-physical properties used in the numerical mance with nano-enhanced PCM in the range of 1% to 20%
investigation are given in Table 1. PCM layer of 5 mm volume fraction of nanoparticles in the PCM. A 2D numeri-
thickness is provided on the side wall of the battery and cal model of the battery module as shown in Fig. 2a has been
enclosed with an aluminium cover as shown in Fig. 1b. developed using commercially available computational soft-
OM27 (organic material type PCM having phase transition ware ANSYS Fluent v18.1 to study the multiphysics phe-
temperature of 27 °C) PCM is used in the present study. nomenon. The numerical models of the prismatic battery
Thermo-physical properties of the OM27 PCM are given cell and PCM with thermo-physical properties of the materi-
in Table 2. als mentioned in Tables 1 and 2 are prepared using ANSYS
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

Fig. 2  Design of the nano-

Thermocouple
Natural convection
enhanced PCM-based BTMS

Natural convection
P2
a 2D representation of BTMS

position
P2
model and quadrilateral
dominant mesh, b experimental
set-up with 5 mm PCM in the
battery module

Battery module

(Cartridge heater)
Battery module

PCM in liquid
Aluminum cover
PCM

form
T amb = 20 °C

Aluminum cover
Direction of heat
flow
P1 P1

(a) (b)

( )
v18.1 design modular. The meshing is performed using the 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ( 2) 𝜕P 𝜕 𝜕v
(𝜌v) + (𝜌uv) + 𝜌v = − + 𝜇
ICEM CFD meshing tool, and quadrilateral dominant mesh 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕x 𝜕x
( ) (3)
is generated in all the domains as shown in Fig. 2a. Follow- 𝜕 𝜕v ( )
ing are the main assumptions considered in the study: + 𝜇 + 𝜌g𝛽 T − Tm − Sv
𝜕y 𝜕y

1. The left and right sides of the 2D model are in contact where S is the momentum source term; it depends on the
with ambient and PCM, respectively. All the other sur- porosity in the mushy zone and is expressed as.
faces are assumed to be adiabatic.
2. The heat generation within the cell at different charge (1 − 𝛽)2
S= ( ) Cmushy (4)
rates is constant and uniform. 𝛽3 + 𝜀
3. The motion of liquid PCM is considered incompressible,
and its expansion is ignored. ϵ is a very small value to avoid the division with zero, which
4. All the thermo-physical properties of the PCM are taken is taken as 0.001 and β is the liquid volume fraction. The
constant except density. value of Cmushy in melting process is generally greater than
­105 and lesser than ­106 [38]. Its value is taken as 500,000 in
Governing equations the present work.
The enthalpy-porosity method is used for modelling of
In the numerical model, PCM acts as a Newtonian fluid and the melting and solidification of PCM. In this method,
the natural convection dominates during the melting process. each cell is associated with an enthalpy balance, calculated
The following continuity and momentum equations are used at every iteration. The solid–liquid interface is mentioned
in the numerical solution [36] [37]: as a mushy zone, where the porosity is rated between 0
and 1. When the cell is in the solid state, its porosity is
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 0 and when it is in the liquid state, its porosity is 1. The
+ (𝜌u) + (𝜌v) = 0 (1)
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x liquid fraction is represented with respect to the porosity
of the element.
𝜕 𝜕 ( 2) 𝜕 𝜕P ( ) ( )
(𝜌u) + 𝜌u + (𝜌uv) = − 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕T
𝜕t 𝜕x (
𝜕x ) 𝜕x (𝜌H) + (𝜌uH) + (𝜌vH) = k + k
𝜕
(
𝜕u
)
𝜕 𝜕u (2) 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y
+ 𝜇
𝜕x 𝜕x
+
𝜕y
𝜇
𝜕y
− Su (5)
where H is the specific enthalpy and can be expressed in
terms of sensible enthalpy (h) and latent heat content (ΔH):
 K. A. Swamy et al.

H = h + ΔH (6) keff = knpcm + kd (15)

The sensible enthalpy (h) is expressed as: where the enhancement in thermal conductivity term due to
T
thermal dispersion is given by:
h = href + ∫ ⋅Cp ⋅ dT (7) �( )
Tref kd = C 𝜌cp npcm ||ui ||𝜙ds (16)
The latent heat content (ΔH) of the PCM changes Constant C is evaluated following the work of Wakao
′

between the solid (0) and liquid state (L), where L is latent and Kaguei [40].
heat of fusion which is related to liquid fraction (∅) as: The latent heat is evaluated using following relation:
ΔH (𝜌L)nf = (1 − 𝜙)(𝜌L)f (17)
�=
L
⎧0 if Tpcm < Tsolidus Prandtl number for the nano-enhanced PCM is given by
⎪ (8) the following equation:
� = ⎨1 if Tpcm > Tliquidus
T −T
⎪ pcm solidus if Tliquidus < Tpcm < Tsolidus ( )
⎩ Tliquidus −Tsolidus 𝜈npcm 𝜇eff cp npcm
Pr = = (18)
𝛼npcm keff

The calculated thermo-physical properties of the nano-

Thermo‑physical properties of the nano‑enhanced PCM enhanced PCM are shown in Table 3.

The properties of nano-enhanced PCM are the function of Grid independency

liquid fraction of the PCM, which are given in the form of
following equations [39]: The grid independence test is carried out for the discussed
model to check its consistence with the mesh quality. In
𝜌npcm = (1 − 𝜑)𝜌pcm + 𝜑𝜌nano (9)
the transient grid independency test, meshes with 18,000,
( ) ( ) 36,000, 54,000, and 72,000 element sizes at 0.1 s time step
𝜌npcm cp,npcm = 𝜑 𝜌cp nano + (1 − 𝜑) 𝜌cp pcm (10) size are tested. There are not any significant changes in
results after the number of elements are more than 36,000 (at
a time step size of 0.1 s) as shown in Fig. 3. Please note that
𝜌npcm 𝛼npcm = 𝜑(𝜌𝛼)nano + (1 − 𝜑)(𝜌𝛼)pcm (11)
the results with models having elements more than 36,000
are overlapping. Therefore, the numerical investigations in
𝜌npcm ΔHnpcm = (1 − 𝜑)(𝜌ΔH)pcm (12) the present work are conducted with 36,000 elements and
0.1 s step size. The model that is validated with the experi-
where φ is the volume fraction, ρnpcm (kg⋅m−3) is the den-
mental results is selected for the further study.
sity, c (J⋅kg−1⋅K−1) is the specific heat, 𝛼 npcm ( K−1) is the
coefficient of thermal expansion, and ΔHnpcm (kJ⋅kg−1) is
Numerical set‑up and boundary conditions
the latent heat of the nano-enhanced PCM. The viscosity
and thermal conductivity of the nano-enhanced PCM are
The transient analysis with a time step of 0.1 s, and maxi-
calculated using the following correlations:
mum 20 iterations per time step is conducted for 900 s (at
( )
𝜇npcm = 𝜇pcm 0.983e12.959𝜑 (13) a charge rate of 4C). The effect of gravity, 9.81 m ­s−2 is
considered to study the convection driven forces within
where μ npcm (kg⋅ m−1⋅s−1 ) is the viscosity of the nano- the PCM domains. The ambient and initial temperature
enhanced PCM. of PCM, and aluminium cover are taken as 20 °C. Left
The thermal conductivity of nano-enhanced PCM is surface of the battery is subjected to natural convection
given as follows: and right side is contacted the PCM. All the other sur-
( ) faces are assumed to be adiabatic. The aluminium cover
knpcm ks + 2kpcm − 2𝜙 kpcm − ks is exposed to atmosphere at 20 °C, where heat transfer
= ( ) (14)
kpcm ks + kpcm + 𝜙 kpcm − ks is allowed through natural convection mode as shown in
Fig. 1. A constant heat generation condition of 95,000
The effective thermal conductivity of the nano- W ­m−3 is considered for each battery cell. k–ε turbulent
enhanced PCM is: model is chosen to study the heat transfer characteristics of
the working fluid. The second-order upwind interpolation
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

Table 3  Thermo-physical properties of PCM and nano-enhanced PCM material [41]

Properties PCM Nanoparticle Nano-PCM
1% 5% 10% 20%

Al2O3
Density/ρ, kg m­ −3 997.1 3600 1023.13 1127.25 1257.39 1517.68
­ −1
Specific Heat/cp, J kg K 2570 765 2506.48 2281.78 2053.22 1713.69
Latent Energy (L, J ­kg−1) 171,000 396,000 164,983.16 143,694.48 122,041.44 89,876.18
Thermal Expansion Coefficient /𝛼, ­K−1 9.1E-05 1.0E-05 8.81E−05 7.81E−05 6.78E−05 5.26E−05
Viscosity/μ, kg m ­s−1 0.0016 NA 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0024
Thermal Conductivity/k, W m K ­ −1 0.2 36 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.35
Prandtl Number 17.99 16.71 15.87 13.69 11.75
CuO
Density/ρ, kg m­ −3 997.1 8954 1076.67 1394.95 1792.79 2588.48
­ −1
Specific Heat/cp, J kg K 2570 383 2381.85 1843.89 1440.04 1004.77
−1
Latent Energy/L, J ­kg 171,000 206,000 156,778.97 116,118.48 85,594.91 52,696.29
Thermal expansion coefficient/𝛼, ­K−1 9.1E-05 1.6E-05 8.48E−05 6.69E−05 5.35E−05 3.91E−05
Viscosity /μ, kg m ­s−1 0.0014 NA 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.0024
Thermal Conductivity/k, W m K ­ −1 0.2 39 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.35
Prandtl number 17.99 15.88 12.83 9.60 6.89

50 The heat transfer at the interface of battery and PCM

45
is given by:
( ) ( )
Temperature/°C

40 dT dT
kB = kPCM (20)
dx B dx PCM
35
The aluminium cover is exposed to ambient:
30 PCM_18000
PCM_36000 ( ) ( )
dT
25 PCM_54000 −kAl = hatm TAl − TAmb (21)
PCM_72000 dx Al
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Ambient is considered at the constant temperature of
Time/s
20 °C:

Fig. 3  Grid independency test for the numerical model (T)Amb = 20◦ C (22)

scheme is used to discretize convective terms in the

Experimental model and validation
momentum equations. First-order upwind interpolation
scheme is used to discretize the convective terms in the
A photographic image of the experimental test set-up with
energy equation. The SIMPLE algorithm is used for pres-
the major equipment is shown in Fig. 4. Cartridge heaters
sure–velocity coupling, and PRESTO is used for pressure
are used as cell modular, which are connected to a DC-power
correction. The residual value of 1­ 0−9 is set for energy,
supply for controlled energy input as sown in Fig. 4. PCM
continuity, and momentum equations in convergence cri-
is sandwiched between the heater and the aluminium cover.
teria. The following boundary conditions are applied to
K-type thermo-couples are arranged at the bottom and top
the numerical model, and the same are also represented
locations of the battery module as elaborated in Fig. 2b (as
in Fig. 1b:
P1 and P2 points), where minimum and maximum tempera-
The battery surface is well insulated, and hence adi-
tures are observed, respectively. Thermo-couples are con-
abatic condition is applied such that:
nected to the data acquisition system (Multispan 16-chan-
( ) ( ) ( )
dT dT dT nel data logger), which stores the temperature data for an
= = =0 (19) interval of 60 s. A cavity (for PCM) of 5 mm thickness
dx B dy B dz B
between the heated wall and the aluminium cover is made
by arranging acrylic sheets on both sides with the help of
 K. A. Swamy et al.

Environment chamber

PCM
Proposed model.

Data logger

DC power supply

Rotameter

Fig. 4  Experimental set-up for proposed PCM-based BTMS

Table 4  Uncertainty values of the experimental equipment

Measurement Instrument Description Range Resolution

Temperature K-type thermo-couples Temperature of battery 0–900 °C ± 0.1 °C

Data acquisition system Multiflux 16-channel Record battery temperature 50/60 Hz NA
DC-regulated power supply Testronix 92C Heater power supply 0–60 V ± 5 mV
0–5 Amp ± 10 mA
Rotameter Pearl water Inlet mass flow rate 0.1–10 kg ­s−1 ± 0.01 m
­s−1

55
50 validation with the temperature profile is shown in Fig. 5,
45 where numerical model shows good agreement with the
Temperature/°C

40
experiment results. The experimental and simulation results
35
show a deviation of 2.96% in the temperature values at 900th
30
second. Furthermore, similar patterns of the melting fraction
are observed with the numerical and experimental works as
25
P2_5mm_PCM_Experiment shown in Fig. 6.
20 P2_5mm_PCM_Numerical
15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time/s Results and discussion

Fig. 5  Comparison of PCM temperature profile with the numerical Effect of variation in the thickness of PCM
model and the experimental work
The effect of thickness of PCM on the performance of
high-temperature leak proof adhesive paste. Then OM27 BTMS is investigated. Figure 6a shows the images of melt
type PCM is filled into the cavity in liquid form to avoid air fractions obtained from experimental and numerical analysis
entrapment at PCM-heater wall interface. The whole system with 40 mm PCM thickness in the BTMS. It can be seen that
is placed in an environmental chamber as shown in Fig. 4. melting of the PCM remains low, suggesting presence of an
The environment chamber is maintained at 20 °C using an excessive amount of PCM. Additionally, there is a notice-
external chiller system. Uncertainties for the equipment used able heat build-up on the battery surface, where average sur-
in the experimental set-up are reported in Table 4. Before face temperature is measured at 64.1 °C in case of 40 mm
starting the experiment, let the whole system reach 20 °C. PCM thickness. Whereas average surface temperature for
Then the cartridge heater is set for 10 W of power supply, 5 mm PCM thick is 46.8 °C that is 26.89% higher compared
which approximates to the 4C battery charge rate. to 40 mm PCM thickness. It can be reasoned that excess
In this paper, the numerical model is validated by compar- amount of PCM not only increases the mass of the system
ing the temperature profile at point P2 and melting fraction but also acts like an insulation layer leading to temperature
observed with the experimental results. The experimental rise in the system. Figure 6b shows the melting fractions of
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

Liquid phase Effect of nano‑enhanced PCM on BTMS

Solid-Liquid
interface
Incorporating nanoparticles into PCM is an effective way
Solid phase
of enhancing the thermal conductivity of the PCM. In the
present work, addition of ­Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles into
0.9
0.9 PCM between the volume fractions of 1%-20% is studied.
0.8 Thermo-physical properties of the nano-enhanced PCM are
0.7
0.7 calculated using Eqs. (9)–(12) and are given in Table 3. It is
0.6 observed that adding nanoparticles enhances thermal con-
0.6
ductivity of PCM, albeit at the expense of reduced latent heat

Mass fraction
0.5
0.4 and increased density. The reduction in latent heat leads to a
0.4
0.3 greater demand (mass) of PCM for the same heat absorption
0.3 from the battery. Moreover, the increased density diminishes
0.2
0.1 convective forces in the liquid PCM, consequently lower-
0.1 ing the rate of heat transfer. Due to these constraints, the
0.0
0.0 quantity of nanoparticles that can be effectively utilized is
restricted.
0s 900 s The change in melting fraction with respect to time for
(a)
­Al2O3- and CuO-enhanced PCM at 1%, 5%, 10%, and 20%
volume fractions is presented in Figs. 7 and 8, respec-
tively. The addition of nanoparticles enhances the thermo-
physical properties of PCM, which allows for increased
heat transfer and therefore improves the melting fraction.

1
1

0.9
0.8
0.8
Melting fraction

0.7
0.6 840 860 880 900

0.4
Only_PCM
Al2O3_1%
0.2 Al2O3_5%
Al2O3_10%
Al2O3_20%
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time/s

0s 900 s
Fig. 7  Variation in melt fraction with time for various volume frac-
(b) tions of ­Al2O3 nanoparticles

Fig. 6  Melt fraction of PCM at 0 s and 900 s observed with experi- 1

mental and numerical works for PCM thicknesses of a 40 mm, and b 0.9
5 mm
0.8 0.8
Melting fraction

0.7

5 mm PCM thickness in BTMS. It is seen that around 96% 0.6 840 860 880 900

of PCM is melted, which indicates that approximately right

0.4
amount of PCM is provided in the systems. It is not advis- Only_PCM
CuO_1%
able to further decrease the amount of PCM, which will lead 0.2 CuO_5%
CuO_10%
to increased peak temperature in the system due to sensible CuO_20%
heating of liquid PCM. Consequently, 5 mm PCM thickness 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
is considered for the further studies on the effect of volume Time/s
fractions of nanoparticles in the PCM.
Fig. 8  Variation in melt fraction with time for various volume frac-
tions of CuO nanoparticles
 K. A. Swamy et al.

Increase in thermal conductivity allows the heat transfer Table 5  Melt fraction of PCM and nano-enhanced PCM with various
within the solid PCM, which helps in its fast melting. It volume fractions of nanoparticles at every 180 s
can be seen that melting fractions increase from 0.75 to Time 0s 180 s 360 s 540 s 720 s 900 s

0.97 and 0.96 with addition of 20% A ­ l2O3 and CuO nano-
particles, respectively. It corresponds to 29.33% and 28.0%
increase in the melting fractions, respectively, which are
significant improvements compared to only PCM cases.
It can also be observed that melting fraction of PCM
increases with the increase in volume fraction of nanopar- PCM
ticles. Melt fraction contours for all the cases are shown
in Table 5.
Since, addition of nanoparticles considerably improves
the thermal properties of PCM and melting fraction, it is
also expected to improve the average surface temperature of
battery cells. The change in average surface temperature of
the battery module with respect to time is shown in Figs. 9
and 10 for ­Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles, respectively. Three
phases of temperature rise can be seen in these profile.

Phase 1: Temperature increases due to sensible heating of

PCM from 20 °C until it reaches the transition tempera-
ture of PCM that is 27 °C. The fastest rate of temperature 1% Al2O3

rise is seen in this phase.

Phase 2: Temperature rise is slow in this phase due to
latent heating of the PCM. It absorbs the heat energy and
changes its state from solid to liquid during which the
temperature variation is small.
Phase 3: When the solid PCM starts melting at various
points, its sensible heating starts again and faster rise in
temperature is seen during this phase.

However, upon comparing the results of the nano-

enhanced PCM with those of the PCM alone, as illustrated CuO
in Figs. 9 and 10, there is no significant change in average
temperature seen between the only PCM and 1% ­Al2O3 case,
this is why two graphs overlap and in Fig. 9; consequently,
there is minimal improvement observed in terms of the aver-
age surface temperature. The average surface temperature is
reduced from 46.8 to 44.1 °C and 44.0 °C when the PCM
is incorporated with 20% A ­ l2O3 and CuO nanoparticles,
respectively. That is the enhancement of around 5.77% with
­Al2O3 and 5.98% with CuO in the average surface tempera-
ture. Increase in nanoparticles helps in enhancing the ther-
mal conductivity of the PCM; however, it compensates for
the other properties as shown in Table 3.
5% Al2O3
Nevertheless, the main advantage of addition of nanopar-
ticles in the PCM is found to be the considerable improve-
ment in thermal uniformity within the battery. The graph
showing results of thermal non-uniformity (ΔT) with only
PCM and nano-enhanced PCMs is given in Fig. 11. Fig-
ure 11 shows that thermal non-uniformity decreases with
increase in volume fraction of nanoparticles. Nano-enhanced
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

Table 5  (continued) Table 5  (continued)

CuO CuO

Maximum temperature
50
46
45
44

Temperature/°C
10% Al2O3 40
840 860 880 900

35 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Only_PCM
30 Al2O3_1%
Al2O3_5%
25 Al2O3_10%
Al2O3_20%
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time/s

Fig. 9  Temperature at the PCM and heater interface for various vol-
ume fractions of ­Al2O3 nanoparticles

CuO
Maximum temperature
50
46
45
Temperature/°C

44

40
840 860 880 900

35 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Only_PCM
30 CuO_1%
CuO_5%
25 CuO_10%
CuO_20%

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Time/s

20% Al2O3 Fig. 10  Temperature at the PCM and heater interface for various vol-
ume fractions of CuO nanoparticles

PMC brings the thermal non-uniformity from 11.3 °C in

case of PCM to 3.6 °C and 3.3 °C in cases of 20% A
­ l2O3 and
20% CuO nanoparticles, respectively. That is approximately
68.14% and 70.79% reduction in the thermal non-uniformity,
respectively.
 K. A. Swamy et al.

12 11.3 11.3 The values of maximum and minimum temperatures for

10.9
10 10
9.6
all cases discussed in this work are presented in Table 6. It
is observed that in case of fast charging (and/or discharg-
8
ing), where there is a high rate of heat generation, and time
∆T/°C

6 5.3 5.2
available for heat dissipation is low, neither PCM nor nano-
4 3.6
enhanced PCM can keep the batteries at optimal temperature
3.3
range. However, nano-enhanced PCM is capable of main-
2
taining the batteries at more uniform temperatures than only
0 PCM cases. Therefore, a hybrid PCM–liquid cooling based
M

1%

0%

0% BTMS is proposed and studied to understand its effect on

0%

0%
PC

_5

_1

_5
3 _

_1

_2

_1

_2
y_

uO

uO
2 O

2 O
3

uO

uO
2 O

2 O
3

battery system.
nl

Al

Al

C
Al

Al
O

C
Fig. 11  Values of thermal non-uniformity (ΔT) with only PCM and Effect of PCM–liquid cooling based BTMS
nano-enhanced PCMs
It is found that a passive cooling method may not be able
Table 6  Thermal non-uniformity with A
­l2O3 and CuO nano- to maintain the battery under optimal temperature range,
enhanced PCM especially under abusive operating conditions. Therefore,
Nano-material Volume frac- Maximum Minimum ΔT a hybrid thermal management technique is proposed to the
tion temperature temperature existing system by replacing aluminium cover with a cooling
(P2) (P1) jacket as shown in Fig. 12a. A constant water mass flow rate
PCM – 52.3 41.0 11.3
of 0.1 kg ­s–1 at the temperature of 20 °C is maintained at the
Al2O3 20% 50.7 47.1 3.6
inlet of the cooling jacket.
10% 51.2 45.9 5.3
A single battery module is experimentally studied as
5% 51.6 41.6 10.0
shown in Fig. 12b in which important boundary condi-
1% 52.3 41.0 11.3
tions and dimensions are mentioned. The cooling jacket
CuO 20% 51.3 48.0 3.3
is made of aluminium having one inlet and outlet. Experi-
10% 51.5 46.3 5.2
mental test set-up for the proposed PCM–liquid cooling
5% 51.7 42.1 9.6
based BTMS is shown in Fig. 13. The water flow can be
1% 52.0 41.1 10.9
measured and controlled using a rotameter (in the range
of 0.1–1 kg s­ −1). Similar to the previous set-up, two

25
mm

ket
jac
ing
Cool
10
mm

100 mm
ttery
t Ba
Inle
PCM

mm
75

t
tle m
Ou 5m
mm
25

(a) (b)

Fig. 12  Proposed PCM–liquid cooling based battery thermal management system a battery pack with proposed BTMS, b module dimensions
and boundary conditions
Experimental and numerical investigation of nanoparticle assisted PCM‑based battery thermal…

Environment chamber

Thermocouple

Proposed model.

Data logger

DC power supply
Rotameter

Fig. 13  Experimental test set-up for the proposed PCM–liquid cooling based hybrid BTMS

55 53.90/°C battery module is simulated with 10 W heat generation rate,

50 which resembles a high C-rate condition in the battery. The
45 thermal performance of nano-enhanced PCM-based BTMS
Temperature/°C

44.38/°C

40 and hybrid PCM–liquid cooling based BTMS is studied. The

35 following key observations are made from this study:
30
25 • It is found that an excess amount of PCM results in heat
20
Without flow
With flow accumulation at the heating surface and leads to rise in
15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
the battery temperature. Reducing the PCM thickness
Time/s
from 40 to 5 mm resulted in 26.98% reduction in the
maximum temperature of the battery in BTMS.
Fig. 14  Comparison of temperature profile at point P2 with only
• The addition of nanoparticles in PCM shows small
PCM-based cooling and with PCM–liquid-based cooling effect in the maximum temperature of the battery under
high C-rates. However, addition of 20% ­Al2O3 and CuO
nanoparticles in PCM improved the melting fractions
K-type thermo-couples are arranging at the bottom and of PCM by 29.33% and 28.0%, respectively.
top locations of the battery surface, which measure the • A significant improvement in the thermal uniformity
lowest and the highest temperatures in the battery mod- is observed with the increased volume faction of nano-
ule, respectively. Figure 14 shows the temperature profiles particles in PCM. In this work, up to 70.79% reduction
with respect to time at point P2 when the battery module in the thermal non-uniformity is observed with 20%
is studied with only PCM cooling and with PCM–liquid- volume fraction of nanoparticles in PCM.
based cooling. Figure 14 shows that hybrid type BTMS • It is found that addition of nanoparticles in PCM can
is able to maintain the temperature at point P2 within the enhance its thermal property. However, nano-enhanced
optimal temperature range. The temperature is bought PCM of 5 mm thickness failed to maintain the battery
to 44.38 °C from 53.9 °C, which is 17.66% reduction in temperature within the optimal temperature range.
battery surface temperature. There is a future scope of • On the other hand, PCM–liquid-based hybrid cooling
a parametric investigation with the coolant flow rate for technique shows 17.66% improvement in maximum
optimizing the proposed hybrid cooling BTMS. temperature and battery was maintained at 44.4 °C,
which is within the optimal temperature range. There-
fore, PCM–liquid-based hybrid cooling technique is the
recommended approach for BTMS of high power bat-
Conclusions teries.

In the present study, a combined experimental and numerical

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the support of the
investigation of the PCM and nano-enhanced PCM-based Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani campus, Pilani (BITS
BTMS is performed. The results and observations are based Pilani), under the Research Initiation Grant (RIG).
on two important factors, viz. maximum battery temperature
and maximum thermal non-uniformity. A typical prismatic
 K. A. Swamy et al.

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