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medicine and biomedical sciences in modern history
ANIMALS AND THE SHAPING
OF MODERN MEDICINE
ONE HEALTH AND ITS HISTORIES
Series Editors
Carsten Timmermann
University of Manchester
Manchester
United Kingdom
Michael Worboys
University of Manchester
Manchester
United Kingdom
The aim of this series is to illuminate the development and impact of
medicine and the biomedical sciences in the modern era. The series was
founded by the late Professor John Pickstone, and its ambitions reflect
his commitment to the integrated study of medicine, science and tech-
nology in their contexts. He repeatedly commented that it was a pity
that the foundation discipline of the field, for which he popularized the
acronym ‘HSTM’ (History of Science, Technology and Medicine) had
been the history of science rather than the history of medicine. His point
was that historians of science had too often focused just on scientific
ideas and institutions, while historians of medicine always had to con-
sider the understanding, management and meanings of diseases in their
socio-economic, cultural, technological and political contexts. In the
event, most of the books in the series dealt with medicine and the bio-
medical sciences, and the changed series title reflects this. However, as
the new editors we share Professor Pickstone’s enthusiasm for the inte-
grated study of medicine, science and technology, encouraging studies
on biomedical science, translational medicine, clinical practice, disease
histories, medical technologies, medical specialisms and health policies.
The books in this series will present medicine and biomedical science
as crucial features of modern culture, analysing their economic, social
and political aspects, while not neglecting their expert content and con-
text. Our authors investigate the uses and consequences of technical
knowledge, and how it shaped, and was shaped by, particular economic,
social and political structures. In re-launching the Series, we hope to
build on its strengths but extend its geographical range beyond Western
Europe and North America.
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History is intended to
supply analysis and stimulate debate. All books are based on searching
historical study of topics which are important, not least because they cut
across conventional academic boundaries. They should appeal not just to
historians, nor just to medical practitioners, scientists and engineers, but
to all who are interested in the place of medicine and biomedical sciences
in modern history.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018. This book is an open access publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material
is not included in the book’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover credit: [Plate eight - Man, cow and sheep and explanatory text], pp. [unnumbered]-22,
in Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse / A comparative view of the human and animal frame
(1860), Image courtesy of The University of Wisconsin Libraries
It is not long since the question ‘Where are the animals in medical
history?’ prompted yawning and shuffling of feet among scholars of that
discipline. While in the wider world the health agenda known as ‘One
Medicine’ or ‘One Health’ was gathering momentum by highlighting
the deeply interconnected nature of human and animal health and the
need for integrated approaches to it, with a few key exceptions, scholars
in medical history continued to believe that the only animals important
to medicine were human animals. Conference organizers asked if animals
belonged on medical history programmes; conference delegates voted
with their feet; and scholarly discussions proceeded largely in ignorance
of how animals and animal health had shaped—and been shaped by—the
history of human health, medicine and society.
This was the situation that inspired the programme of research on
which this volume is based. Generously sponsored by the Wellcome
Trust,1 it set out to explore the zoological foundations of human medi-
cine, to illuminate the history of animals in medicine, and to develop an
empirically grounded history of the recent movement for One Health.
Research began at Imperial College London in 2011 and terminated
at King’s College London in 2016. It was conducted by a team of four
scholars—Abigail Woods (principal investigator), Michael Bresalier,
vii
viii Preface
Rachel Mason Dentinger and Angela Cassidy—who are the joint authors
of this volume.
Combining first degrees in veterinary medicine and the life sci-
ences, with scholarly careers that straddle the history and sociology of
veterinary medicine, human medicine and biology, we formed an inter-
disciplinary team well equipped to study the history of medicine as an
interdisciplinary, interspecies phenomenon. Each of us has worked on
discrete research projects that address a different aspect of this issue. This
volume presents findings from each project, in five sample chapters that
bear the authors’ names.
However, the work as a whole is a shared endeavour. It grew out of
our many meetings, in which we reviewed existing historical accounts
of animals and medicine, and worked together to develop a shared lan-
guage, conceptual apparatus and approach to studying their intercon-
nected histories. It aspires to greater cohesion and coherence than a
standard edited volume. It was also more difficult to write—more diffi-
cult, even, than a standard monograph in which only a single author has
to make decisions about arguments and narrative. We found few prec-
edents to guide us: team working is relatively new to the discipline of
history, and, judging by certain publishers’ responses to the notion of a
volume with four authors, it is equally unfamiliar to academic publishing.
Consequently, we have had to develop our working, writing and publish-
ing practices by trial and error. This has been a very time-consuming but
ultimately fulfilling experience. The mutual support and advice of col-
leagues has pushed our scholarship to a higher level, and enabled us to
work on a broader canvas than would have been possible otherwise.
We are very grateful to Palgrave for supporting our vision and helping
us to realize it. We hope that our readers—whether medical historians,
animal historians or participants in One Health today—will find this an
interesting and a thought-provoking volume. We also hope that it will
persuade our colleagues in medical history that without asking ‘Where
are the animals?’ and ‘What do they do?’, we cannot truly understand
what has constituted medicine in history or what it has become today.
Many people have contributed to the preparation of this volume.
Collectively, we wish to thank the Wellcome Trust for funding our
research, colleagues (especially Dr. Kathryn Schoefert) in the Centre
for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine at King’s College
London for their ongoing support, and the various audiences, review-
ers and expert advisors who have provided constructive feedback on our
Preface ix
xi
xii Contents
7 Conclusion 237
Index 269
List of Figures
xv
List of Tables
xvii
CHAPTER 1
1 Kirk
and Worboys (2011), p. 561.
2 Benson(2011) p. 5.
3 Recent reviews of this literature include: Rader (2007), Kirk and Worboys (2011),
pages onto which humans wrote meaning’.4 They appear because of their
implications for human health and medicine, or because of their capacity
to illuminate wider developments in human history, such as the growth of
government, colonialism and international trade.
This volume breaks new ground in applying Benson’s second per-
spective to medical history: ‘to explore the history of nonhuman ani-
mals as subjects in their own right and for their own sakes’.5 Humans
remain important, of course, for ultimately we can only know about
animals from the records that humans have created, and which reflect
human interests in animals. However, by taking animals seriously as his-
torical subjects, it is possible to shed a different light on human history
by revealing the myriad ways in which animals have influenced human
actions and perceptions. Adopting this approach also illuminates ani-
mals as creatures with their own histories, which have been profoundly
altered by their relationships with humans, and the roles that humans
have decided they should perform. It results in a richer, less anthropo-
centric account of the medical past, which reveals how, in different times
and places, animals have experienced medicine, how they have been pro-
duced by it and how they have changed it.
In widening the historical lens to incorporate animals and their fash-
ioning into medical subjects and objects, this volume pursues three key
goals. First, it seeks to make a programmatic contribution to the field of
medical history by elucidating some of the largely unrecognized ways in
which animals have informed the knowledges, practices and social forma-
tions of medicine. Through analysing key contexts in which animals have
attracted medical attention and with what effects, it will expose a series of
medical problems, concerns, personnel and practices that barely feature
in existing scholarship. In addition, by studying the historical position-
ing of animals at the shifting boundaries between medicine, veterinary
medicine and the life sciences, it will cast new light on the relationships
between these fields. It will thereby demonstrate how, by attending to
the more-than-human dimensions of medicine, we reach new under-
standings of its historical identity, participants and manner of pursuit.
Second, the volume seeks to enhance the burgeoning field of animal
history by offering the first substantive account of animals in medicine.
4 Fudge (2006).
5 Benson (2011) p. 5.
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 3
6 For example: Gibbs (2014), American Veterinary Association, Centers for Disease
7 Seminal works include: Ritvo (1987), Kete (1994), Anderson (2004). Valuable edited
collections include: Henninger-Voss (2002), Rothfels (2002), Kalof and Resl (2007), Brantz
(2010), Shaw (2013a, 2013b), Nance (2015). An even larger scholarship addresses the contem-
porary dimensions of human–animal relationships, drawing on disciplines such as philosophy,
anthropology, geography, English literature and cultural studies. For an introductory overview,
see Marvin and McHugh (2014). Key authors who have set the framework for thinking about
these issues include: Agamben (2002), Derrida (2002), Wolfe (2003), Haraway (2008).
8 Swart (2007), Andrews (n.d.).
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 5
19 Fudge (2012).
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 7
23 Latour (1993), Mitchell (2002), Schrepfer and Scranton (2003), Agamben (2002),
Lorimer (2009).
8 A. Woods et al.
humans (notably women, the mentally ill and certain ethnic groups)
were invested with animal characteristics, and certain animals (notably
horses, dogs and primates) were awarded privileged, quasi-human sta-
tus, it reveals that human–animal boundaries are not fixed in nature but
shaped by human society and culture. Therefore animals and animality
are not distinct from, but constitutive of the human, in ways that change
over time and place.24
If the human–animal boundary is blurred, then where does this leave
assertions that without cognition or conscious thought, animals cannot
be active historical subjects? Scholars have tackled this question by con-
sidering whether the ability to act on history can exist separately from
the intention to do so, and whether animals can be historical subjects
without necessarily possessing subjectivity. They suggest that while ani-
mals do not understand or care about human knowledge, politics and
cultures, nevertheless they can make a difference to them. Therefore, in
principle, animals do possess agency—where agency constitutes the abil-
ity to act.25 For animal historians, the nature of that agency is an empiri-
cal question. It is not a natural, permanent attribute; rather, it emerges
and is performed through social relationships, which vary by time, space
and species.26
In locating animal agency within human–non-human encounters,
many scholars draw on ideas associated with Actor Network Theory
(ANT). Developed within the field of science studies by Bruno Latour,
Michel Callon and John Law in the 1980s, ANT sought to remove dis-
tinctions between nature and society. It represented a critical response
to prevailing understandings of scientific knowledge and technical inno-
vation as either realist or sociological.27 It has since been adopted and
developed by scholars in many other disciplines. ANT has many variants
but it essentially proposes a relational way of understanding the world. In
widening the traditional analytical lens to incorporate interacting human
and non-human entities, it opens up a space for animals as historical
actors. ANT presents agency, and actors, as products of the unstable web
24 Ritvo (1995), Fudge (2002), Ritvo (2007), Hochadel (2010), Bourke (2011), Davis
(2014).
25 Fudge (2006), Law and Mol (2008), McFarland and Hediger (2009).
31 Kean (2012).
one another’.33 As Law and Mol point out, this does not mean that ani-
mals have the capacity to control history, just that by entering into rela-
tionships with human and other non-human actors they are able to make
a difference to it. Their analysis of Cumbrian sheep during the British
2001 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic offers some concrete examples.
The variable bodily responses of sheep to encounters with the foot-and-
mouth disease virus affected whether the vets that inspected them were
able to detect and respond to it. The hill sheep’s ability to know its place
or ‘heft’ on the hills fashioned the landscape in ways that were valued by
humans, and which led ultimately to their exemption from the govern-
ment’s contiguous culling policy. These outcomes were not necessarily
predictable: they resulted from the unstable, indeterminate webs of prac-
tices that drew together and were created by sheep and their co-actors.
Law and Mol conclude that the important question is not whether but
how animals act.34
We will address this question by analysing the roles that animals have
performed within medical research and practice. Some of these roles will
be familiar to medical historians. In laboratories, animals were fashioned
into experimental subjects and manipulated to cast light on health and
disease. Animals that fell sick performed roles as disease victims, and
were sometimes transformed into patients. Alternatively, or addition-
ally, they were regarded as hosts and potential transmitters of infection.
Animals have also performed other, less well-documented roles in medi-
cine: as pathological specimens, points of comparison with other species,
commercial products, shapers and victims of food systems and natural
environments, and vehicles for personal and professional advancement.
They have often performed several roles simultaneously or sequen-
tially throughout their lives and afterlives. Roles have reshaped animals,
physically and conceptually, and therefore impacted on their histo-
ries. Roles also had their own histories that were influenced partly by
human–animal relationships and their disruption by disease, and also by
prevailing ideas of disease and the tools available to conceptualize, inves-
tigate and manage it. While it was humans who awarded roles to ani-
mals, animals were not passive recipients. Their bodies, behaviours and
relationships with humans have invited the awarding of particular roles
33 Haraway (2008) p. 4.
34 Law and Mol (2008) p. 74.
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 11
and influenced their performance within them. Different roles have pro-
vided animals with different opportunities to shape medicine, with rami-
fications for the health of both humans and animals. The concept of the
animal role therefore offers a useful tool for illuminating the historical
co-constitution of humans, animals and medicine.
38 Woods (2017b).
12 A. Woods et al.
39 Benson (2011) p. 5. Susan Jones is one of the few veterinary historians to foreground
animals and their relationships with humans. A good example is Jones (1997). See also
Degeling (2009).
40 Latour (1988).
41 Porter (1985), Beier (1987), Warner (1999), Gillis (2006), Cooter (2010), Crozier
(2010), Hurren (2012).
42 Porter (1993) p. 19.
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 13
43 Woods (2017c).
44 For example: Pearson (2013), Foote and Gunnels (2015), Pooley-Ebert (2015).
45 Latour (1993).
46 Fudge (2002) p. 6.
14 A. Woods et al.
47 Swart (2015).
48 Benson (2011) p. 3.
49 Tortorici (2015).
1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 15
While the term OH is new, the concept is not. This is well recog-
nized by OH advocates, who use historical observations of human–ani-
mal health connections in attempts to legitimize their agenda, and win
momentum and funding for it.50 They locate the roots of OH in an
earlier agenda known as One Medicine (OM), which developed in the
1960s and 1970s with the aim of bringing human and veterinary medi-
cine into closer alignment.51 OM was, in turn, presaged by work dat-
ing back to the nineteenth century in the fields of comparative medicine
and veterinary public health, where human and animal health prob-
lems were considered in tandem.52 OH advocates offer a single, highly
selective interpretation of this history. They highlight the work of key
high-profile figures whose work crossed the human–animal divide and
had a lasting impact on medicine: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, William
Osler, Theobald Smith, John McFadyean and Rudolph Virchow (who
is frequently quoted, in the absence of any identifiable source material,
as stating that ‘between human and animal medicine there is no divid-
ing line’).53 Extracting these individuals from their historical contexts,
OH advocates present them as far-sighted geniuses who recognized the
merits of a OH approach. There is little understanding of what, within
the context of the time, these men thought they were doing and why;
whether their work was typical or unusual; and how animals might have
shaped, or been shaped, by it.
One of the goals of this volume is to develop a more critical, evidence-
based, animal-centred history of OH by documenting and explaining
the circumstances in which animals and their diseases became important
to human medical agendas. By identifying what motivated their investi-
gation by a range of lesser-known individuals, how these investigations
were pursued in policy and practice, and with what implications for
human and animal health, the book will illuminate precedents to OH
today, and draw insights of relevance to its future operation. It will also
offer an explanation for the emergence of OH as a self-conscious twenty-
first-century agenda and unpack the place of animals within it.
53 Schwabe (1984), Michell (2000) pp. 101–6, Day (2008) pp. 151–3.
16 A. Woods et al.
55 Guerrini (2003), Lowy (2003), Rader (2007), Schlich et al. (2009), Löwy (2011),
Franco (2013).
18 A. Woods et al.
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1 INTRODUCTION: CENTRING ANIMALS WITHIN MEDICAL HISTORY 25
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CHAPTER 2
Abigail Woods
In 1865, the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland (RZSI) announced
the death of a three-year-old male Indian rhino in its Dublin Zoological
Gardens. The event was a considerable blow to the society, which had
paid £160 for the unusual creature in the hope of inspiring scientific
and public interest in the zoo. However, on arrival from Calcutta just
eight months previously, the rhino was already sickly and suffering from
fits. It was attended by three medical members of the RZSI, including
the secretary, Reverend Professor Samuel Haughton, of Trinity College
Dublin (TCD), who recommended the administration of three pints of
boiled rice with bran, and a gallon of milk with some tonic mixed in.
However, the fits continued. Haughton elected to increase the dose of
tonic and remove cabbage from the diet. This brought about a tempo-
rary improvement, but in April 1865 the animal was found in pain with
a prolapsed rectum. Haughton, two other doctors and two vets were
summoned. They administered castor oil, opium, aromatic spirits of
ammonia and turpentine, but to no avail.1
After its death the rhino continued to attract attention. The Royal
Dublin Society offered £15 for the body in the hope of adding to its col-
lection of comparative anatomy specimens. It was outbid by Haughton,
who habitually dissected animals that died in the zoo.2 His post-mortem
3 Haughton (1864–1866).
4 Haughton (1864–1866, 1873), Adelman (2009).
5 de Courcy (2010).
2 DOCTORS IN THE ZOO: CONNECTING HUMAN AND ANIMAL HEALTH … 29
Fugier (2002), Burkhardt (2002), de Courcy (2009), Nyhart (2009) pp. 79–124, Ito
(2014).
7 Ritvo (1987) pp. 205–42, Rothfels (2002), Benbow (2004), Adelman (2009), Alberti
9 For example: Akerberg (2001) pp. 186–94, Hancocks (2001) pp. 50–1, 73–6, Baratay
and Hardouin-Fugier (2002) pp. 131–9, Burt (2002), Cowie (2014) pp. 94–8. Many of
these authors rely on Chalmers Mitchell (1929), who as secretary of the Zoological Society
of London, 1903–1935, claimed to have taken the first real steps to improve zoo animal
health.
30 A. Woods
that diseased animals attracted during this period, and the many ways in
which medical men attempted to understand and promote their health.
The health of zoo animals is equally overlooked by medical historians.
As noted in Chapter 1, disciplinary traditions hold that medical history
is a field concerned primarily with human health, which considers ani-
mals only in their relations to humans. It positions sick animals within
the sub-field of veterinary history, and the study of animal life within the
history of biology. While these two fields have paid some attention to the
bodies and diseases of zoo animals,10 the absence of these animals from
medical history scholarship implies that their health had no bearing on
human lives. This chapter demonstrates to the contrary. It reveals doc-
tors’ efforts to advance zoo animal health for its own sake, how their
efforts intersected with veterinary practice and the study of compara-
tive anatomy, and how zoo animals contributed to knowledge of human
health. It thereby challenges historians’ very notions of medicine as a
human-focused endeavour.
The history recorded in this chapter derives from the traces that zoo
animals left on the medical historical record.11 These traces survive in
museum collections and catalogues, press reports, records of medi-
cal society meetings, medical journals and textbooks, medical biogra-
phies and the zoos’ institutional archives. They include the material
changes that disease inflicted on animal bodies, and their representa-
tion in images, verbal reports and statistics. They also encompass human
responses to those changes, which left imprints on human and animal
bodies and relationships, the zoos’ natural and built environments, and
on the careers of medical investigators. Through analysing these traces
and the circumstances of their production, the chapter sheds new light
on animals’ health histories, and on the historical co-constitution of ani-
mals, zoos and medicine.
The chapter is divided into halves. Each is structured around a dif-
ferent reason why zoo animal health attracted the attention of human
10 Veterinary accounts include: Jones (1976), Furman (1996). For the history of biol-
ogy, see Desmond (1985), Burkhardt (1999), Hochadel (2005), Hochadel (2011), Nyhart
(2009) pp. 110–7. Nyhart argues that a sense of moral obligation to animals provided an
important motivation for maintaining their health, but this was not evident in British zoos
at the time.
11 Benson (2011).
2 DOCTORS IN THE ZOO: CONNECTING HUMAN AND ANIMAL HEALTH … 31
doctors, and explores the interventions they made, and the implications
for animals and medicine. The first half revolves around the threat that
diseased animals posed to zoos as financially viable institutions devoted
to the scientific study of comparative anatomy. It recounts how medical
members of the zoological societies that ran the zoos attempted to pre-
vent, manage and learn about animal diseases through the use of three
modes of medicine that were typically applied to humans: public health,
bedside medicine and hospital medicine.12 Their use in the zoo awarded
diseased animals a quasi-human status, and refashioned them—in ways
shaped by the animals’ physical and behavioural characteristics—into vic-
tims of their environments, patients and pathological specimens, with
some unanticipated implications for human health.
The second half of the chapter explores the zoo’s appeal to medical
men who were not involved in its maintenance. This appeal lay in the
diversity of species, the presence of monkeys (whose zoological proximity
to humans was acknowledged long before Darwin) and the zoo’s status
as a total institution in which animal bodies, behaviours, lifestyles and
environments were centrally controlled by humans. Refashioning ani-
mals into points of comparison with humans, these doctors used them
to gather insights into human health, the general nature of disease, and
relationships between species.13 This agenda became known as ‘compara-
tive pathology’. Emerging at the nexus of medicine, veterinary medicine
and comparative anatomy, it was a quite different form of comparative
pathology to the experimental, laboratory-based comparative pathology
pursued by Pasteur, Koch and others, which dominates existing medical
historical literature.14 Like the health interventions documented in the
first half of the chapter, its analysis reveals that zoo animals exerted a far
greater influence on medical knowledge and practice than historians have
previously realized.
12 There is copious medical historical literature on these regimes. Key works include:
Foucault (1973), Jewson (1976), Hamlin (1998). For an overview, see Bynum (1994).
13 The concept of ‘total institution’ is usually attributed to Goffman, who described it
as ‘a place of residence and work where a large number of like-situated individuals, cut
off from the wider society for an appreciable period of time, together lead an enclosed,
formally administered round of life’ (Goffman 1968) p. 11. While this is a human-centred
definition, which Goffman applied to mental hospitals, it resonates with animal life in zoos.
14 Wilkinson (1992).
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26 „Proc. Zool. Soc.”, 1835, blz. 54. De zwartvleugel-pauw wordt door den heer Sclater als een bijzondere soort
beschouwd en heeft den naam van Pavo nigripennis ontvangen. ↑
27 Rudolphi, „Beiträge zur Anthropologie”, 1812, blz. 184. ↑
28 „Die Darwin’sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und Religion”, 1869, blz. 59. ↑
29 Dit wordt medegedeeld door den heer A. Leith Adams, in zijn „Field and Forest Rambles”, 1873, blz. 76, en stemt
overeen met zijn eigen ondervinding. ↑
30 Ten opzichte van de pauwen, zie Sir R. Heron, „Proc. Zoolog. Soc.”, 1835, blz. 54, en den weleerw. heer E. S.
Dixon, „Ornamental Poultry”, 1848, blz. 8. Omtrent den kalkoen, Audubon, ibid., blz. 4. Over den grooten auerhaan,
Lloyd, „Game Birds of Sweden”, blz. 23. ↑
31 De heer Hewitt, aangehaald in „Tegetmeier’s Poultry Book”, 1866, blz. 165. ↑
32 Aangehaald in Lloyd’s „Game Birds of Sweden”, blz. 345. ↑
33 Volgens Dr. Blasius („Ibis”, vol. II, 1860, blz. 297), zijn er 425 ontwijfelbare soorten van vogels die in Europa
broeien, behalve 60 vormen die veelvuldig als zelfstandige soorten worden beschouwd. Van deze laatste meent
Blasius, dat tien werkelijk twijfelachtig zijn, en dat de andere vijftig met hun naaste verwanten behooren te worden
vereenigd; maar dit bewijst, dat er een aanzienlijke mate van verscheidenheid bij sommige van onze Europeesche
vogels bestaat. Het is bij de natuuronderzoekers ook een nog niet uitgemaakt punt of verscheidene Noord-
Amerikaansche vogels moeten worden beschouwd als soortelijk onderscheiden van de overeenkomstige
Europeesche soorten. ↑
34 „Mammals and Birds of East Florida”, ook een „Ornithological Reconnaissance of Texas”, enz. Niettegenstaande
den invloed van het klimaat op de kleuren van vogels is het moeilijk de doffe of donkere tinten te verklaren van
bijna alle soorten die sommige landen bewonen, b.v. de Galapagoseilanden onder den evenaar, de uitgestrekte
gematigde vlakten van Patagonië, en, naar het schijnt, Egypte (zie den heer Hartshorne in „the American Naturalist”,
1873, blz. 747.) Deze landen zijn open en bieden den vogels weinig schuilplaatsen; maar het schijnt twijfelachtig of de
afwezigheid van levendig gekleurde soorten kan worden verklaard volgens het beginsel van bescherming, want op de
Pampa’s die ook open zijn, hoewel bedekt met groen gras, en waar de vogels evenzeer aan gevaar zijn blootgesteld,
zijn vele schitterende en opzichtig gekleurde soorten algemeen. Ik heb somtijds bespiegelingen gemaakt, of de
heerschende doffe tinten van het landschap in bovengenoemde landen geen invloed kunnen hebben gehad op het
waarnemingsvermogen voor kleuren van de vogels die ze bewonen. ↑
35 „Ontstaan der Soorten”, 3de Ned. uitgaaf, blz. 129. Ik had altijd begrepen, dat zeldzame en sterke afwijkingen in
maaksel, die den naam van monstruositeiten verdienden, slechts zelden door natuurlijke teeltkeus konden bewaard
blijven, en dat het bewaard blijven zelfs van in hooge mate voordeelige afwijkingen tot op zekere hoogte van het
toeval af zou hangen. Ik had ook de belangrijkheid van individueele verschillen volkomen naar waarde geschat, en dit
bracht mij er toe om zoo sterk te drukken op de belangrijkheid van dien onbewusten vorm van teeltkeus door den
mensch, die het gevolg is van het bewaren van de hoogst geschatte individu’s van elk ras, zonder eenig oogmerk van
zijn kant om de kenmerken van het ras te wijzigen. Doch voordat ik een uitnemend artikel in de „North British Review”
[121](Maart 1867, blz. 589 v.v.), die mij van meer dienst is geweest dan eenig ander Review, had gelezen, zag ik niet
in, hoe groot de kansen waren tegen het bewaard blijven van afwijkingen, hetzij kleine of sterk uitgedrukte, die alleen
bij enkele individu’s voorkwamen. ↑
36 „Introduct. to the Trochilidae”, blz. 102. ↑
37 Gould, „Handbook of Birds of Australia”, vol. II, blz. 32 en 68. ↑
38 Audubon, „Ornitholog. Biography”, 1838, vol. IV, blz. 389. ↑
39 Jerdon, „Birds of India”, vol. I, blz. 108, en de heer Blyth in „Land and Water”, 1868, blz. 381. ↑
40 Graba, „Tagebuch, Reise nach Farö”, 1830, blz. 41–44. Macgillivray, „Hist. British Birds”, vol. III, blz. 745. „Ibis”, vol.
V, 1863, blz. 469. ↑
41 Graba, ibid., blz. 54. Macgillivray, ibid., vol. V, blz. 327. ↑
42 „Het Varieeren der Huisdieren en Cultuurplanten”, Ned. vert., deel II, blz. 55. ↑
43 Zie omtrent deze punten ook „Het Varieeren der Huisdieren en Cultuurplanten”, Ned. vert., deel I, blz. 295; deel II,
blz. 54. ↑
44 Zie b.v. over de regenboogvliezen (irides) van een Podica en Gallicrex in „Ibis”, vol. II, 1860, blz. 206; en vol. V,
1863, blz. 426. ↑
45 Zie ook Jerdon, „Birds of India”, vol. I, blz. 243–245. ↑
46 „Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle”, 1841, blz. 6. ↑
47 Bechstein, „Naturgeschichte Deutschlands”, Bd. IV, 1795, blz. 31, over een onder-verscheidenheid (sub-variëteit)
van de Monck-duif. ↑
48 Deze houtsnede is gegraveerd naar een fraaie teekening welke de heer Trimen de bijzondere vriendelijkheid had
voor mij te vervaardigen; zie ook [128]zijn beschrijving van de wonderlijke grootte der afwijking in de kleur en den
vorm van de vleugels van deze kapel, in zijn „Rhopalocera Africae Australis”, blz. 186. Zie ook een belangwekkende
verhandeling van den weleerw. heer H. H. Higgens over den oorsprong der oogvlekken bij de Schubvleugeligen
(Lepidoptera) in het „Quarterly Journal of Science”, Juli, 1860, blz. 325. ↑
49 Jerdon, „Birds of India”, vol. III, blz. 517. ↑
50 „Varieeren der Huisdieren en Cultuurplanten”, Ned. vert., deel I, blz. 294. ↑
51 Als de Argus-fazant zijn vleugelslagpennen als een grooten waaier tentoonspreidt, staan die welke het dichtst bij
het lichaam staan, meer rechtop dan de buitenste, zoodat de schaduwing van de bal-en-holte oogvlekken een
weinig verschillend behoorde te zijn op de verschillende vederen om haar vol effect met betrekking tot den inval van
het licht voort te brengen. De [138]heer T. W. Wood die het ervaren oog van een kunstenaar bezit, verzekert („Field”
Courant, 28 Mei 1870, blz. 457), dat dit het geval is; maar na zorgvuldig twee opgezette voorwerpen te hebben
onderzocht (van een waarvan ik de bedoelde vederen tot meer nauwkeurige vergelijking aan den heer Gould heb
gegeven), kan ik niet bemerken, dat dit toppunt van volmaaktheid in de schaduwing is bereikt, en evenmin hebben
anderen aan wie ik deze vederen heb getoond, dit feit kunnen opmerken. ↑
52 „The Field”, 28 Mei, 1870. ↑
53 „Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects”, Eng. vert., 1873, blz. 219, 227, 269, 390. ↑
54 „The Reign of Law”, 1867, blz. 347. ↑
55 „The Naturalist in Nicaragua”, 1874, blz. 112. ↑
56 „Introduction to the Trochilidae”, 1861, blz. 110. ↑
57 „Zur Zeichnung der Vogelfedern”, Zeitschr. für wiss. Zoologie, Bd. XLIV. ↑
58 Met de patrijzen verwante vogels uit Zuid- en West-Azië en Afrika. ↑
59 Ceriornis Satyra, een tot de zoogenaamde hoornfazanten behoorende vogel uit de Himalaya en Zuid-China. ↑
[Inhoud]
VIJFTIENDE HOOFDSTUK.
SECUNDAIRE SEKSUEELE KENMERKEN BIJ DE
VOGELS.—VERVOLG.
Om zijn nieuw ras met mannetjes van een beslist bleek-grauwe kleur
en onveranderde wijfjes te maken, zou onze fokker gedurende vele
generatiën voort moeten gaan met de mannetjes voor de voortteling
uit te kiezen; en elke graad van bleekheid zou bij de mannetjes
moeten worden gefixeerd en bij de wijfjes latent gemaakt. Dit zou
een uiterst moeilijke taak zijn en is nimmer beproefd, maar zou
mogelijk slagen. De voornaamste hinderpaal zou het spoedige en
volkomen verlies van de bleek-blauwe kleur zijn, wegens de
noodzakelijkheid van herhaalde [152]kruisingen met het leikleurige
wijfje, daar dit laatste in het eerst volstrekt geen latente neiging bezit,
om bleekblauw kroost voort te brengen.
Uit de voorgaande voorbeelden zien wij, dat het, zelfs als men een
[154]bijna onbegrensden tijd tot zijn beschikking had, een uiterst
moeilijk en ingewikkeld, hoewel wellicht niet onmogelijk proces zou
zijn om door teeltkeus den eenen vorm van erfelijkheid in den
anderen te veranderen. Daarom ben ik, zonder stellige bewijzen in
elk afzonderlijk geval, ongeneigd om aan te nemen, dat dit bij
natuurlijke soorten dikwijls is geschied. Daarentegen zou er, door
middel van opeenvolgende afwijkingen die van den beginne af in
haar overplanting seksueel waren beperkt, geen de minste
moeilijkheid in zijn gelegen om een mannelijken vogel in kleur of in
eenig ander kenmerk zeer verschillend van het wijfje te maken,
terwijl dit laatste onveranderd bleef, of slechts weinig veranderd, of
bijzonder ter wille van de bescherming werd gewijzigd.
Daar levendige kleuren aan de mannetjes van dienst zijn bij hun
mededinging met hun medeminnaars, zullen dergelijke kleuren voor
de voortteling worden uitgezocht, hetzij zij al dan niet uitsluitend op
de zelfde sekse worden overgeplant. Men zou bijgevolg mogen
verwachten, dat de wijfjes dikwijls in meerdere of mindere mate in de
levendige kleuren van de mannetjes zouden deelen; en dit is
werkelijk bij een menigte soorten het geval. Indien al de
opeenvolgende afwijkingen gelijkelijk op beide seksen werden
overgeplant, zouden de wijfjes niet van de mannetjes zijn te
onderscheiden; en dit is eveneens bij vele vogels het geval. Indien
echter doffe kleuren van hoog belang waren voor de veiligheid van
het wijfje gedurende den broeitijd, gelijk bij vele op den grond
nestelende vogels, zouden de wijfjes die door levendige kleuren
afweken of door overerving van de mannetjes eenige merkbare
toeneming van de levendigheid hunner kleuren verkregen, vroeger
of later te gronde gaan. De neiging in de mannetjes om gedurende
een onbeperkten tijd voort te gaan met op hun vrouwelijke
nakomelingen hun eigen levendigheid van kleur over te planten, zou
moeten worden geëlimineerd door een verandering in den vorm van
erfelijkheid; en dit zou, gelijk door ons voorafgaand voorbeeld wordt
aangetoond, uiterst moeilijk zijn. Het meer waarschijnlijk gevolg van
de lang voortgezette vernieling van de meer levendig gekleurde
wijfjes, veronderstellende dat de gelijke vorm van overplanting de
overhand behield, zou zijn de vermindering of vernietiging van de
levendige kleuren van de mannetjes, ten gevolge van hun
voortdurende kruising met de doffer gekleurde wijfjes. Het zou
vervelend zijn alle andere mogelijke gevolgen ten einde toe na te
gaan; ik mag echter den lezer herinneren dat, gelijk in het achtste
hoofdstuk is aangetoond, indien [155]zich bij de wijfjes seksueel
beperkte afwijkingen in levendigheid van kleur voordeden, deze,
zelfs al waren zij in het minst niet nadeelig voor hen en al werden zij
bij gevolg niet geëlimineerd, toch niet zouden worden begunstigd of
voor de voortteling uitgekozen; want het mannetje neemt gewoonlijk
elk wijfje aan en kiest de meer aantrekkelijke individu’s niet voor de
voortteling uit; bij gevolg zouden deze afwijkingen er aan zijn
blootgesteld verloren te gaan, en weinig invloed hebben op de
kenmerken van het ras; en dit zal helpen om te verklaren, waarom
de wijfjes gewoonlijk minder levendig zijn gekleurd dan de
mannetjes.
Daar het bij alle vogels bij welke de seksen in kleur verschillen, een
belangwekkende vraag is, of alleen de mannetjes door seksueele
teeltkeus zijn gewijzigd, en de wijfjes, zoover de werking van dit
beginsel aangaat, onveranderd of bijna onveranderd zijn gelaten;
dan wel of de wijfjes bijzonder zijn gewijzigd door natuurlijke
teeltkeus ter wille van de bescherming, zal ik dit vraagstuk
uitvoeriger bespreken, uitvoeriger zelfs dan zijn innerlijke
belangrijkheid verdient; want onderscheidene merkwaardige
daarmede zijdelings in verband staande punten kunnen dan tevens
gepast worden beschouwd.
Voor wij een aanvang maken met het onderwerp van de kleur, meer
bijzonder in verband met de besluiten van den heer Wallace, kan het
wellicht nuttig zijn uit een gelijksoortig oogpunt eenige andere
verschillen tusschen de seksen te beschouwen. Vroeger bestond er
een ras van hoenders in Duitschland 6, bij hetwelk de hennen sporen
bezaten; zij waren goede eierlegsters; maar zij brachten haar nesten
met haar sporen zoozeer in de war, dat men ze haar eigen eieren
niet kon laten uitbroeien. Van daar was er een tijd, dat het mij
waarschijnlijk toescheen, dat bij de wijfjes van de wilde
Hoenderachtige Vogels (Gallinaceae) de ontwikkeling van sporen
door de natuurlijke teeltkeus was verhinderd, wegens de daardoor
aan de nesten toegebrachte schade. Dit scheen des te
waarschijnlijker, omdat de vleugelsporen die het nest geen schade
konden berokkenen, dikwijls bij het wijfje even goed waren
ontwikkeld als bij het mannetje, hoewel zij in niet weinig gevallen bij
het mannetje iets grooter zijn. Als het mannetje sporen aan de
pooten bezit, vertoont het wijfje bijna altijd rudimenten daarvan,—het
rudiment bestaat somtijds eenvoudig uit een schub, zooals bij de
soorten van het geslacht Gallus. Men zou daarom kunnen beweren,
dat de wijfjes oorspronkelijk goed ontwikkelde sporen hadden
bezeten, maar dat zij deze later hadden verloren, hetzij door onbruik
of door natuurlijke teeltkeus. Indien deze beschouwingswijze echter
werd aangenomen, zou zij moeten worden [157]uitgebreid tot tallooze
andere gevallen; en zij sluit in zich, dat de vrouwelijke voorouders
van de bestaande spoordragende soorten eens waren overladen
met een nadeelig aanhangsel.
Wij worden tot omtrent het zelfde besluit gebracht ten opzichte van
de lengte van den staart bij de onderscheidene soorten van
fazanten. Bij den geoorden fazant (Crossoptilon auritum) is de staart
bij beide seksen even lang, namelijk 40 of 42,5 centimeter; bij den
gewonen fazant is hij bij het mannetje omtrent 50 centimeter, en bij
het wijfje 30 centimeter lang; bij Soemmerring’s fazant 92,5
centimeter bij het mannetje en slechts 20 bij het wijfje; en bij Reeve’s
fazant eindelijk is hij werkelijk bij het mannetje soms 180 centimeter
en bij het wijfje 40 centimeter lang. Bij de verschillende soorten
verschilt dus de staart van het wijfje veel in lengte, en wel niet in
verhouding van de lengte van den staart bij de respectieve
mannetjes der zelfde soorten; en dit kan, naar het mij toeschijnt, met
veel meer waarschijnlijkheid worden verklaard door de wetten der
erfelijkheid,—dat is doordat de opeenvolgende afwijkingen van den
beginne af in haar overplanting meer of minder volkomen beperkt
zijn gebleven tot de mannelijke sekse,—dan door de werking der
natuurlijke teeltkeus, die het gevolg zou zijn [160]geweest van het
nadeel dat de lengte van den staart in meerdere of mindere mate
aan de wijfjes der verschillende soorten berokkende.
Indien wij de vogels van Engeland beschouwen, zullen wij zien, dat
er geen nauw en algemeen verband bestaat tusschen de kleuren
van het wijfje en den aard van het door haar gebouwde nest.
Omtrent veertig van onze Britsche vogels (die van aanzienlijke