Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research Papers

Simulation of cooling plate effect on a battery module with different

channel arrangement
Xinke Li a, Jiapei Zhao a, Jiabin Duan a, Satyam Panchal b, Jinliang Yuan a, *, Roydon Fraser b,
Michael Fowler c, Ming Chen d
a
Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
b
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
d
Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Lithium-ion battery pack is widely used in electric vehicles (EVs), for which reasonable heat dissipation measures
Lithium-ion battery must be taken to keep battery working in a suitable temperature range. Liquid cooling is popular for its efficient
Battery thermal management system (BTMS) heat dissipation performance. In order to evaluate the effect of layout and channel design of cooling plates on the
Liquid-cooling system
heat dissipation of a battery module, numerical modeling and analyses were carried out. Two arrangements of
Cooling plate optimization
Modeling and design
the cooling plates with different coolant channels (i.e., single channel, multiple small channels, and S-shaped
channel) are discussed. The Z-score method is applied to evaluate the six cooling plate designs with various inlet
flow rates. It is found that the design with two cooling plates sandwiching one battery module shows a better
cooling performance. In terms of the channel structures, the comprehensive performance of the cooling plates
with multiple small flow channels is optimal, when inlet flow rate is between 7.817 × 10− 4 kg s− 1 ~ 0.0105 kg
s− 1 under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) condition.

distribution also greatly affects the life-span and performance of the

1. Introduction battery pack [5].
The temperature distribution of the battery pack is often controlled
As many governments have proposed their carbon neutral goals in by the battery thermal management system (BTMS) [6]. One of the
the recent years, development and applications of electric vehicles (EVs) major objectives of the BTMS is to keep both the temperature magnitude
have attracted great attention around the world. As core power com­ and temperature difference in a battery pack into a suitable range. Ac­
ponents, the battery pack determines the performance of EVs. Lithium- cording to the cooling medium employed, BTMS can be classified into
ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely applied due to their higher energy three types: air, liquid and phase-change material cooling system. Due to
density than that of the traditional batteries [1]. In order to pursue their low cooling efficiency, the application cases of the air-cooling BTMS are
power performance during operations, Li-ion battery packs are required gradually reduced among the current EVs. The phase-change material
to have high-rate charging and discharging capabilities. BTMS is usually compatible with other cooling methods due to its
During the charging and discharging process, especially with high limited latent heat capacity. The liquid-cooling is a relatively common
charging and discharging rate, the Li-ion battery may generate a large method for dissipating the generated heat from the battery pack at
amount of heat. If the heat generated in the battery pack cannot be present. Although it has higher cooling efficiency than the case with the
removed in time, high temperature zones may appear. The Li-ion battery air-cooling, the liquid-cooling system has weakness, such as easy
is very sensitive to temperature, i.e., high temperature can accelerate the leakage, heavy weight and high energy consumption [1]. Kalaf et.al [7]
attenuation of the battery performance [2]. In severe cases, thermal evaluated the research on the battery thermal management system
runaway of the battery may occur, which may lead to burning or ex­ based on the liquid system. It’s found that cooling by the indirect contact
plosion [3]. When the temperature is too low, the internal electric mode is a common way. For the indirect contact through the cooling
resistance of the battery increases, which may deteriorate the load plate or cylinder, the major challenges are the development of the
characteristics [4]. For the battery pack, uneven temperature cooling plates with better temperature control performance and lower

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Yuan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104113
Received 25 May 2021; Received in revised form 31 December 2021; Accepted 25 January 2022
Available online 2 February 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Nomenclature variables Vol active zone’s volume of a single battery cell

Y NTGK model parameters
A cross-sectional area
C1ε constant Greek symbols
C2ε constant ε dissipation rate
dH characteristic length μ molecular viscosity
f the resistance factor μt turbulent viscosity coefficient
ρ density
→g acceleration of gravity
σ+ effective electric conductivities for the positive electrodes
GK generation of the turbulence kinetic energy
σ− effective electric conductivities for the negative electrodes
h sensible enthalpy
σk turbulent Prandtl numbers for k
j Kolben heat transfer factor
σε turbulent Prandtl numbers for ε
jECh volumetric current transfer rate
k turbulence kinetic energy τ the stress tensor
kcell thermal conductivity of battery cell τeff effective time-averaged viscous stress tensor
keff effective conductivity φ+ potential for the positive electrodes
m the number of contrast point φ− potential for the negative electrodes
Nu the Nusselt number ɸ efficiency of the cooling plate
P power consumption
Subscripts
Pr Prandtl number
diff difference
p static pressure
max maximum
Δp pressure drop
avg average
q̇ECh electrochemical reaction generated heat
QM mass flow rater Acronyms
Qnominal total electric capacity BTMS battery thermal management system
Qref capacity of the battery CFD computational fluid dynamics
Re Reynolds number DOD depth of discharge
S perimeter length of cross-section ECM equivalent circuit model
T temperature EVs electric vehicles
Tref reference temperature MSMD multi-Scale Multi-Domain
Trise temperature rise NTGK Newman, Tiedemann Gu and Kim
→
U velocity vector NEDC new European driving cycle
U NTGK model parameters P2D pseudo two dimensional

energy consumption. The optimization of the channel design and the pressure distribution is more uniform. Jiaqiang et al. [13] designed
quantity design is the main research direction in the liquid cooling the cooling plates with the S-shaped channels for a square battery cell.
system [8], various types of the liquid cooling plates have been devel­ Different S-shaped channel models were built by changing the width of
oped in the recent years. the channels and the radius of elbow in the channels. Their results show
Deng et al. [9] designed a new type of leaf-like channels with loops as that a smaller channel width will result in a larger pressure loss. An
the dispersion layer for a Li-ion battery cooling system. The influence of increase in the width and radius can improve heat dissipation perfor­
four structural factors of the channels (i.e., bifurcation angle, width mance and reduce pressure drop to a certain extent. When the difference
ratio, length ratio, and thickness) was analyzed on the heat dissipation between the channel width and elbow radius is too large, extra pressure
performance. The simulation results show that the optimal performance drop will be caused in the elbow regions.
could be obtained for the width ratio is of 3/4, the length ratio of 1/2, Cao et al. [14] designed and manufactured the cooling plates with
and the bifurcation angle between 30◦ and 50◦ . Zhao et al. [10] designed the S-typed channels Various experiments and simulations are carried
a wave-shaped aluminum channel wounds on the surface of battery cells out for a number of the inlets and outlets of the S-shaped channels, as
for a battery pack composed of 71 cells of the 18,650 Li-ion batteries. It well as for different channel numbers and different flow directions. The
is found from the simulation results that increasing the heat exchange results suggest that the cooling plates with the multi-channels, the
area between the adjacent cells slightly improves the temperature dis­ staggered inlets and outlets have better cooling performance. Shang
tribution in the pack. Increasing the contact area between the battery et al. [15] designed a liquid cooling system with various types of contact
cell and outer wall of the channels will significantly reduce the surfaces between the square battery cells and the cooling plates. The
maximum temperature in the pack. Jarrett and Kim [11] optimized the heat dissipation performance of the cooling system is improved by
cooling plate designed for a thin rectangular battery cell by changing the optimizing the width of the cooling plates in a contact with the batteries.
width and position of the channels. Their result reveals that increasing The results show that the maximum temperature can be significantly
the channel width can reduce the average temperature and the pressure reduced when the width of the cooling plate is changed from 55 mm to
drop through the channels, while the narrower inlet channels and wider 75 mm, while the inlet temperature drops from 24 ◦ C to 15 ◦ C. It is
outlet channels can improve the uniformity of the battery temperature concluded that, when the width of the cooling plate is 60 mm, the inlet
distribution. temperature is 18 ◦ C and the mass flow rate is 0.21 kg s− 1, in other
Siddique et al. [12] conducted various experiments on the heat words, the cooling plate shows the best heat dissipation performance.
generation for square battery cells and also designed the cooling plates Chen et al. [16] carried out a study on the cooling plates with the small
with S and needle-shaped channels. The simulation results show that the channels, as well as with different inlet and outlet positions and small
temperature distribution in the S-shaped cooling plates is more uniform, runner widths. The predicted result shows that the cooling plates with a
while the pressure drop in the needle-shaped channels is lower, in which symmetrical structure can significantly reduce the maximum

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X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

temperature and the pressure drop in the battery pack. 2. Modeling methodologies
The cooling plate with the micro-channels is widely used in BTMS
due to its high cooling efficiency. However, one major drawback of the 2.1. Geometry of the battery module and cooling plate
micro-channels is its high internal pressure drop as the coolant flows in
the channels, which results in a greater power required for this type of The prismatic pouch LiFeO4 Li-ion battery to be modeled in this work
the cooling plates. Li et al. [17] studied the heat transfer in a square corresponds to the one used in our previous work [31]. The nominal
battery pack with a cooling plate containing three U-shaped voltage and capacity of the battery cell are 3.2 V and 20 Ah, and the
micro-channels. The cooling performance is evaluated under different maximum and minimum voltage are 3.6 V and 2 V, respectively. The
flow rates when the battery works at the discharge rate of 5 C. The re­ active zone of the battery cell is 207 mm × 157 mm × 7 mm. The tabs of
sults show that the predicted battery temperature is lower in the upper the cell have the dimension of 40 mm × 31 mm × 0.2 mm, while the
part and higher in the lower part. When the coolant flow rate reaches distance between them is 32 mm. To reduce the number of the grids and
0.1 m s− 1, the battery temperature and its gradient are effectively simplify the modeling, the thickness of the tabs is considered to be
limited to a tolerable level. Chen et al. [18] conducted a study on the consistent with that of the battery cell (i.e., 7 mm), which is one of the
strategies of matching flow rate and heat dissipation performance of the major simplifications to be removed in our future work. The battery
cooling plate for a square battery pack. Their experimental and simu­ module in this work consists of 6 Li-ion battery cells arranged in parallel.
lation results show that through a reasonable cooling scheme, the The distance between two battery cells is 3 mm, and the overall size of
maximum temperature of the battery pack can be maintained at 26 ◦ C, the battery module with 6 cells is 247 mm × 157 mm × 57 mm. In
32 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C at the discharge rate of 0.5 C, 1 C and 1.5 C, respectively. practice, the thermal insulating materials are usually sandwiched be­
Most researches mentioned above are aimed to a design of the tween the cells to reduce the risk of thermal runaway. In this simulation,
cooling plate based on the single battery cell. However, a battery pack it is assumed that the battery cells are insulated. The geometry of the
commonly contains hundreds to thousands of the battery cells, such a battery module is built using CATIA as shown in Fig. 1. The insulating
design will inevitably increase the weight of the BTMS, which will affect materials are not shown in Fig. 1 for the perspective of modeling, since
the dynamic performance of EVs. Lin et al. [19] also pointed out that the the insulating materials are treated in the thermal boundary conditions
energy consumption of BTMS and the economic efficiency of lightweight with zero thickness in the modeling.
design are still challenging. For the application in ships or other cases, a In this study, the cooling plates may be located in various places, as
large number of the battery cells is always needed to meet the power shown in Fig. 1. In Design A, the cooling plate is arranged at the bottom
requirement. For these specific cases, it is impossible to equip each in­ of the battery module. While in Design B, two cooling plates sand­
dividual battery with a cooling plate. wiching the battery module from two sides. In addition, the influence of
Chung et al. [20] carried out the structural design and thermal model the channel structure of the cooling plates on the cooling performance is
development of the large-scale electric vehicle BTMS. The simulation also evaluated in this study. Three types of the channel structures are
results show that when a design with multiple cooling plates scattered in considered for each design: the single-channel (Design A-I and B-I),
the battery pack is used, the ratio of equivalent thermal conductivity to multiple mini-channels (Design A-II and B-II), and serpentine-channel
system volume increases by 64%, and the total pressure drop only in­ (Design A-III and B-III), respectively. The thickness of the cooling
creases by 19%. Zhang et al. [21] designed the cooling system for the plate is 5 mm while the coolant channel is 3 mm in all designs. For the
battery module containing 14 cells. The system contains 4 mini-channel cooling plate with this single-channel, the coolant channel has the same
cooling plates connected in parallel. The results show that when the inlet shape as the plate. For the cooling plate with 6 mini-channels, each
velocity is above 2 m/s, the maximum temperature of the battery pack channel is designed with the width of 7 mm. In this study, the Z-type
will remain below 40 ◦ C, while the maximum temperature difference flow arrangement is employed because it has its better performance on
between the battery cells within 5 ◦ C. Siruvuri et al. [22] designed the the temperature distribution according to Chen’s findings [16]. The
cooling plates for the battery module composed of 5 square cells. Four width of the collection channels in this study is 12 mm, aiming to reduce
cooling plates with the S-type channels are sandwiched between the the energy consumption of the system. The serpentine-channel design
battery cells. The simulation concluded that the battery module con­ can be seen as a combination of several straight-pipes and bent-pipes.
taining the multiple cooling plates with opposite flow direction has more The ratio of the straight-pipe width to the bent-pipe inner radius
efficient and uniform heat transfer. ranges between 0.5~6 to achieve a better cooling performance. When
In order to understand the thermal behavior of the batteries, the heat the ratio is 5/2, the cooling plates show the best performance on the
generation model is necessary. Several heat generation models are temperature distribution according to Zhang’s work [13]. In this work,
developed and available, such as ECM model [23,24], NTGK model the width of the straight-pipes is 8 mm, while the inner radius of the
[25–28], Newman’s P2D model [29,30]. In a previous study [25], the bent-pipe is 3 mm, i.e., the ratio of them is 8/3 (closed to 5/2). The
heat generation rate of a prismatic lithium-ion battery cell at different geometry parameters of these coolant channels are summarized in
operating temperatures and discharging rates have been determined in Fig. 2.
the well-designed experiments. The results show that, as the discharging
rate increases, the heat generation rate of the battery increases, while 2.2. Mathematical method and modeling
the voltage plateau of the battery decreases during the discharging
process. 2.2.1. Mathematical equations and boundary conditions
The cooling plate design is proposed and evaluated for a battery To evaluate the performance of the cooling plates, the numerical
module composed of six battery cells in this work. Two types of the simulation is applied to predict the pressure and temperature distribu­
cooling plate arrangement are proposed. In addition, three commonly tion in this system. Aluminum is chosen as the material for the cooling
used channel structures (single-channel, S-shaped channel and small plates due to its lightweight and high thermal conductivity. Water is
channels) are investigated to evaluate the cooling plate performance. chosen as the coolant due to its high heat capacity and low viscosity. The
Each design discussed and compared in details. It is found that the physical properties of the cooling plates and the coolant are regarded as
cooling plates with the small channels arranged on the both sides of the constants for the temperature variation of the cooling system is small, as
battery module have the best cooling performance. shown in Table 1. One battery cell divided into three domains in the
modeling: active zone of the cell, positive tab, and negative tab. In each
domain, the material is assumed homogeneous, which means the
housing of the cells has been neglected. It should be mentioned that the
modeling domain to be considered consists of both the cooling plates

3
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Fig. 1. Geometry of battery module with arrangement of cooling plates (Design A: cooling plate beneath the battery module, Design B: cooling plates sandwiching
battery module).

Fig. 2. Geometry for various channels of the cooling plates for: (a) Design A (I, II, III), and (b) Design B (I, II, III).

Table 1
Physical properties of the battery module and coolant.
Properties Cooling plate Coolant Cell active zone Positive tab Negative tab Unit

Density 2719 998.2 2092 2719 8978 kg m− 3

Specific heat 871 4182 678 871 381 J kg− 1 K− 1
Thermal conductivity 202.4 0.6 18.2 202.4 387.6 W m − 1 K− 1
Viscosity – 1.003 – – – g m − 1 s− 1

and the coolant domains. In order to reduce computation time, the the cross-sectional area of the channels, μ0 is the kinematic viscosity of
current model is simplified by the battery cell being directly connected water, dH is the characteristic length, given by:
to the cooling plate. The thermal contact resistance is not considered in
4A
this model, which is one of the major simplifications to be removed in dH = (2)
S
our future work.
The coolant flow and heat transfer are assumed to be in a steady where A is the cross-sectional area of the channel, S is the perimeter
state. To evaluate the effect of flow rate, the Reynolds number are length of the channel cross-section
calculated as follows [32]: The simulation is carried out for different flow rates (or the Reynolds
QM dH number). The fluid flow is assumed as laminar when the Reynold’s
Re = (1) number is less than 2300. If the Reynold’s number exceeds 3000, the
A μ0
standard k-ε model is then chosen. The governing equations are outlined
where QM is the mass flow rate of water through the channels, while A is as follows [33]:

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X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

The continuity equation reads: The battery thermal and electrical parameters are solved using the
( CFD method at the battery cell-scale by solving the following differential
∂ρwater →)
+ ∇⋅ ρwater U = 0 (3) equations [36]:
∂t
∂ρcell T
→ − ∇⋅(kcell ∇T) = σ+ |∇φ+ |2 + σ − |∇φ− |2 + q̇ECh (12)
where ρwater is the density of the water, U is the velocity of the coolant ∂t
(in vector). {
The momentum conservation equation for the laminar flow: ∇⋅(σ + ∇φ+ )= − jECh
(13)
∇⋅(σ− ∇φ− ) = jECh
∂( →) ( →→)
ρ U + ∇⋅ ρwater U U = − ∇p + ∇⋅(τ) + ρwater →
g (4)
∂t water where σ+ and σ- are the effective electric conductivity for the positive
and negative electrodes, φ+ and φ- are the electric potentials for the
where p is the static pressure, τ is the stress tensor, and →
g means the
positive and negative electrodes, jECh and q̇ECh are the volumetric current
acceleration of gravity, respectively.
density and the generated heat due to electrochemical reactions,
The stress tensor τ is given by respectively.
( → →T ) The q̇ECh and jECh in Eqs. (12) and (13) are evaluated by the following
τ = μ ∇U + ∇U (5)
equations [25]:
[ ]
where μ is the molecular viscosity. q̇ECh = jECh U − (φ+ − φ− )− T
dU
(14)
For the coolant, the energy conservation equation reads [34]: dT

∂ [→ ] [ ( →)]
(ρwater E) + ∇⋅ U (ρwater E + p) = ∇⋅ keff ∇T + τeff ⋅U + q̇ECh (6) jECh =
Qnominal
Y[U − (φ+ − φ− )] (15)
∂t Qref Vol

p v2 where Vol denotes the active zone’s volume of a single battery cell,
E=h− + (7)
ρwater 2 Qnominal is the battery total electric capacity in Ampere hours, and Qref is
the capacity of the battery obtained in the experiments to evaluated the
where, keff is effective thermal conductivity, τeff is the time-averaged modeling parameters Y and U, which are the functions of the battery
effective viscous stress tensor of water, v means the velocity of water depth of the discharge (DOD). For a given battery, the voltage-current
(in scalar). The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6) represents the response curve can be obtained by the experiments, while Y and U can
energy transfer due to the heat conduction and viscous dissipation. In be determined by curve-fitting of the obtained data. The following
Eq. (7), h is the sensible enthalpy of water. q̇ECh means the electro­ formulation is employed in ANSYS Fluent for the Y and U functions, as
chemical reaction generated heat of the battery cells. shown in Eqs. (16) and (17) [27]:
Additional transport equations are also solved when the flow is in [ ] )
turbulent condition. The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and its rate of ∑5
U= an (DOD)n − C2 (T − Tref (16)
dissipation, ε, are obtained from the following transport equations [35]: n=0
[( ) ]
∂ ∂ ∂ μ ∂k [ ] [
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = μ+ t + Gk − ρε (8) ∑
5 (
1 1
)]
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj Y= bn (DOD)n exp − C1 − (17)
n=0
T Tref
and
[( ) ] where C1 and C2 are the battery-specific constants employed in NTGK
∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂kε ε ε2
(ρε) + (ρεui ) = μ+ + C1ε Gk − C2ε ρ (9) model.
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σε ∂xj k k
The voltage-current response curve of the Li-ion battery studied in
this work is specified in our previous work [31]. After the curve-fitting,
where Gk represents the generation of the turbulence kinetic energy due
the 5th order polynomial result is obtained:
to the mean velocity gradients. C1ε, and C2ε are the constants (C1ε =
1.44, C2ε = 1.92, Cμ = 0.09), σk and σε are the turbulent Prandtl numbers U = 3.277319 − 0.05345DOD + 2.0046DOD2 − 10.7147DOD3 +17.6408DOD4
for k and ε (σk =1.0, σε = 1.3).
− 9.274539DOD5 (18)
The turbulent viscosity coefficient, μt is computed by combining k
and ε as follows:
Y = 109.7939 + 1026.441DOD − 5925.772DOD2 +14, 030.59DOD3
k 2
− 14, 517.3DOD4 +5310.861DOD5 (19)
μt = ρCμ (10)
ε
The previous studies have shown that, as the charging or discharging
For the solid cooling plates, the battery cells and tabs, the thermal rate increases, the battery heat generation also increases. In this study,
conduction equation with the heat source term governs the heat trans­ the 4 C discharging process is selected as the reference for the battery
fer: heat generation. The virtual connection is used to set the parallel con­
nections between the battery cells instead of modeling busbar.
∂T The boundary conditions are essential to solve the above-mentioned
ρcell cp = kcell ∇T + q̇ECh (11)
∂t governing equations. In the present study, the mass flow inlet with a
constant temperature, as well as the pressure outlet conditions are
where ρcell means the density, kcell the thermal conductivity of the bat­
chosen as the inlet and outlet boundary conditions, respectively. The
tery cells, q̇ECh the electrochemical reaction generated heat of the battery
inlet temperature and initial temperature of the studied module is
cells.
298.15 K, and the outlet relative pressure is at 0 Pa. For the battery
In this study the electrochemical reaction generated heat of the
module with the cooling plates, several inlet mass flow rates are set for
battery cells q̇ECh is evaluated by the Newman, Tiedemann, Gu, and Kim
the 4 C discharging process. In the base case, the mass flow rate is chosen
(NTGK) model, which is one of the Dual-Potential Multi-Scale Multi-
at 1.8 × 10− 3 kg s− 1. In addition, 3 × 10− 3 kg s− 1 and 6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1 are
Domain (MSMD) Battery Model. To predict the temperature distribu­
also investigated. To further study the effect of the flow rate, 6 × 10− 4 kg
tion, the transport equations need to be solved at the battery cell scale.

5
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

s− 1 is chosen to represent the smallest flow rate below 10− 3 kg s− 1, while beyond the grid number of 1.1 million. In other words, for Design A, the
3 × 10− 2 kg s− 1 is chosen to represent the biggest flow rate over 10− 2 kg 1.1 million grids are suitable. As an example, Fig. 3(b) displays the
s− 1. It should be noted that, in this study, several cooling plates are meshing applied for Design A-I with the grid number of 1.1 million.
designed to obtain the flow rate by one common pump, which controls There are two cooling plates for the cooling battery module in Design B,
the flow rates in the sum of all cooling plates. The walls of the coolant which means that more grids are required. After the grid independence
channels are set to be the non-slip fluid-solid coupling boundary con­ analysis, it was found that, for Design B, 2.4 million grids are suitable.
ditions. The contacted walls between the battery cells and the cooling In the previous work [37], various discharging experiments have
plate are assumed to be the coupled walls, while the other walls as the been conducted for a battery module consisting of three battery cells in
heat insulated surfaces. A time-step of 5.0 s is used for the electrical series, in terms of the surface temperature of the battery cell. In order to
model, which results in about 180 time-steps for the complete dis­ validate the present mathematical method, the model containing the
charging process. three battery cells in series is developed using the above-mentioned
method. Fig. 3(c) shows the predicted results from the current work
2.2.2. Grid independence analysis and model validation and the experimental ones presented in the previous work [37], in which
The structured meshing method is applied for the battery module Tavg means the average temperature at the measured locations. The
using ANSYS Meshing functions. A grid independence analysis has been thermocouples used in the experiment are T-type 30 gage with the un­
performed. Taking Design A-I as an example, two locations are selected certainty of 1 ◦ C [37]. The error bar in Fig. 3(c) shows the experimental
for analysis: the center of the sixth battery cell far from the inlet and the range of the uncertainty, and the simulated values are within it. The
center of the coolant. Fig. 3(a) shows the predicted temperature results relative error shown in Fig. 3(c) is calculated based on Celsius. The
of these two locations to evaluate the numerical performance of the relative error within 4% for Tavg is also presented for different dis­
developed model. It can be seen from the predicted results that, both charging time steps to judge the accuracy of the simulation model.
Tcell and Twater vary less than 0.05 K as a grid number is further increased Table 2 further presents the predicted Trise in this work and the

Fig. 3. Grid indenpence test and modeling validation: (a) temperature distribution at the monitored locaions selected for battery cell and coolant; (b) mesh
arrangement of battey module with cooling plate for the case of Design A-I; (c) comparison of Tavg in this work and previous study [37].

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X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Table 2
Comparison of predicted results with experimental data [37].
C- Experimental Simulated Relative error of
Rate maximum Trise (K) maximum Trise (K) maximum Trise (%)

1C 9.14 9.45 3.39

2C 15.53 15.89 2.32
3C 22.97 23.69 3.13
4C 29.69 30.65 3.23

experimental ones, in which Trise means the difference between the

maximum operating temperature and the initial temperature. It can be
seen that, when the discharge rate is 1C, 2 C, 3 C and 4 C, the relative
error for the maximum Trise is also within 4%. It can be concluded that
the present CFD method is reasonable to be further applied for the
current study.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Performance analysis for the proposed designs

3.1.1. Performance comparison between Designs A and B Fig. 4. Maximum temperature increases under various flow rates in
Numerical simulations are carried out for the six designs proposed in different structures.
this study. Table 3 shows the simulation results at different flow rates, in
which Tmax is the maximum temperature of the battery module and Tdiff Taking the Tmax into consideration, the Design B is more suitable.
is the maximum temperature difference between the battery cells. It can However, it is difficult to judge the cooling performance of three
be seen that for the Design A, based on the flow rate of 1.8 × 10− 3 kg s− 1, different flow channel structures only by the maximum temperature. It
the averaged maximum temperatures of the two structures decrease by is also necessary to consider the temperature field distributed in the
0.1 K and 0.28 K, if the coolant flow rate increases by 66.67% and battery module and the energy consumption at different flow rates.
233.33%, respectively. When the flow rate is reduced by 40%, the
averaged maximum temperature rises by 0.49 K. When the flow rate is 3.1.2. Analysis of the effect of channel structures using Z-score method
five times bigger than 6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1, the maximum temperature drops As revealed in the previous section, Design B has a better cooling
only by 0.3 K. While for the Design B, the averaged maximum temper­ performance Consequently, the cooling performance with different
ature of the three structures decreases by 2.08 K and 3.43 K, respec­ coolant channel structures is analyzed in this section in terms of three
tively. The averaged maximum temperature rises by 4.58 K when the aspects: the efficiency of the cooling plates, the maximum Trise, and the
flow rate is reduced by 40%. When the flow rate is five times bigger than maximum Tdiff of the battery module. Here, the efficiency of the cooling
6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1, the maximum temperature drops only by 1.37 K. It plate refers to the ratio of heat transfer intensity to the flow resistance,
should be noted that for the Design A-I, when the coolant flow rate which is based on the idea of taking the cooling plates and battery
reaches 6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1, the maximum temperature is higher than that module as a heat exchanger. It is calculated as follows [38]:
when the flow rate is 3 × 10− 3 kg s− 1. This is because the maximum
temperature is affected by the flow rate and the local coolant distribu­ ϕ=
j
(20)
tion. The coolant can not be distributed evenly for the case employing f
the single straight channels when the mass low rate is very big. It can be
where, j refers to the Kolben heat transfer factor to evaluate the heat
seen that a change in the flow rate has a bigger impact on the maximum
transfer intensity, while f the flow resistance factor representing the
temperature in the case of Design B.
strength of flow resistance. j is defined as follows:
Fig. 4 shows a comparison of the temperature rise (Trise) in the bat­
tery module with different structures under various flow rates. The value Nu
j= (21)
of Trise is the difference between the operating temperature and the Re⋅Pr1/3
initial temperature. It can be seen that under the same flow rate and the
same channel structure, the case with the design of two cooling plates where, Nu represents the Nusselt number; Pr is the Prandtl number.
sandwiching the battery module has a smaller temperature increase. For Table 4 shows the maximum temperature rise (Trise), the maximum
the Design A, as the flow rate increases, the maximum temperature temperature difference (Tdiff) of the battery module, the averaged Nu
difference in the battery module also increases. This is because, in the and f, and the efficiency ɸ for the Design B-I, B-II, and B-III under various
height direction of the battery, the heat generated by the battery cell flow rates.
cannot be effectively taken away by the coolant. For all the three designs, it is found that, as the flow rate increases,

Table 3
Maximum temperature and temperature difference predicted for various inlet flow rates and designs.
Flow rate QM(kg s− 1) 6 × 10− 4
1.8 × 10− 3
3 × 10− 3
6 × 10− 3
3 × 10− 2

Designs Tmax (K) Tdiff (K) Tmax (K) Tdiff (K) Tmax (K) Tdiff (K) Tmax (K) Tdiff (K) Tmax (K) Tdiff (K)

Design A-I 319.48 21.03 319.04 21.85 318.99 21.99 319.02 22.22 318.44 22.79
Design A-II 317.30 18.61 316.76 19.74 316.63 19.98 316.21 20.58 316.13 20.61
Design A-III 319.31 20.00 318.82 21.71 318.68 22.02 318.55 22.29 318.42 22.58
Design B-I 314.92 15.56 310.36 13.21 308.83 12.08 307.88 11.39 305.30 10.07
Design B-II 314.69 14.16 310.53 12.98 307.69 11.04 306.36 10.16 304.43 9.04
Design B-III 314.71 13.42 309.68 12.29 307.80 11.21 306.04 9.94 304.63 9.00

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X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Table 4
Predicted temperature increase Trise, temperature difference Tdiff, Nu, f, and ɸ for the Design B.
Design Case No. QM(kg s− 1) Trise(K) Tdiff(K) Nu f ɸ
− 4 − 4
Design B-I 1 6 × 10 19.78 15.56 0.63 1.42 × 10 2958.64
3 4
2 1.8 × 10− 15.21 13.21 1.12 4.30 × 10− 579.47
3 3 × 10− 3 13.68 12.08 1.21 7.21 × 10− 4
225.38
4 6 × 10− 3 12.73 11.39 1.50 1.47 × 10− 3
70.13
5 3 × 10− 2 10.15 10.07 2.37 3.09 × 10− 2
1.042
− 4 − 4
Design B-II 6 6 × 10 19.54 14.16 2.43 3.02 × 10 3376.20
3 4
7 1.8 × 10− 15.38 12.98 4.41 9.39 × 10− 653.21
8 3 × 10− 3 12.54 11.04 4.90 1.55 × 10− 3
262.66
9 6 × 10− 3 11.21 10.16 5.75 3.37 × 10− 3
70.43
10 3 × 10− 2 9.28 9.04 9.19 8.68 × 10− 2
0.89

Design B-III 11 6 × 10− 4 19.56 13.42 29.46 1.15 × 10− 2

328.51
3 2
12 1.8 × 10− 14.53 12.29 58.42 4.18 × 10− 58.55
13 3 × 10− 3 12.65 11.21 72.23 8.06 × 10− 2
22.28
14 6 × 10− 3 10.89 9.94 88.64 0.198 5.55
15 3 × 10− 2 9.48 9.00 118.12 1.72 0.18

the maximum Trise and the maximum Tdiff decrease, while both the heat
transfer intensity, and the flow resistance increase. A comprehensive
evaluation method in terms of Z-score is applied to further analyze the
three designs, in terms of Z-score. This evaluation method reads [39]:

ZYij = (Xij − Xi )/Si (22)

∑
ZYj = ZY0 ±ZY1 ±ZY2 ±… ± ZYi (23)

where ZY0 represents the basic score, ZYij represents the Z-score of the i-
th factor of the case No. j; Xij is the index value of the i-th factor of the
case No. j; the index value should be added when the value of this factor
is positively correlated with the modeling effect, otherwise, subtracted;
Xi is the mean value of the i-th factor of all the cases, Si is its standard
deviation; ZYj represents the total Z-score of the case No. j.
In this work, the basic score ZY0 is 10 to represent the averaged
cooling effect level of the concerned cases. In the present study, the
higher maximum Trise and higher maximum Tdiff means poorer cooling
performance. The higher the efficiency ɸ, the better the cooling per­
formance. When the comprehensive score value is calculated, the index Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of Z- scores of design B-I, II, and III.
values of Tdiff and Trise are subtracted, and the index value of the effi­
ciency is added. it is also found that, with a further increase in the flow rate, the influence
The calculation of the mean Xi is as follows degree of the flow rate on the Trise and Tdiff decreases.
∑n In order to analyze the influence of coolant flow rate on the tem­
j=1 Xij perature of each individual cell, the battery cells are numbered as
Xi = (24)
n number 1 to 6 from the side close to the inlet. Fig. 6(b) shows the Tmax
while he standard deviation Si is calculated as follows: and maximum Tdiff for each battery cell.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ It can be seen that the Tmax of the six cells is approximately the same,
√∑ (
√ n X − X
) while Trise and Tdiff are gradually decreased with an increase in the flow
Si =
√ j=1 ij i
(25) rate. Fig. 6(b) shows that when the flow rate is smaller than 1.8 × 10− 4
n kg s− 1, the battery cell far away from the inlet has a lower Tdiff. Fig. 6(c)
The Z-score obtained is shown in the Fig. 5. It can be seen that the shows the temperature distribution of the battery pack with the cooling
score value of Design B-II is bigger than that of Design B-I when the flow plate (one cooling plate is hidden) when the flow rate is 1.8 × 10− 4 kg
rate is kept the same. It can be seen that the Design B-II has a bigger s− 1. The temperature distribution of the cooling plate slice from the
averaged Z-score, which reveals that the Design B-II (with the smaller middle section is also shown in Fig. 6(c). For a comparison, Fig. 6(d) and
channel) is a suitable design based on this specific evaluation method. (e) show the temperature distribution at 6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1 and 3 × 10− 2 kg
s-1, respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 6 that for the flow rate of 1.8 ×
10− 4 kg s− 1 and 6 × 10− 2 kg s− 1, the temperature at the lower center of
3.2. Analysis of influence of coolant mass flow rate on Design B-II the battery pack is higher. The Tdiff in the cooling plate is small, and the
highest temperature is near the outlet. It can be seen from Fig. 6(e) that
Design B-II is the suitable design based on the previous discussion, when the flow rate is 3.0 × 10− 2 kg s− 1, the maximum temperature of
and the influence of its flow rate on the temperature distribution of the the battery and the cooling plate is lower than that of other cooling
six cells needs further analysis. It can be seen that, from the predicted Z- systems. Fig. 6 shows that there are the hotspots in the middle of the
score values, the coolant flow rate has a great influence on the cooling battery module. Number the small coolant channels from the inlet side,
effect of the cooling plate. Fig. 6(a) shows the variation of the Trise and respectively No.1-No.6. Table 5 shows the mass flow rate distribution in
Tdiff of the battery module with the coolant flow rate in Design B-II. It channels. It is found that both the No.3 and No.4 channel have small
shows that the influence of the flow rate on the Trise of the battery pack is flow rate. Since the smaller the mass flow rate, the less heat can be taken
bigger than that on the Tdiff between the battery cells. At the same time,

8
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Fig. 6. (a) the Trise and Tdiff under various flow rates in Design B-II (b) the maximum temperature and temperature difference predicted for six cells of Design B-II, as
well as temperature distribution predicted for battery pack at: (c) 1.8 × 10− 4 kg s− 1, (d) 6 × 10− 3 kg s− 1, and (e) 3 × 10− 2 kg s− 1.

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X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Table 5 as possible while ensuring accuracy, three NEDC operating conditions

Mass flow rate distribution in six channels under different flow rates (Design B- are selected as the current operating conditions to represent part of the
II). entire operating hours. To meet the standards of BTMS, the maximum
QM(kg 6 × 10− 4
1.8 × 10− 3
3 × 10− 3
6 × 10− 3
3 × 10− 2 temperature and maximum Tdiff will be used as the limiting conditions to
s− 1) select the lowest flow rate. The predicted Tmax, maximum Tdiff, and the
No.1 5.19 × 1.64 × 2.89 × 6.48 × 3.06 × pressure drop are presented in Table 6 for the battery pack at different
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 10− 3 flow rates during the entire process. The maximum Tdiff is always less
No.2 5.03 × 1.58 × 2.77 × 6.14 × 2.83 × than 1 K, which meets the requirements of the thermal management
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 10− 3
system. The Tmax needs to be lower than 296.15 K after three NEDC
No.3 4.73 × 1.31 × 2.04 × 3.63 × 1.84 ×
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 10− 3 cycles to meet the requirements. This means that, when the initial
No.4 4.81 × 1.36 × 2.13 × 3.66 × 2.0 × 10− 3 temperature is 279.15 K, the Trise needs to be below 1 K after the three
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 NEDC cycles.
No.5 5.05 × 1.51 × 2.48 × 4.66 × 2.48 × The highest flow rate can be evaluated according to the following
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 10− 3
No.6 5.19 × 1.60 × 2.69 × 5.43 × 2.79 ×
factors: (a) the flow resistance which means the power consumption, (b)
10− 5 10− 4 10− 4 10− 4 10− 3 the effect of the coolant increases on the maximum temperature. The
required power consumption calculation for the cooling plate is as fol­
lows [16]:
away, so the hotspot may appear in the middle region of the battery
module. Although the maximum temperature and Tdiff decrease, it can P=
96QM Δp
(26)
be seen from Table 3 that as the flow rate increases, the flow resistance ρ
will increase, and the utilization efficiency of the coolant will also For the designed battery pack, the maximum temperature and the
decrease. power consumption predicted for the various flow rates are shown in the
Fig. 7(c). With 1 K as the maximum Trise limitation, the point (7.817 ×
3.3. Performance of battery pack using Design-B under NEDC condition 10− 4, 1) can be identified from the curve of the maximum Trise versus the
flow rate. It suggests that the flow rate for each cooling plate must not be
In order to investigate the cooling effect of the Design B-II in practical smaller than 7.817 × 10− 4 kg s− 1 in order to ensure the temperature
conditions, the battery will be applied for the process of dynamic within the appropriate range. In this case, the required power is lower
discharge in this study. In the practice, the battery is hardly be charged than that of the common electric water pump, i.e., it meets the re­
and discharged at the 4 C rate condition. To reduce the capacity loss of quirements. As shown in Fig. 7(d), the effect of increasing the coolant
the battery cells while maintaining its working efficiency as much as flow rate on Trise reduction is significantly reduced as the coolant flow
possible, the best discharging rate is usually between 0.2 C and 0.5 C rate exceeds 0.0105 kg s− 1. From the perspective of energy utilization,
[40]. The Li-ion battery generally works in the process of the periodic controlling the coolant flow rate below 0.0105 kg s− 1 can reduce energy
discharging in the real life. In order to analyze the cooling effect of the consumption while ensuring the cooling effect.
specific cooling plate (Design B-II), the New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC) operating condition is chosen as the test condition. 4. Conclusions
The NEDC cyclic operating conditions are the ones for the common
vehicle driving, including the four urban driving sections and one sub­ The analysis of the cooling plate performance for the 6P1S lithium-
urban driving section [41,42]. The entire operating condition of the ion battery module is numerically carried out. Six cooling plates with
NEDC will last for 1180s. The urban driving interval is between 0 and two layouts (i.e., arranged at the bottom of the battery module or on the
800 s, and the suburban driving interval is between 800 and 1180s [41, both sides of the battery module) and three flow channel structures (i.e.,
42]. According to the vehicle power requirements, the battery pack single-channel, small channels, and S-shaped channel) are selected as
composing of the 96 battery modules (6P1S) in series is selected as the the investigated cases. The Z-score method is applied to evaluate the
vehicle’s power source. The power performance of the entire battery cooling performance of the cooling plate. The simulation results show
pack over the time during the NEDC condition is shown in Fig. 7(a). A that the arrangement of the two cooling plates sandwiching a battery
positive value indicates a state of the battery pack is in discharging, module gets the lower temperature increase at the same inlet flow rate.
while a negative value indicate that the battery is in charging. In the Among various flow channels (single, small channel and S-shaped
current work, it is assumed that every individual battery module has the channel), the case with the small size channels shows the best cooling
same charging and discharging working state. performance. The increase in the flow rate will reduce the maximum
According to the operating hours (8 h) of the shifting, NEDC condi­ temperature and Tdiff of the battery module, but increases the flow
tion should be executed in 22–24 times. The standards that the BTMS resistance. As the flow rate increases, the gradient of the maximum
needs to meet are as follows: the maximum temperature of the battery temperature gradually decreases. The best design battery module
pack does not exceed 303.15 K, and the maximum Tdiff of the battery working under NEDC condition are also studied with several flow rates.
pack does not exceed 1 K during the entire working process [6]. For any By limiting the maximum Trise and the minimum δ(Trise)/δQM, the most
BTMS, the main parameters to be considered are the Tmax and the suitable flow rate range of the optimal design (Design B-II) is between
maximum Tdiff of the battery pack, which affect the choice of the water 7.817 × 10− 4 kg s− 1 ~ 0.0105 kg s− 1
pump and its energy consumption. The pressure drop between the inlet
and the outlet is also one of the important parameters to be considered. Author statement
In the current study, several flow rates from 6 × 10− 4 kg s− 1 to 3.0 ×
10− 2 kg s− 1 are applied to analyze the relationship between the flow rate Xinke Li: First author, conceptualization, Methodology, Writing and
and the Tmax, the maximum Tdiff, as well as pressure drop. The increase revising, draft preparation. Jiapei Zhao: Data processing, Writing –
in the flow rate will reduce the maximum temperature and the Reviewing and Editing, Funding acquisition. Jiabin Duan: Visualiza­
maximum Tdiff, but increase the pressure drop. As shown in Fig. 7(b), the tion, Software. Satyam Panchal: Experimental design, analysis of re­
variation shape of the Tdiff for the battery pack is almost similar after one sults. Jinliang Yuan: Data Curation, Supervision, Funding acquisition.
NEDC condition, while, the value of the maximum Tdiff remains Roydon Fraser: Experimental design and analysis of results. Michael
unchanged. Fowler: Experimental design and analysis of results. Ming Chen:
In order to reduce unnecessary computational consumption as much Investigation, Validation.

10
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Fig. 7. Battery pack power and temperature difference under NEDC conditions: (a) variation of battery pack discharging power with time under NEDC conditions;
(b) variation of maximum temperature difference with time in three NEDC conditions (c) the curve fitting of temperature increase and pump power with mass flow
rate; (d) the curve fitting of δ(Trise)/δQM.

11
X. Li et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 104113

Table 6
Predicted results of Tmax, Tdiff, Trise, and Δp for various inlet flow rates.
QM(kg s− 1) 3 × 10− 4
6 × 10− 4
1.8 × 10− 3
3 × 10− 3
6 × 10− 3
9 × 10− 3
0.012 0.024 0.03

Tmax, K 296.64 296.27 295.96 295.91 295.88 295.86 295.86 295.84 295.80
Tdiff, K 0.92 0.82 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65
Trise, K 1.49 1.12 0.81 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.71 0.69 0.65
Δp, Pa 2.24 4.57 15.42 29.00 74.35 135.48 213.02 657.46 1806.52

Declaration of Competing Interest [17] Y.B. Li, Z.F. Zhou, W.T. Wu, Three-dimensional thermal modeling of Li-ion battery
cell and 50 V Li-ion battery pack cooled by mini-channel cold plate, Appl. Therm.
Eng. 147 (2019) 829–840.
Furthermore, we declare that there have no known competing [18] S.Q. Chen, X.B. Peng, N.S. Bao, A. Garg, A comprehensive analysis and
financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to optimization process for an integrated liquid cooling plate for a prismatic lithium-
influence the work reported in this paper. ion battery module, Appl. Therm. Eng. 156 (2019) 324–339.
[19] J. Lin, X. Liu, S. Li, C. Zhang, S. Yang, A review on recent progress, challenges and
perspective of battery thermal management system, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 167
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[20] Y. Chung, M.S. Kim, Thermal analysis and pack level design of battery thermal
management system with liquid cooling for electric vehicles, Energy Convers.
This work has been supported by the National Key Research and Manag. 196 (2019) 105–116.
Development Project of China (2018YFB1502204), the Ningbo major [21] H. Zhang, C. Li, R. Zhang, Y. Lin, H. Fang, Thermal analysis of a 6s4p Lithium-ion
special projects of the Plan “Science and Technology Innovation 2025” battery pack cooled by cold plates based on a multi-domain modeling framework,
Appl. Therm. Eng. 173 (2020), 115216.
(2018B10048), and the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation [22] S.D.V.S.S. Varma Siruvuri, P.R. Budarapu, Studies on thermal management of
of China under Grant No. LGG19E060003. Lithium-ion battery pack using water as the cooling fluid, J. Energy Storage 29
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