MODULE 1: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS 1.

Probably the most important feature of ethics and morals is that no one can avoid
making moral or ethical decisions because the social connection with others
Learning Outcomes and Performance Indicators necessitates that people must consider moral and ethical actions.
At the end of this lecture students are expected to: 2. Other people are always involved with one’s moral and ethical decisions. Private
1. understand the difference between ethics and morality. morality does not exist.
2. explain the relevance of ethics in their respective fields. 3. Moral decisions matter because every decision affects someone else’s life, self-
3. demonstrate the ability to do ethical reflection. esteem, or happiness level.
4. Identify ethical dilemmas and apply different theoretical approaches. 4. Definite conclusions or resolutions will never be reached in ethical debates.
5. Articulate and defend a preferred position on the relationship between ethics and 5. In the area of morals and ethics, people cannot exercise moral judgment without
society while appreciating its limitations. being given a choice; in other words, a necessity for making a sound moral
judgment is being able to choose an option from among a number of choices.
Introduction to Ethics 6. People use moral reasoning to make moral judgments or to discover the right actions
ETHICS - a branch of philosophy that consists of the fundamental issues of practical decision
making, and its major concerns on the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which The big difference when it comes to ethics is that it refers to community values more than
human actions can be judged as right or wrong. It is concerned with knowing what is right and personal values. It is the critical reflection of “morals”.
wrong.
Difference Between Morality and Ethics
 It came from the Greek word, “ethos”, which means character. Ethics is often used in connection with the activities of organizations and with professional
 Deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to human behavior. codes of conduct: for instance, medical and business ethics, which are often formalized in
terms of exhaustive sets of rules or guidelines stating how employees are expected to behave
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good in their workplaces.
and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of
moral values or principles. Morality: from the Latin word moralitas, “manner, character, proper behavior” it is the
conduct or rules that a person or a community adheres to, believing these things to be, in some
Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the fundamental sense obligatory. Morality is a person's or society's idea of what is right or wrong, especially
issues of practical decision making, and its major concerns include the nature of ultimate value in regard to a person's behavior.
and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong.  Moral Standards. Refers to norms (rules and values) about the types of actions that
are morally acceptable.
The terms ethics and morality are closely related. It is now common to refer to ethical  Non-moral Standards. Refers to norms that are unrelated to moral or ethical
judgments or to ethical principles where it once would have been more accurate to speak of considerations such as etiquettes, fashion standards, rules in the game, house rules,
moral judgments or moral principles. These applications are an extension of the meaning of and legal statutes.
ethics. In earlier usage, the term referred not to morality itself but to the field of study, or  Immoral Standards. Describes a person or behavior that conscientiously goes against
branch of inquiry, that has morality as its subject matter. In this sense, ethics is equivalent to accepted morals or the proper ideas and beliefs about how to behave in a way that is
moral philosophy. considered right and good by most people.
 Unmoral Standards. Means that there is no moral perception and is not influenced or
What’s the Difference Between Morality and Ethics? guided by moral considerations.
A moral precept is an idea or opinion that’s driven by a desire to be good. An ethical  Amoral Standards. Defined as having or showing no concern about whether
code is a set of rules that defines allowable actions or correct behavior. behavior is morally right or wrong—compendiously, “without morals.”

Morality: from the Latin word moralitas, “manner, character, proper behavior” it is the MORALITY DEPENDS ON SOCIETY AND CULTURE
conduct or rules that a person or a community adheres to, believing these things to be, in some Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
sense obligatory. Morality is a person's or society's idea of what is right or wrong, especially particular philosophy, religion, or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person
in regard to a person's behavior. believes should be universal. Morals vary dramatically across time and place. One group’s
 Moral Standards. Refers to norms (rules and values) about the types of actions that good can be another group's evil. Examples:
are morally acceptable. The rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe
are morally right, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they Cannibalism: practiced by some tribes around the world. Anthropologists found evidence for
believe are morally good. cannibalism in 34% of cultures.
 The Korowai tribe of Indonesian New Guinea allegedly still has a culture of
Bellington (2003) delineated important features regarding the concepts of moral and ethics: cannibalism. There are thought to be an estimated 4,000 tribesmen living in the
rainforest.
  According to Paul Raffaele, one of the few explorers to make contact with the ETHICS AND MORALS DEFINED
tribesmen recently, eating men is 'part of their revenge-based justice system.' Instead Morals are the prevailing standards of behavior that enable people to live
of understanding that disease and germs lead to death, tribesmen believe that a cooperatively in groups. Moral refers to what societies sanction as right and acceptable.
'khakhua,' or witch man, mysteriously kills their people and they must consume him
in the body of the deceased to get revenge. Most people tend to act morally and follow societal guidelines. Morality often
requires that people sacrifice their own short-term interests for the benefit of society. People or
Arranged Marriage: some cultures marry off girls while they are still pubescent or even entities that are indifferent to right and wrong are considered amoral, while those wo do evil
younger. In parts of Ethiopia, half of the girls are married before their 15th birthday. acts are considered immoral. While some moral principles seen to transcend time and culture,
such as fairness, generally speaking, morality is not fixed. Morality describes the particular
Female genital Mutilation (FGM): the removal of some or all of the external female values of a specific group at a specific point in time.
genitalia. 27 African countries, Yemen, Iraqi Kurdistan, Asia, the middle east, and among
diaspora countries in the world. Historically, morality has been closely connected to religious traditions, but today,
IMPORTANCE OF MORALS/RULES its significance is equally important to the secular world. For example, businesses and
1. Regulates unwanted or harmful behavior and encourages wanted or beneficial government agencies have codes of ethics that employees are expected to follow. Some
behavior in society. philosophers make a distinction between morals and ethics. But many people use the terms
2. Dictated by the values of the culture regarding what is viewed as acceptable or morals and ethics interchangeably when talking about personal beliefs, actions, or principles.
unacceptable for individuals in a society. For example, it is common to say “My morals prevent me from cheating.” It is also common
3. Specific sets of norms of behavior and a prescribed guide for conduct or action are to use ethics in this sentence instead, “My ethics prevent me from cheating.”
useful in guiding and monitoring the interactions of humans in a society.
4. Prevent chaos and encourage uniformity. Rules also tend to make things fairer and So, morals are the principles that guide individual conduct within society. And while
provide a stable environment for humans to co-exist in a society which leads to morals may change over time, they remain the standards of behavior that society uses to judge
peace and development. right and wrong.
5. Encourages order to make members of society feel comfortable, secure, and safe.
Moral and Non- Moral Standards
What are standards?
 A level of quality of attainment
MORAL PRINCIPLES  An idea or thing used as a measure, norm, or model in comparative evaluation.
1. Associated with a fixed set of rules that ignores the complexities of the situation and
fails to adapt one’s behavior to changing circumstances. It is a general sense of what Why do we need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
ought to be done. Some values have moral implications while others don’t, to identify fundamental ethical
2. Moral principles can then be regarded as statements picking out those factors of values that guide our actions.
situations that can be appealed to as moral reasons.
Moral Standards
MORAL ACTIONS  involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally
For an action to be morally good, all three determinates must be complete. A lack, in any of right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe
them, will, at least in a qualified way, make the morality of the act to be bad. are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral
values and moral principles.
1. The object of the Act.  are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be
2. The intention of the Act. morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be
3. The circumstance of the Act. morally good or morally bad.
 normally promote “the good” that is, the welfare and wellbeing of humans as well as
DILEMMAS
animals and the environment
Experiences where an agent is confused about the right decision to make because there are
several competing values that are seemingly equally important and urgent.
Characteristics of Moral Standards
1. Personal Dilemma. An extremely difficult situation for someone to handle. It can
 Welfare of beings
be moral or non-moral.
2. Moral Dilemma. Any difficult moral problems that raise hard moral questions. It  Relies on Sound Reasoning
occurs when one moral reason conflicts with another, nor normally conflicts with  Overriding Hegemony
religious or aesthetic reasons. A moral reason is a requirement just in case it would  Impartial, Fair, and Just
be morally wrong not to act on it without an adequate justification.  Emotions and Vocabulary

Non- Moral Standards

  refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a Free will is present and inherent in men unless they are idiots and with that, they
non-moral way. have the freedom of choice whether to perform or not the action at hand.
 are matters of taste or preference
 refers to rules that affect the choice of a person but are not linked to moral or ethical 2. Man is the highest form of Animal– endowed with intellect, man can decide
considerations, similar to ethics people use value judgment in dealing with these what’s best for him although their desires are the same as brutes such as hunger,
aspects. thirst, pain, and sensual needs; man moves based on reason while their lower
 Govern individual life, aspirations, and desires and may decide a person’s place in counterparts have only instinct. Sentient beings like animals rely on instincts which
his group. Some non-moral standards of any society could be grammar and language is natural biological drives, while men can decide whether an act is moral or not.
expectations, and clothing.
3. Man is a rational animal– Ratio is the Latin term for reason that means man has
the power to discern things based on his previous knowledge of things. Unlike
Examples: brutes, man has the power of abstraction – this is his ability to correlate ideas
 Standards of etiquette previously based on his mind as well as his understanding of the situation at hand,
 The law thereby giving him a logical or correct decision.
 Standards of aesthetics
4. The intellect and the will –are correlative with each other because the intellect is
the agent of knowing while the will is the agent of choice. From intellect –
Etiqutte - is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society. Table
knowledge is stored this will then guide the will to decide which is basically “good”.
manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating are examples of
They co-exist and from their partnership “virtue” is born.
etiqutte
Modifiers of Human Acts:
Characteristics Of Non-Moral Standards
1. Ignorance– this simply means the absence of knowledge. A doer’s responsibility for
Welfare of non-beings
his actions may be increased or decreased due to this. A person may have committed
 Relies on Authority-Law
an act for he is unaware of it.
 Religion, Tradition There are three types of ignorance:
 Limits Hegemony Vincible ignorance that can easily be corrected such as calling a person
 Self Interest with a wrong name or entering the wrong classroom. On the other hand,
Invincible ignorance – cannot be rectified an example is a waiter who gave the
Examples : wrong food to the customer or a killer that claimed the life of a wrong victim. The
 Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad third is Affected ignorance – is the doer’s attempt to escape responsibility such as
 Standards we call the law by which we judge legal right and wrong a suspect denying his complicity in a crime he has done.
 Standards of aesthetics – good or bad art
 The athletic standards – how well a game is being played 2. Passions– Psychic responses that may adhere or abhor them to either desirable or
undesirable tendencies. Positive emotions such as love, desire, or hope are
Moral Standards – “force others to act accordingly “ manifestations of the first while hatred, horror, and despair are examples of negative
Non- Moral standards – “we have no right to impose on others” emotions. There are also two passions such as antecedent and consequent passions
wherein the former are passions that occur before the stimulus such as accidentally
Modifiers of Human Acts meeting a special someone; while the other came after a stimulus we ourselves
Moral Standards caused for example meeting a special someone that we are already aware of his
Morality must be noted, is present only in humans. Meaning man can only be moral if he is arrival.
fully aware of his actions. Brutes have no morality for they are not guided by reason hence
they are not responsible for their actions and are not classified as human acts. Let us be guided 3. Fear– is the disturbance of the mind when confronted by danger to himself or a
based on these principles: loved one. Actions whether done with fear or out of fear may affect one’s action.
Acts done with fear are voluntary while acts done out of fear are two different
1. Man is the only Moral Being– due to three things: things. If one moves with fear this means he has to decide and yet is afraid he might
a) man is capable of action. err an example is an amateur singer performing in front of a large crowd or driving a
b) man has intellect. vehicle with limited know-how in driving. Actions out of fear are situations that
c) man has free will. needed immediate decisions such as jumping out of a plane about to crash land or
running away from a violent situation.
Being capable of action man can employ his bodily activities to perform 4. Violence– is physical force given to a free person to coerce him to do or not to do
actions. With man’s intellect, he can discern the good or evilness of his actions and something. Physical threats such as torture, starvation, or mutilation are examples of
at the same time equate the repercussions of his actions once asked to justify them.
 violence but were free will impair? No, free will is still there for they can still resist
making their moral integrity intact, in short, there is still a choice. DILEMMAS
Experiences where an agent is confused about the right decision to make because there are
5. Habits– readiness to perform habitual acts. Habits are done mechanically and several competing values that are seemingly equally important and urgent.
thinking is no longer necessary may either be good or bad. It is second nature to the
doer and doing it is instinct. 1. Personal Dilemma. An extremely difficult situation for someone to handle. It can
be moral or non-moral.
2. Moral Dilemma. Any difficult moral problems that raise hard moral questions. It
occurs when one moral reason conflicts with another, nor normally conflicts with
religious or aesthetic reasons. A moral reason is a requirement just in case it would
be morally wrong not to act on it without an adequate justification.

What is dilemma?
A social dilemma is an action situation in which an individual must decide on his own even if
it is against the socially-accepted norms. It is the situation that measure one’s maturity.

Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Moral dilemmas (ethical dilemmas) are “situations
where persons are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which
resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner”.

Moral dilemma examples

In discussing moral dilemmas, the online Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy gives this
example from the Book I of Plato’s Republic:

“… Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth and paying one’s debts. Socrates quickly
refutes this account by suggesting that it would be wrong to repay certain debts—for example,
to return a borrowed weapon to a friend who is not in his right mind.’

“Socrates’ point is not that repaying debts is without moral import; rather, he wants to show
that it is not always right to repay one’s debts, at least not exactly when the one to whom the
debt is owed demands repayment.’

“What we have here is a conflict between two moral norms: repaying one’s debts and
protecting others from harm…” (“Moral Dilemmas,” n.d.)

Notice that what is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an agent
regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions
seems to be ethically not possible.

Moral dilemma in ethics

The following are the key features of a moral dilemma:
(a) the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions;
(b) the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions.

Thus, in moral dilemmas, the agent appears condemned to moral failure. That is, no matter
what he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.
Dilemmas
In our example above (the case given by Plato), many would say that it is more important to
At the end of this module, you are expected to: protect people from harm than to return a borrowed weapon. Or, some would suggest that the
1. To understand the importance of dilemma to human reasoning borrowed item can be returned later, when the owner no longer poses a threat to others.
2. To help the learner gauge his level of thinking.
3. To discern one’s level of maturity. The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
1. Personal Dilemmas - whether or not to favor family, friends, or campaign contributors over other
Simply put, these personal dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the constituents;
personal level. Since many ethical decisions are personally made, many, if not most of, - favoring the agenda of one’s political party over a policy one believes to be
moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to, this level. good for the community;
– dealing with conflicting public duties inherent in serving both as a council
French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre gave an example or a case that could member and as a member of an agency or commission;
exemplify a personal moral dilemma: – resigning from organizations in which membership may give rise to future
conflicts;
“Sartre tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive – becoming whistle blower even if it means potentially derailing a policy
of 1940. The student wanted to avenge his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as objective one is pursuing; and,
evil. But the student’s mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in – accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of
life.’ impropriety.

“The student believed that he had conflicting obligations. Sartre describes him 3. Structural Dilemmas
as being torn between two kinds of morality: one of limited scope but certain efficacy, These structural moral dilemmas pertain to cases involving network of
personal devotion to his mother; the other of much wider scope but uncertain efficacy, institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-
attempting to contribute to the defeat of an unjust aggressor.” (“Moral Dilemmas,” n.d.) sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent than
organizational dilemmas.
We can give many other examples of personal moral dilemmas. If someone
makes conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to choose An example is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are higher
between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces compared to other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic status. Factors
an ethical dilemma. affecting medicine prices include the cost of research, presence of competition in the
market, government regulations, and patent protection.

The institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests or legal rights of the
2. Organizational Dilemmas involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical companies which own
Basically, ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations are the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies.
organizational moral dilemmas. This category includes moral dilemmas in business,
medical field, and public sector. An example of dilemma which is also structural in nature is that of Universal
For example, a hospital that believes that human life should not be deliberately Health Care (UHC). Locally applied, it is called “Kalusugan Pangkalahatan” (KP). It is
shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated encounters a conflict in the provision to every Filipino of the highest possible quality of health care that is
resolving whether to withdraw life support from a dying patient. This is a common moral accessible, efficient, equitably distributed, adequately funded, fairly financed, and
dilemma faced by healthcare organizations and medical institutions. appropriately used by an informed and empowered public.
Moral dilemmas also arise in professional work. Administrative bodies in
business are confronted with situations in which several courses of action are possible but Kalusugan Pangkalahatan” (KP), as a government mandate, aims to ensure that
none of them provide a totally successful outcome to those affected by the decision or every Filipino shall receive affordable and quality health benefits by (ideally) providing
actions taken. adequate resources – health human resources, health facilities, and health financing.
These moral dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices,
policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the Nonetheless, health financing is first and foremost a big issue here.
organizations. Other business-related dilemmas pertain to the social responsibility of Government could set aside bigger budget for health for the implementation of this
businesses, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, misleading advertising, job provision. But then, this would mean cutting down allocations on other sectors (such as
discrimination, and whistle blowing. education or public works.).
On the part of public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral
duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased. They should be loyal to the public and Foundation of Morality
ought to put public interest before personal gain, and fulfill duties of competency, Freedom: Responsibility for One’s Act and to Others
integrity, accountability, and transparency. Only human beings can be ethical because, 1) only human beings are rational, autonomous
Having said that, public officials nonetheless may encounter foreseeable moral (free) and self-conscious, 2) only human beings can act morally or immorally, and 3) only
dilemmas in fulfilling these ideals. So ethical or moral dilemmas which arise include the human beings are part of the moral community. Morality involves CHOICE. It is choosing
following examples: ethical codes, values or standards to guide us in our lives. Choosing is impossible without
freedom. Everyone who wishes to function morally in a society has to make choices every
minute of the day (De Guzman, 2018).
  Culture is so complex and it’s not easy to define. In one sense, culture is used to
Furthermore, freedom demands responsibility. According to Sartre, even though individuals denote those which are related to arts and humanities.
must make their own choices because they are free, these choices also have consequences to it  It is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are traditions and
– these consequences are something that the person must endure (Gallinero, 2018). are transmitted from generation to generation.
 It is the cultivated behavior of an individual which is socially transmitted through
Minimum Requirement for Morality social learning.
Since freedom demands responsibility, according to James Rachels, moral judgments must be  It denotes the practices, beliefs, and perceptions of a given society.
backed by sound reasoning and that morality requires the impartial consideration of all parties  Cultures vary over time periods, between countries and geographic regions, and
involved (Rachels, 2004) among groups and organizations.

Culture thus includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among particular
MODULE 2: THE MORAL AGENT group: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language,
notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females and males should interact,
Culture in Moral Behavior ideas about how the world works and so forth.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define and illustrate how Moral Agency works; HOW DOES CULTURE SHAPE MORAL BEHAVIOR?
2. Discuss and analyze Morality in terms of Culture and how it affects moral behavior; Culture is learned as children grow up in society and discover how their parents and
3. Discuss the strength and weakness of Filipino Moral Character; and others around them interpret the world. Culture is shared. Many aspects of morality are
4. Understand universal values taught. Observing or watching them, people develop a set of idea what is right and wrong,
what
Moral agency is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some notion is acceptable or not. Culture undeniably does play a significant pseudo role within shaping
of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions. When a person as an observer moral behavior and extends even further to social norms. Arguably, rather than defining our
makes an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone, she is making moral judgment. A moral behavior per se, it influences and changes our definitions of what ought to be deemed
moral agent is "a being who is capable of acting with reference to right and wrong. A moral morally acceptable by consistent exposure to it.
agent makes a moral decision. That is, when he is placed in a situation and confronted by the
choice of what act to perform. A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right The main determining question is whether moral behavior/actions are independent in
from wrong and to be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral comparison with the case in question. Saying yes would be implicitly stating we have inherent
responsibility not to cause unjustified harm. morality/moral norms that are in not necessarily attributable to exposure to external factors -
e.g. culture.
Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who can be held responsible for
their actions. Children, and adults with certain mental disabilities, may have little or no Culture, itself, is an individualistic, man-made concept of collective identity that
capacity to be moral agents. Adults with full mental capacity relinquish their moral agency is open to complete subjectivity. The fact so many ‘cultures’ exist is evidence of this - solely
only in extreme situations, like being held hostage. By expecting people to act as moral agents, due to the differentiation of societal norms from place to place. The subjectivity argument for
we hold people accountable for the harm culture can be stretched further and applied to morality. Where culture does form the basis of
they cause others. Generally speaking, ethics is about matters such as the good things that we some of our morality is in the fact
should pursue and the bad things that we should avoid. The thing here is, it’s not that it tells that, whilst we might share certain moral views, what is deemed morally acceptable/repugnant
you what is right and wrong; but it will help and guide you in determining it for differs from person to person. By way of example, let us discuss the issue of arranged/forced
yourself. How? By these conceptual and analytic tools that will guide you in your ethical marriage.
thinking, this will contribute to your intellectual competencies and analysis of human
existence. We will determine the grounds for the values which has significance to human life. From a modern cultural standpoint, it would be generally widely agreed that forced
marriage is a morally reprehensible concept and not acceptable under any circumstances. By
In our moral valuation, sources of authority that imposed our standards of valuation and these way of contrast, the regularity of the same concept within some societies, would be seen much
commands our obedience. It includes the law, religion, and culture. more favorably due to the level of habitual exposure individuals within that society have to it.
Essentially, the cultural bias by which we form our moral opinions is shaped by social
What is culture? acceptance within our own individual societies. While there are some obvious exceptions, this
Culture is all around us. It appears to be an actual part of our social life as well as our rationale can be applied to most moral concepts, where there is a distinct difference between
personality. Culture is a quality that some people have more than others: because how the way in which they are viewed in one culture vs another.
cultured we are depends on some factors such as status, class, education, taste in music or
film, and speech habits.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ETHICS Absolute cultural relativism is displayed in many cultures, especially Africa, that practice
Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware that there are female genital cutting. This procedure refers to the partial or total removal of the external
ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own, that there is in fact a wide female genitalia or any other trauma to the female reproductive/genital organs. By allowing
diversity of how different people believe it is proper to act. We can see here the reality of this procedure to happen, females are considered women and then are able to be married. FGC
diversity. We cannot say that our culture is what is ethically acceptable than the other culture. is practiced mainly
In our moral valuation, we have different. because of culture, religion and tradition. Outside cultures such as the United States look down
upon FGC, but are unable to stop this practice from happening because it is protected by its
ways of valuation, which means there is no single universal standard for such culture.
valuations. What is ethically acceptable or not is relative to, or that is to say, dependent on
one’s culture. This position is referred to as cultural relativism. Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's
culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society
MORAL RELATIVISM in which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally
Cultural relativism is the most famous form of moral relativism. In moral relativism, wrong in another. Cultures differ widely in their moral practices. As anthropologist Ruth
ethical judgments have their origins either in individual or cultural standards. Our ethical Benedict illustrates in Patterns of Culture, diversity is evident even on those matters of
judgments vary based on our origins and we have therefore varying moral principles which morality where we would expect to agree: We might suppose that in the matter of taking life
guides a person as their basis of moral decisions and ethical judgment. It fundamentally all peoples would agree on condemnation. On the contrary, in the matter of homicide, it may
believes that no act is good or bad objectively because moral standards change over time even be held that one kills by custom his two children, or that a husband has a right of life and death
in the same culture. Moral relativists view all moral norms as equally true, and morals as mere over his wife or that it is the duty of the child to kill his parents before they are old. It may be
preferences. We cannot be objective. We cannot say that this is right, this is wrong. the case that those are killed who steal fowl, or who cut their upper teeth first, or who are born
on Wednesday.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: THE DIFFERENCES IN MORAL JUDGMENT AND
BEHAVIOR, ACROSS AND WITHIN SOCIETIES Among some peoples, a person suffers torment at having caused an accidental death,
 Cultures vary substantially in both moral judgments and moral behaviors. among others, it is a matter of no consequence. Suicide may also be a light matter, the
 Cultural variations in morality within societies can vary as much as cultural recourse of anyone who has suffered some slight rebuff. It may be the highest and noblest act
variations in morality between societies. a wise man can perform (like how samurais commit Harakiri or ritual disembowelment to save
 Cultural factors contributing to this variation include religion, social ecology face). Other anthropologists point to a range of practices considered morally acceptable in
(weather, crop conditions, population density, pathogen prevalence, residential some societies but condemned in others, including infanticide (killing babies), genocide
mobility), and regulatory social institutions such as kinship structures and economic (killing ethnic groups), polygamy (having more than one spouses), racism, sexism, and torture.
markets. Such differences may lead us to question whether there are any universal moral principles or
whether morality is merely a matter of "cultural taste." Differences in moral practices across
Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make cultures raise an important issue in ethics – the concept of "ethical relativism."
judgments using the standards of one’s own culture. The goal of this is promote understanding
of cultural practices that are not typically part of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of In Ethical relativism, morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether
cultural relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than another culture when an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced.
compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc. It is a concept that cultural norms and The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in another. For the
values derive their meaning within a specific social context. This is also based on the idea that ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally
there is no absolute standard of good or evil, therefore every decision and judgment of what is applied to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a society's practices
right and wrong is individually decided in each society. can be judged are its own.
The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the
perspective of each person within their particular culture. Overall, there is no right or wrong Other philosophers criticize ethical relativism because of its implications for individual
ethical system. In a holistic understanding of the term cultural relativism, it tries to promote moral beliefs. These philosophers assert that if the rightness or wrongness of an action
the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating depends on a society's norms, then it follows that one must obey the norms of one's society
insects, genocides or genital cutting. and to diverge from those norms is to act immorally. This means that if I am a member of a
society that believes that racial or sexist practices are morally permissible, then I must
There are two different categories of cultural relativism: accept those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social conformity and
1. Absolute: Everything that happens within a culture must and should not be leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. Furthermore, members of the
questioned by outsiders. The extreme example of absolute cultural relativism would same society may hold different views on practices. In the United States, for example, a
be the Nazi party’s point of view justifying the Holocaust. variety of moral opinions exists on matters ranging from animal experimentation to
2. Critical: Creates questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting them abortion. What constitutes right action when social consensus is lacking?
and why. Critical cultural relativism also recognizes power relationships.
Perhaps the strongest argument against ethical relativism comes from those who assert that According to Aristotle, achieving the highest purpose of a human person, one has
universal moral standards can exist even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among the ability to functions according to reason and performs an activity well or excellently. This
cultures. In other words, we can acknowledge cultural differences in moral practices and excellent way of doing things is called virtue or arête by the Greeks.
beliefs and still hold that some of these practices and beliefs are morally wrong. The practice
of slavery in pre-Civil war U.S. society or the practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong For Aristotle, what comprises the human soul and this soul according to him, must be directed
despite the beliefs of those societies. The treatment of the Jews in Nazi society is morally by reason in an excellent way. The human soul is divided into 2parts:
reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs of Nazi society.
I. Irrational element – not in the realm where virtue is exercised, because, as the term
For these philosophers, ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical suggests, it cannot be dictated by reason.
examination of the reasons underlying practices and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral A. Vegetative aspect – aspect of the soul that follows the natural processes involved in
practices and beliefs, ethical relativism fails to recognize that some societies have better the physical activities and growth of a person.
reasons for holding their views than others. But even if the theory of ethical relativism is B. Appetitive aspect – act of desiring in itself is an impulse that naturally runs counter
rejected, it must be acknowledged that the concept raises important issues. Ethical relativism to reason and most of the time refuses to go along with reason.
reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs
are deeply influenced by culture. It also encourages us to explore the reasons underlying
beliefs that differ from our own, while challenging us to examine our reasons for the beliefs II. Rational faculty – the rational faculty of man exercises excellence in him. One can rightly
and values we hold. or wrongly apply the use of reason in this part.
A. Intellectual faculty (act of knowing) One rational aspect where a person can attain
excellence is in the intellectual faculty of the soul. As stated by Aristotle, this
excellence is attained through teaching. We learn from our vast experiences through
THE FILIPINO WAY - FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTHS time where we gain knowledge on things. We learn and gain wisdom when we are
AND WEAKNESSES being taught or be learning.
Filipino cultural morality centers on having a smooth interpersonal relationship.
Toachieve this, we have six basic Filipino values: There are two ways where we can attain intellectual excellence: Philosophical and practical
1. Pakikisama - having and maintaining “good public relations” wisdom.
2. Hiya – the feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment and shyness
3. Amor propio – commonly translated as “self respect” or “self esteem” Philosophic wisdom – attaining knowledge of the general principles that constitute reality. For
4. Utang na loob – this involves the concept of “reciprocity” or returning the received example, general theory on the origin of
favor. things. It helps one understand in general the meaning of life.
5. Filipino hospitality - refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous
and entertaining to their guests. Practical wisdom – knowing the right conduct in carrying out a particular act. In other words,
6. Respect for elders – these include the use of “po” and “opo” when talking to elders we can attain a wisdom that can provide us with a guide on how to behave in our daily lives.
and “pagmamano”
However, Aristotle points out that having intellectual excellence does not make one into
THE UNIVERSAL VALUES morally good person. Why? Because, knowing the good and being able to determine the
By universal values we mean those values generally shared by cultures. There are some moral appropriate action in a given situation do not make her do the good
rules that all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to automatically.
exist.
1. Truth telling - without it, there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone B. Moral faculty (act of doing) Knowing the good implies the ability to perform morally
communicates with anyone. virtuous acts. The moral aspect of the rational faculty concerns itself with the act of doing the
2. Respecting life - necessitates the prohibition on murder. good.
These universal values are necessary to maintain a healthy society. Therefore, rational faculty of a person tells us that she is capable of achieving two kinds of
virtue: moral and intellectual.
Developing virtue as a Habit
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT
1. Define and illustrate developing virtue as habit; A morally virtuous man is someone who habitually determines the good and does
2. Discuss and determine the different levels of moral reasoning and its relationship to the right actions. Being morally good is a process of getting used to doing the proper act.
the stages of moral development.
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES
VIRTUE=EXCELLENCE
 “Character” is derived from the Greek word ‘charaktêr’ which mean a distinct mark. MODULE 3: THE ACT
In modern usage, character was merge with “personality” (combination of characteristics and Feelings and Moral Decision
qualities that forms an individual’s distinctive characters). Moral character is the existence or Emotion
lack of virtues. A person has a good moral character means that he/she is a good person and a - Play a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make. Most people do not
good citizen with a sound moral compass. A morally virtuous person is concerned with realize how much their emotions direct their moral choices. But experts think it is
achieving her appropriate action in a manner that is neither excessive nor deficient. possible to make any important moral judgements without emotions.

Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people
to act ethically.

Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. For
example, people often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted unethically.
This discourages others from behaving the same way.

Moral decision
- Making is an essential asset for humans’ integration in social contexts. Emotional
processes contribute to moral judgment by assigning affective value to the moral
decision-making scenarios, thus guiding the distinction between acceptable and
inacceptable behaviors (Haidt, 2001).

A morally virtuous person targets mesotes. The middle is always in between an According to the Catholic Dictionary, there are factors in human conduct that determine
action, feeling, or passion that is deficient or excessive. Nothing is lacking or is too much from whether it is good or bad. There are their determinants of morality: act, intention,
an act that is morally good. For Aristotle, virtue is the good in between vices. circumstance.

THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER  Act itself is meant what the free will chooses to do – in thought, word, or deed or
In the moral development, there is the circular relation between acts that build chooses not to do.
character and moral character itself. A person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but  Intention is the purpose for which act is willed, which may be the act itself or some
moral character itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice. In the moral other purpose for which a person act. In either case, the end is motive or the reason
development, there is the sense of human flourishing. This flourishing is attained by the why the action is done.
habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellence. Virtuous traits of character are called
excellences of the human being because they are the best exercise of reason. Circumstance meant that all the elements that surround a human action ad affect its morality
without belonging to its essence.
MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITION  A convenient listing of this circumstance is to ask: who? Where? How? By what
Virtue = positive reactive attitude (praise or gratitude) means?
Vice = negative reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame
So, why do we have feelings?
- “Human beings are the most self-conscious animals” which allows them to develop
“basic emotional responses” and generate more rational methods to help- them
survive. This is the difference between humans and animals (Simons, 2009).

Man is the only Moral Being – due to three things:

a. Man is capable of action.
b. Man has intellect.
c. Man has free will.
Back in the days when our ancestors live in the caves without protective gear, compared to
what we have right now, their primary tool for their survival in their bodies is “flight or fight
mode”. In this mode, their bodies prepare tense, their muscles tighten, and their consciousness
become alert. This response is triggered by fear which people feel when they sense potential
threat. Our ancestor benefited a lot from using their emotions and feelings in surviving from For example if someone says “stealing is immoral” . It’s a statement. Then, emotivism
Sangers. Hence feelings and emotions are beneficial to humans. interprets that it’s boo for stealing, thus it as an attempt to stop you from doing such act. It’s
more of a command, it is equivalent to- don’t do that!
So, should we completely refrain from listening to our feelings?
- The answer is NO, we should learn how to balance our feelings and rational mind. FEELINGS CAN HELP IN MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS
Our feelings let us get in touch with our humanity. It helps us in empathizing with  Experientially, our moral compasses are also strongly influenced by the feeling
other people and thinking about how a certain action would most probably affect forces of disgust, fondness, or fear.
them and thinking about how a certain action would most probably affect them. On  Emotions, like our love for our friends and family, are a crucial part of what gives
the other hand, reason and impartiality would make us see things clearly as it pushes life meaning and ought to play a guiding role in morality.
us to be objective and detach ourselves from our selfish desires.
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS One of the reasons Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism are not viable theories in
Emotions are said to be judgment to one’s accomplishment of his goals. Our feelings ethics is that they miss to make a distinction between moral judgments and mere expressions
identifies if we accomplish our goals or not. We’re happy when accomplished and sad or of personal preference. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reasons play a
disappointed if not. So, feelings can provide motivations to act morally. vital role in Ethics. Moral truths are truths of reason.

MORAL EMOTIONS Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality

 Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often Reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it
motivate people to act ethically. refers to the capacity for logical, rational, and analytic thought; involves justification/
 Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. For justifying. Reason is a necessary requirement for morality. In the case of moral judgments,
example, people often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted they require backing by reasons. Truth in Ethics entails being justified by good reasons. Moral
unethically. This discourages others from behaving the same way. truths are objective in the sense that they are true no matter what we might want or think.
 Positive emotions like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they
see another acting with compassion or kindness, can prompt people to help others. Impartiality involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are
equally important. It is a principle of justice. Impartiality in morality requires that we give
FEELINGS AS OBSTACLES TO MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties. It assumes that
ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM every person, generally speaking, is equally important, that is, no one is seen as intrinsically
 Holds that the truth or falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings, more significant than anyone else.
attitudes, or standards of people or group of persons. This theory states that moral
judgments simply describe our personal feelings.
 Moral opinions are based on our feelings and he submits to his feelings about it, MORAL COURAGE
nothing more. The Act: Moral Courage
Analyzing Ethical Subjectivism: We have learned that in morality, when we relied much on our feelings, probably it
Subjectivism cannot account for the fact of disagreement in Ethics would be a hindrance in our good moral decisions, to say, is disadvantageous. When we face
moral dilemmas, we should be backed up by reasons and not with just emotions. But, for
Example: John believes that hazing is wrong while Peter maintains it is good. Each of them many ethicists, reason is not also enough in our moral decisions, we should also possess moral
acknowledge the truth of their stand. courage. This, moral courage is also important.
John = hazing is wrong Peter = hazing is good
Moral Courage means “doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule,
When A says “x is morally acceptable” and B says, “x is morally unacceptable”, they are punishment, loss of job or security or social status, etc. It is overcoming the fear of emotional
disagreeing. If Ethical subjectivism is correct, there would be no disagreement between A and harm or rejection from others.
B. Therefore, Ethical subjectivism cannot be correct.
MORAL COURAGE
EMOTIVISM – Charles L. Stevenson  is the quality of mind or spirit that enables a person to withstand danger, difficulty,
This theory states that moral judgment expresses positive or negative feelings. Our expression or fear; persevere; and venture.
of feelings in moral judgment  Comprehensively, it is a willful, intentional act, executed after mindful deliberation,
involving objective substantial risk to the bearer, and primarily motivated to bring
Purpose of Emotivism about a noble good or worthy end despite, perhaps, the presence of the emotion of
 They are used as a means of influencing other’s behavior. fear.
 Moral sentences are used to express the speaker’s attitude  means "doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment,
loss of job or security or social status, etc.
  requires that we rise above the apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism, and fear DEVELOPING WILL AND MORAL COURAGE
mongering in our political systems, socioeconomic divisions, and cultural, religious 1. Develop and practice self-discipline
differences. - One way to develop moral courage and will is to develop and practice self-
discipline. The concept self-discipline involves the rejection of instant gratification
Moral is concerned with the principles of right and wrong ethically. in favor of something better. Ethically applied, it may refer to the giving up of
Courage can be defined as an act or responsibility that can be manifest in times of dilemma instant pleasure and satisfaction for a higher and better goal such as executing a
and the ability to confront danger, fear, intimidation, pain or uncertainty. good rational moral decision. Developing will and moral courage involves
developing self-control. It includes nurturing the ability to stick to actions, thoughts,
Moral courage is the commitment to standing up for and acting upon one’s ethical beliefs and behavior, which lead to moral improvement and success. It encompasses
(Miller, 2005). endowing the inner strength to focus all the energy on a moral goal and persevere
until it is accomplished.
Why the will is as important as reason
One’s will power is very important in making moral decisions. Moral Courage is the 2. Do mental strength training.
courage “to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in doubt, are afraid, - This method is never reserved for a few special people. One of the simplest and
or face adverse consequences. On the other hand, will is the capacity to act decisively on one’s effective methods under this mental strength training involves declining to satisfy
desire” (Gallinero, 2018). unimportant and unnecessary desires. Everybody is normally confronted and
tempted by an endless stream of cravings and temptations, many of which are not
WILL actually important or desirable. By practicing refusing to gratify every one of them,
 refers to that faculty of the mind which chooses, at the moment of making decision, a person gets courageous and stronger. Saying no to useless, harmful or unnecessary
the strongest desire from among the various desires present. desires and deeds, and behaving contrary to one’s (bad) habits, fortify and refine a
 does not refer to any particular desire, but rather to the capacity to act decisively on person’s mindset. By persistent practice, one’s inner power grows, in the same way
one's desires. working out one’s muscles at a gym increases one’s physical strength. In both cases,
when a person needs inner power or physical strength, they are available at his/her
disposal.
Developing the will
To develop the will, the one and only way to do it is to engage into putting rational, The following are some examples. Some of them are not necessarily ethically
moral choice into action. related:
 Don’t open the internet for a day or two.
Will and Moral Courage  Drink water or juice, in spite of your desire to have a beer or liquor.
Will is often defined as the faculty of the mind that selects, at the moment of  Avoid chatting with your gossipy friend.
decision, a desire among the various desires present; it itself does not refer to any particular  For a week, go to sleep one hour earlier than usual.
desire, but rather to the mechanism responsible for choosing from among one's desires.  Resist the desire to gamble.

According to Arthur Schopenhauer, will is primary and uses knowledge in order to Trainings like these add to the storehouse of one’s inner strength. By following a
find an object that will satisfy its craving. It is the inner strength to make a decision, take methodical method of training, a person can reach far, have more control over oneself and
action, and handle and execute any aim or task until it is accomplished, regardless of one’s life, realize ethical goals, improve his/her life, and achieve satisfaction and peace of
resistance, discomfort or difficulties. mind.

The Will Power 3. Draw inspiration from people of great courage.

This is the ability to overcome laziness, temptations and negative habits, and to - People usually admire and respect courageous persons who have won great success
carry out actions, even if they require effort, are unpleasant or are contrary to one’s habits. by manifesting self-discipline and will power. These include people in all walks of
Having moral courage and will means doing the right thing, which may include listening to life, who with sheer will power and moral courage, overcame difficulties and
our conscience. Furthermore, it is the ability to resist temptation, the ability to do what you hardships, have improved their moral life, advanced on the spiritual or moral path,
need to do, which indicates the statement “I won’t, I will, I want”. and became worthy of imitation.

What is the difference between Reason and Will and Action? 4. Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will.
 The will is guided by reason, where, as determined by reason, action is performed - Practice makes perfect. If one wishes to nurture the moral courage and will in him,
according to rational requirements, or laws of reason. he must strive doing the acts that manifest them whenever opportunity allows it.
 Reason has, in other words, the capacity to direct action. Further, where the will is
guided by reason, it is free The following are some examples:
 helping someone push a car, even if it means being late
  standing up to a bully on the playground
 picking up litter
 doing homework or chores without being reminded
 refusing to listen to or repeat gossip
 practicing what you preach, even when no-one is looking or knows
 turning in a toy or a wallet to the Lost and Found
 calling home for a ride from a party where alcohol is being served
 giving all students an equal voice regardless of race, socioeconomic status,
religion, gender or sexual orientation
 becoming company whistle blower risking job loss, financial cost, and or
legal repercussion
 reporting a crime
 participating in a peaceful protest

5. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will.

- This involves evading acts that show irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy, rashness,
imprudence, ill will, and wickedness.

Example:
 walking away from someone in need
 taking more than your fair share\
 laughing at someone's misfortune or accident
 grabbing the spotlight from someone who has earned it
 placing too much reliance on the letter rather than the spirit of the law
 remaining silent in the face of wrong-doing or injustice
 rationalizations or justifications for action/lack of action
 being inconsistent or capricious with rules and standards for one’s children
 choosing sides after seeing which way the wind is blowing
 breaking a promise
 lying or cheating

ANGER MANAGEMENT
Anger is one of the natural human emotions. But excessive anger could be harmful
to our well-being and to those around us. Anger management is necessary as it helps us not to
be stressed out very much and still have a good outlook in life despite unpleasant occurrences.

10 Helpful Ways to Get Away from Anger

1. Go away from the situation.
2. Drink several cool (not icy) water to get rid your anger.
3. When fasting, engage in activities that give calmness.
4. Think of something funny.
5. Take ten deep breaths.
6. Surround yourself with optimistic people.
7. Don’t add to the hate in this world.
8. Don't contain your anger.
9. Remember that anger is natural.
10. Properly deal with the people who have offended you.
MODULE 4: FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR
MORAL DISPOSITION 1. Bioethics - abortion, euthanasia, surrogate motherhood, cloning and genetic
manipulation, mutilation, etc.
2. Human Sexual Ethics - human sexuality, pre-marital sex, extra-marital sex,
Basic Theories and Frameworks in Ethics
pornography, contraception, loveless and casual sex, rape, etc.
The study of ethics or morality today is generally divided into three main areas, namely: 1)
3. Environmental Ethics - animal welfare and rights, environmental sanitation,
meta-ethics, 2) normative ethics, and 3) applied ethics.
pollution control, kaingin, cyanide fishing, etc.
4. Business Ethics - harassment, job discrimination, employer-employee relationship,
Meta-ethics consists of the attempt to answer the fundamental philosophical questions about
whistle blowing, unprofessionalism, false advertising, etc.
the nature of ethical theory itself (Klement, n.d.).
5. Social Ethics - poverty, child labor, war on drugs, death penalty, racial
discrimination, gender discrimination, etc.
Some Classifications of Meta-ethics
1. Cognitivism and Non-cognitivism
Virtue Ethics: Aristotle
Cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments are propositions, hence, they
Happiness is the highest good and the end at which all our activities ultimately aim.
can either be true or false. Non-cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments cannot
All our activities aim at some end, though most of these ends are means toward other ends.
be true or false, but they are most likely expressions of emotions or exclamations.
For example, we go grocery shopping to buy food, but buying food is itself a means toward
(Klement, n.d.)
the end of eating well and thriftily. Eating well and thriftily is also not an end in itself but a
2. Subjectivism and Objectivism
means to other ends.
Subjectivism is an ethical view that morality depends on the individual’s
attitudes, beliefs, desires, etc., rather than anything external. Objectivism is an
Only happiness is an end in itself, so it is the ultimate end at which all our activities
ethical view that morality is absolute (objective) wherein it is based on moral facts
aim. As such, it is the supreme good. The difficulty is that people don’t agree on what makes
and principles, rather than anything from the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, desires,
for a happy or good life, so the purpose of Ethics is to find an answer to this question.
etc. (Klement, n.d.)
Normative Ethics is the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what
Aristotle defines the supreme good as an activity of the rational soul in accordance
makes situations or events good or bad, and what makes people virtuous or vicious
with virtue. Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A man has virtue as a flautist, for
(Klement, n.d.)
instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing the flute is the distinctive activity of a flautist.
Classifications of Normative Ethics
A virtuous person is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human
1. Deontology
well. All living things have a nutritive soul, which governs growth and nutrition. Humans and
Deontology is a theory that bases morality on moral rules or duties (De
animals are distinct from plants in having a sensitive soul, which governs locomotion and
Guzman, 2018). In other words, a moral deontologist will utilize established rules or
instinct. Humans are distinct above all for having also a rational soul, which governs
duties to distinguish what is right and wrong.
thought. Rationality is our distinctive activity that distinguishes us from plants and animals.
2. Teleology
Since our rationality is our distinctive activity, its exercise is the supreme good.
Teleology is a theory that determines the moral value of actions by their
outcomes or results (De Guzman, 2018). So, an action is good if it is done or in
According to Aristotle, a virtuous person is someone who has ideal character
pursuit of a moral goal or end.
traits. These traits derive from natural internal tendencies, but need to be nurtured; however,
3. Utilitarianism
once established, they will become stable.
Utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism, is a theory that bases
morality on the consequences of actions. So, an action is good if it produces the
For example, a virtuous person is someone who is kind across many situations over
“best” consequences among the rest of the alternative actions.
a lifetime because that is her character and not because she wants to maximize utility or gain
favors or simply do her duty.
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is a theory that is character-based rather than act-based like deontology or
Virtue ethics has been developed in three main directions: Eudaimonism, agent-
teleology. When we say that it is character-based, it means that we judge or determine
based theories, and the ethics of care.
goodness (or badness) in the person by judging the overall character or virtues that he/she
possesses.
EUDAIMONISM
Eudaimonism bases virtues in human flourishing, where flourishing is equated with
Applied Ethics consists in the attempt to answer difficult moral questions actual people face
performing one’s distinctive function well. In the case of humans, Aristotle argued that our
in their lives (Klement, n.d.). The moral questions addressed under Applied Ethics are mostly
distinctive function is reasoning, and so the life “worth living” is one which we reason well.
about the social issues that we usually experience in the present time. According to De
Guzman, J.M. et.al., Applied Ethics is classified into the following sub-fields (De Guzman,
To understand its role in virtue ethics we look to Aristotle’s function argument.
2018):
Aristotle recognizes that actions are not pointless because they have an aim. Every action aims
at some good. For example, the doctor’s vaccination of the baby aims at the baby’s health, the
tennis player Tim Henman works on his serve so that he can win the match, and so on. “What is the right action?” is a significantly different question to ask from “How should I
live? What kind of person should I be?”
Furthermore, somethings are done for their own sake (ends in themselves) and
somethings are done for the sake of other things (means to other ends). Aristotle claims that all Where the first type of question deals with specific dilemmas, the second is a question about
the things that are ends in themselves also contribute to a wider end, an end that is the greatest an entire life. Instead of asking what the right action is here and now, virtue ethics asks what
good of all. That good is eudaimonia. Eudaimonia is happiness, contentment, and fulfillment; kind of person one should be in order to get it right all the time.
it’s the name of the best kind of life, which is an end in itself and a means to live and fare CHARACTER AND VIRTUE
well. Modern virtue ethics takes its inspiration from the Aristotelian understanding of
character and virtue. Aristotelian character is, importantly, about a state of being. It’s about
Aristotle also said that a thing has a function, and the good of the thing is when it having the appropriate inner states.
performs its function well. For example, the knife has a function, to cut, and it performs its
function well when it cuts well. This argument is applied to man: man has a function and the For example, the virtue of kindness involves the right sort of emotions and inner
good man is the man who performs his function well. Man’s function is what is peculiar to states with respect to our feelings towards others. Character is also about doing. Aristotelian
him and sets him aside from other beings—reason. Therefore, the function of man is reason theory is a theory of action, since having the virtuous inner dispositions will also involve being
and the life that is distinctive of humans is the life in accordance with reason. If the function of moved to act in accordance with them. Realizing that kindness is the appropriate response to a
man is reason, then the good man is the man who reasons well. This is the life of excellence situation and feeling appropriately kindly disposed will also lead to a corresponding attempt to
or of eudaimonia. Eudaimonia is the life of virtue—activity in accordance with reason, man’s act kindly.
highest function.
Another distinguishing feature of virtue ethics is that character traits are stable,
AGENT-BASED THEORY fixed, and reliable dispositions. If an moral agent possesses the character trait of kindness, we
Not all accounts of virtue ethics are eudaimonist. Michael Slote, UST Professor of would expect him or her to act kindly in all sorts of situations, towards all kinds of people, and
ethics at the University of Miami and an author of a number of books, has developed an over a long period of time, even when it is difficult to do so. A person with a certain character
account of virtue based on our common-sense intuitions about which character traits are can be relied upon to act consistently overtime.
admirable. Slote makes a distinction between agent-focused and agent-based theories. Agent-
focused theories understand the moral life in terms of what it is to be a virtuous individual, MORAL EDUCATION
where the virtues are inner dispositions. Aristotelian theory is an example of an agent-focused Moral education and development is a major part of virtue ethics. Moral
theory. development, at least in its early stages, relies on the availability of good role models. The
virtuous agent acts as a role model and the student of virtue emulates his or her example.
By contrast, agent-based theories are more radical in that their evaluation of Initially this is a process of habituating oneself in right action. Aristotle advises us to perform
actions is dependent on ethical judgments about the inner life of the agents who perform just acts because this way we become just. The student of virtue must develop the right habits,
those actions. There are a variety of human traits that we find admirable, such as benevolence, so that he tends to perform virtuous acts. Virtue is not itself a habit. Habituation is merely an
kindness, compassion, etc. and we can identify these by looking at the people we admire, our aid to the development of virtue, but true virtue requires choice, understanding, and
moral exemplars. knowledge. The virtuous agent doesn’t act justly merely out of an unreflective response, but
has come to recognize the value of virtue and why it is the appropriate response. Virtue is
Agent-based theory emphasizes that virtues are determined by common-sense intuitions that chosen knowingly for its own sake.
we as observers judge to be admirable traits in other people.
VIRTUE ETHICS
THE ETHICS OF CARE Virtue
The ethics of care was proposed predominately by feminist thinkers. It challenges - According to Aristotle the excellent of a thing to perform it is proper function.
the idea that ethics should focus solely on justice and autonomy; it argues that more feminine a. Virtue ethics is person rather than action based.
traits, such as caring and nurturing, should also be considered. Developed mainly by feminist b. Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions
writers, this account of virtue ethics is motivated by the, thought that men think in masculine A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who
terms such as justice and autonomy, whereas woman think in feminine terms such as caring. possesses and lives the virtues.
These theorists call for a change in how we view morality and the virtues, shifting towards In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather than particular
virtues exemplified by women, such as taking care of others, patience, the ability to nurture, episodes or actions.
self-sacrifice, etc.
A virtue is an excellent trait of character. It is a disposition, well entrenched in its possessor
These virtues have been marginalized because society has not adequately valued the —something that, as we say, goes all the way down, unlike a habit such as being a tea-drinker
contributions of women. Writings in this area do not always explicitly make a connection with —to notice, expect, value, feel, desire, choose, act, and react in certain characteristic ways.
virtue ethics. There is much in their discussions, however, of specific virtues and their relation
to social practices and moral education, etc., which is central to virtue ethics.
An honest person’s reasons and choices with respect to honest and dishonest actions reflect her
views about honesty, truth, and deception—but of course such views manifest themselves with
respect to other actions, and to emotional reactions as well.

WHO IS ARISTOTLE?
Nichomachean Ethics: principles of conduct that would guide humans in attaining a " good
life”. NATURAL LAW: St. Thomas Aquinas The “Angelic Doctor”
According to Aristotle, “every action and pursuit is thought to aim at some good…” (Stumpf, Thomas Aquinas
S.E., 2005). The two books are combinations of philosophy and theology where he discussed about
the role of natural laws, virtues and happiness in moral philosophy. (De Guzman, 2018)
TELOS  Summa Theologica
- As persons with a capacity for rational thinking, we always have telos which is a  Summa Contra Gentiles
goal that we have to fulfill.
- Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains that a person acquires character excellence Natural Law
by habituation. Hence, we can say that virtues are positive or good acts that are "Reason"
habitually put into action which in turn develops the character of the person The basic idea that in natural law thics is that reason is the source of the mroal law that directs
(Gallinero, 2018). us towards the" GOOD."
ARISTOTLE: VIRTUE ETHICS "Moral Code"
Moral Virtue: Virtue as a Habit The term Natural law is derived from the belief that human morality comes the nature.
- we must always remember that we should always act in a moderate way, that is, to Aquinas described natural law as a moral code existing within the purpose of nature, created
act in a way that is too much nor too little (neither in excess nor in deficiency). by God.
- For Aristotle, a virtuous act is the “golden mean” between two extremes – by which
these extremes are considered as undesirable actions or commonly termed as vices. The Aquinas’ basic moral law can be best described by the following, “Good is to be done
and pursued… and evil to be avoided. All the other precepts of the law of nature are based on
EUDAIMONIST VIRTUE ETHICS this.
Happiness as Virtue
- A virtue is a trait that contributes to or is a constituent of eudaimonia and we ought For Aquinas:
to develop virtues, the eudaimonist claims, precisely because they contribute to  The first is that, when we focus on God’s role as the giver of the natural law, law, the
eudaimonia. natural law is just one aspect of divine providence; and so the theory of natural law
- The concept of eudaimonia, a key term in ancient Greek moral philosophy, is is from that perspective just one part among others of the theory of divine
standardly translated as “happiness” or “flourishing” and occasionally as “well- providence.
being.”
 The second is that, when we focus on the human’s role as recipient of the natural
law, the natural law constitutes the principles of practical rationality, those principles
EUDAIMONIA
by which human action is to be judged as reasonable or unreasonable; and so the
- Aristotle claims that all the things that are ends in themselves also contribute to a
theory of natural law is from that perspective the preeminent part of the theory of
wider end, an end that is the greatest good of all. That good is eudaimonia.
practical rationality.
Eudaimonia is happiness, contentment, and fulfillment; it’s the name of the best kind
of life, which is an end in itself and a means to live and fare well.
St. Thomas Aquinas
ETERNA HUMAN
VIRTUE AS GOOD HABIT
L
- The Moral Agent can only attain happiness by being consistently living a good life
or acting habitually in accordance with the good. DIVINE NATURA
- Aristotle writes " we are adapted by nature to receive these virtues and made perfect L
by habit" "ETERNAL LAW"
The formation of virtue or good habit has two stages: refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is ordered.
• the habit of contemplation of thought.
• the habit of actual practice of moral virtue. "NATURAL LAW"
is that aspect of the eternal law which is accessible to human reason.
“Ethike Arete”
"DIVINE LAW"
is a law of revelation, disclosed through sacred text or Scriptures and the Church which is also The Moral Worth of People
directed toward man’s eternal end”.  A person's actions determine his/her moral worth, but there is more to this than
merely seeing if the actions are right or wrong.
"HUMAN LAW"  Kant argues that a person is good or bad depending on the motivation of their
Human law also includes the civil and criminal laws as formulated in the light of proper and actions and not on the goodness of the consequences of those actions.
practical reason and moral laws. Human laws that are against the natural law are not binding  Kant argues that one can have moral worth (i.e., be a good person) only if one is
and not real laws, and people are not obliged to obey those unjust laws. motivated by morality. In other words, if a person's emotions or desires cause them
to do something, then that action cannot give them moral worth.
According to Aquinas’s theology, natural law is integral to divine providence.
“Eternal law” is the overarching law, established by God, which gives order to the chaos of Immanuel Kant
creation. The portion of eternal Law pertaining to human beings is, to Aquinas, natural law. There are two questions that must be asked whenever they decide to act:
 Can I rationally will that everyone act as I propose to act?
Furthermore, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that as human reason dictates (natural o If the answer is no, then we must not perform the action.
law), happiness or eudaimonia is our natural telos. In order to achieve true happiness,  Does my action respect the goals of human beings rather than merely using them for
humans must follow certain natural laws. my own purposes?
o Again, if the answer is no, then we must not perform the action.
Happiness as Constitutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues
St. Thomas Aquinas “believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that
Kant’s Moral Theory
eternal happiness is the final end. He also thinks that happiness is not equated with
 Only the good will is absolutely good. A good will is good, not because of its effect,
pleasure, material possessions, honour or any sensual good, but consists in activities in
but is good in itself. A good will is good because it is done out of duty (Mariano,
accordance with virtues. A person needs a moral character cultivated through the habit
2016).
of choice to realize real happiness” (De Guzman, 2018).
 Kant’s theory of moral judgement emphasizes on the ethical relevance of good will
Moral virtues are divided into four basic kinds, namely: and acting from a sense of duty (De Guzman, 2018)
PRUDENCE JUSTICE FORTITUE TEMPERANCE
“Kant believes that one of the functions and capacities of our reason is to
produce a will which is good not as a means to further end, but good in itself.”
How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and cardinal virtues?
 Man’s ultimate fulfilment of his nature is to live as being God’s creature through the
Kant’s theory is an example of a deontological moral theory:
exercise of virtues and in accordance to man’s final purpose.
 according to these theories, the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend
 The Divine plan of God is for man to act to his ultimate purpose/end. Manshould not
on their consequences but on whether they fulfill our duty
hinder his future union with God in heaven. (Gallinero, 2018).
 Kant believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it as
The Categorical Imperative, which determines what our moral duties are.
REMEMBER
 For Aristotle, a virtuous act is the “golden mean” between two extremes – by which
MORALITY AND IMPERATIVES
these extremes are considered as undesirable actions or commonly termed as vices.
 An IMPERATIVE is COMMAND.
 For Aristotle, happiness or “eudaimonia” is the summum bonum or the supreme
good. Happiness as the supreme good is ultimately interpreted as our telos.
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES:
 Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that as human reason dictates (natural law), happiness These imperatives command conditionally on your having a relevant desire.
or eudaimonia is our natural telos. In order to achieve true happiness, humans must
 “If you want to go to medical school, study biology in college. ”
follow certain natural laws.
 "if you are hungry, then go eat something!"

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES:
These command unconditionally.
RIGHTS THEORY: Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher)  “Don’t cheat on your taxes. ”
Even if you want to cheat and doing so would serve your interests, you may not
Kantian’s Ethics cheat.
- Based on
- There is a principle or command that you need to follow. MORALITY
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
“To Be Good is Your Duty”
Morality must be based on the categorical imperative because morality is such that you are “Do what procedures the best consequences.”
commanded by it and is such that you cannot opt out of it or claim that it does not apply to  what things are good and bad;
you.  who’s good (i.e. which individuals or groups) we should aim to maximize; and
 whether actions, policies, etc. are made right or wrong by their actual consequences
Morality for Kant; is the strict obedience for the categorical imperative. (the results that our actions actually produce) or by their foreseeable consequences.

How does the categorical imperative work? 3 Basic Principles

 Principle of Universality Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time  Pleasure or Happiness Is the only thing that truly has Intrinsic Value.
will that it should become a universal law.  Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally.
 Principle of Humanity Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in  Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as They
that of any other person or in that of any other, in every case as an end in itself, not Produce Unhappiness.
as means only.
 Principle of Autonomy Act so that your will is what makes universal law. Jeremy Bentham
 The basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is in its consequence they
Kant’s 3 Ethical Propositions (Mariano, 2016) produced.
 An act must be done from duty in order for it to have an inner moral worth. Happiness is the determining factor and basis for the morality of an act in
 An act done from sense of duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose, which utilitarian point of view.
is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined. The end or telos of every act is to produce happiness.
 Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law.  What matters in every act that we do would be the amount of pleasure or happiness
produced.
Different Kinds of Rights The greatest happiness produced should be chosen over other choices.
The principle of rights theory is the notion that in order for a society to be efficacious,
“government must approach the making and enforcement of laws with the right intentions in  Thus, it follows that human beings are inclined more to achieving happiness and as
respect to the end goals of the society that it governs. Members of society agree to give up much as possible avoid what is painful.
some freedoms for the protection enjoyed by organized society, but governments cannot Bentham emphasizes the quantity of happiness and pleasure in every
infringe upon the rights that citizens have been promised. ” (De Guzman, 2018) consequence of an action.
Legal Rights Moral Rights Human Rights John Stwart Mill
 John Stuart Mill “made the doctrine the subject of his philosophical treatise
(Utilitarianism) published in 1863.\
 It is derived from the Latin term “utilis” which means useful, hence, what is useful
Take Note:
is good and that morality is determined by the consequence of your actions.
 For Kant, only the good will is absolutely good. A good will is good, not because of
Mill is considered as qualitative hedonist. 9De Guzman, 2018)
its effect, but is good in itself. A good will is good because it is done out of duty.
 Mill rejects the purely quantitative treatment of the principle of utility.
 Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical Imperative are based on the Principle of
 he introduces the so-called ‘secondary principles’ which set the tone for a
Universality, Principle of Humanity as End-in-Itself and Principle of Autonomy.
contemporary variant form of the theory called rule utilitarianism”

UTILITARIANISM: John Stwart Mill & Jeremy Bentham Hedonism

 According to hedonism, the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure (or
Utilitarianism happiness).
 a philosophical view or theory about how we should evaluate a wide range of things  Hedonists do not deny that many different kinds of things can be good, including
that involve choices that people face. food, friends, freedom, and many other things, but hedonists see these as
 Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism because it rests on the idea that it is the “instrumental” goods that are valuable only because they play a causal role in
consequences or results of actions, laws, policies, etc. that determine whether they producing pleasure or happiness.
are good or bad, right or wrong. ACT RULE
 It is the only moral framework that can be used to justify military force or war. Act utilitarians believe that whenever we Rule utilitarians adopt a two-part view that
 It is also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business because of are deciding what to do, we should perform stresses the importance of moral rules.
the way in which it accounts for costs and benefits. the action that will create the greatest net a specific action is morally justified if it
utility. conforms to a justifie moral rule;
Utilitarianism appears to be a simple theory because it consists of only one evaluative The right action in any situation is the one a moral rule is justified if its inclusion
principle: that yields more utility into our moral code would create more
 utility than other possible rules Pleasure, or happiness, is the only thing that has intrinsic value. To say that something has
intrinsic value means that it is simply good in itself. Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental
Note: value. Something has instrumental value when it is a means to some end.
 The key difference between act and rule utilitarianism is that act utilitarians apply
the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of individual actions while rule Actions are right if they promote happiness, and wrong if they promote unhappiness.
utilitarians apply the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of rules and then This principle is quite controversial since it involves that the moral quality of an action is
evaluate individual actions by seeing if they obey or disobey those rules whose decided by the size of its consequences. So long as an action produces maximum benefits for
acceptance will produce the most utility. the greatest number of people, utilitarianism does not care whether the results are driven by
 Utilitarianism is a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster happiness and immoral motives. However, this principle can be refuted since most people would agree that
oppose actions that cause unhappiness. the moral quality of an action depends on the motive or intention behind it.
 Utilitarianism promotes "the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of
people." Everyone's happiness counts equally. Although this axiom may seem quite obvious, this
 Utilitarianism does not account for things like feelings and emotions, culture, or principle of equality was radical and progressive in Bentham's time. By then, it was commonly
justice. accepted that some lives and some people's happiness were simply more important and
valuable than others. Betham's principle of equality makes the government responsible for
A brief note on Utilitarianism: Bentham and J.S.Mill creating policies that would benefit all equally, not just the elite.

Utilitarianism is a theory mainly based on the principle greatest happiness to the greatest Utilitarian Ethics
member. Utilitarianism became a core principle for all most all Nations in their political, "Rule" Utilitarian Ethics
economical, social functioning today. Though Bentham and J.S.Mill are the strong supporters An example of rule utilitarianism in business is tiered pricing for a product or service for
of Utilitarian concept there are some differences between their approaches. different types of customers. In the airline industry, for example, many planes offer first-,
business-, and economy-class seats. Customers who fly in first or business class pay a much
Bentham strongly said that men's life always lies between two different masters like Pain and higher rate than those in economy seats, but they also get more amenities—simultaneously,
Pleasure. Moreover Bentham said that pain and pleasure can be measured through arithmetical people who cannot afford upper-class seats benefit from the economy rates. This practice
method and there is a possibility for quantitative difference between pain and pleasure. produces the highest good for the greatest number of people. And the airline benefits, too. The
J.S.Mill is the strong supporter of the utilitarianism and individualism. Mill in his explanation more expensive upper-class seats help to ease the financial burden that the airline created by
he pawed a mid way between utilitarianism and individualism on modern bases. Mill making room for economy-class seats.
explained that the difference between pain and pleasure can be measured through quality
measures. "Act" Utilitarian Ethics
An example of act utilitarianism could be when pharmaceutical companies release drugs that
Introduction have been governmentally approved, but with known minor side effects because the drug is
Utilitarianism is an English philosophy. It is a theory of morality. It is a tradition of ethical able to help more people than are bothered by the side effects. Act utilitarianism often
philosophy. It advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure and opposes actions that demonstrates the concept that “the end justifies the means”—or it's worth it. At present
cause unhappiness or harm, when directed toward making social, economic, or political the concept of Utilitarian became the core concept of all legislations. In fact the present
decisions. A utilitarian philosophy would aim for the betterment of society as a whole. It democratic government based on the principle the greatest happiness to the greatest member.
would say that an action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people
in a society or a group. Utilitarianism considers the interests of all humans equally.

Meaning
 Utility means the quality or state of being used; the quality to satisfy human wants; a
public utility, a service provided by one of these.
 Utilitarianism means the doctrine, expounded by Jeremy Bentham, that the moral
and political rightness of an action is determined by its utility, defined as its
contribution to the greatest good of the greatest number.

Utilitarianism holds that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it
tends to produce sadness, or the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the actor but
that of everyone affected by it. "The greatest good for the greatest number" is a maxim of
utilitarianism.

The 3 Generally Accepted Principles of Utilitarianism: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

Justice whatever the society offers. "
 the maintenance or administration of what is just especially by the impartial
adjustment of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited rewards or JOHN RAWLS
punishments.  "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of
 Justice is the concept of a proper proportion between a person’s deserts (what is the state cannot override."
merited or what is deserved) and the good and bad things that befall or are allotted to  Therefore, the rights secured by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to
him or her. the calculus of social interest.

1. Life should not be sacrificed for the sake of majority.

2. Unjust law is better than no law at all.
3. Liberties should be restricted to maintain equality of opportunity.

RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE

How can we such principles be universally adopted?

VIEL OF IGNORANCE
- Behind such a veil of ignorance all individuals are simply specified as rational, free,
and morally equal beings.
o Because people behind the Veil of Ignorance do not know who they will
be in this new society, any choice they make in structuring that society
could either harm them or benefit them.

As we can see justice as fairness is achieved thought he notions the original position and the
veil of ignorance. In the original position, individuals agree on specific rules and institutions
and in the viel of ignorance individual choose the basic structure of society that they thought is
just.

Distributive Justice means “everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the
“JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS”
benefit of whatever the society offers”.
- Promoting the COMMON GOOD
WHAT IS JUSTICE?
LAW AND JUSTICE
According to Philosophy –
Law - Law is a body of regulations and standards set up by governments and international
Justice is the concept of a proper proportion between a person’s deserts (what is merited or
bodies and is (or should be) based on the idea of justice.
what is deserved) and the good and bad things that befall or are allotted to him or her. Aristotle
Justice - Justice is a broad concept that is based on equality of rights, fairness, and morality.
further adds that the key element of justice is treating like cases alike. He identifies justice
with ‘complete virtue’, or ‘in relation to another person’. In other words, if justice is to be
THEORY OF JUSTICE (1971)
identified with morality as such, it must be morality in the sense of ‘what we owe to each
This work has addressed some of the social issues especially in the name of justice
other’. He distinguishes between justice in the distribution of wealth or other goods
between the state and the citizens and among the citizens. (Gallinero, 2018)
(distributive justice) and justice in reparation, as, for example, in punishing someone for a
wrong he has done (retributive justice).
RAWL’S “JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS”
This framework focuses on how justice should be distributed that would yield
The idea of justice occupies center stage both in ethics, and in legal and political philosophy.
fairness for those who have more and those who have less. The term fairness refers not to
We apply it to individual actions, to laws, and to public policies, and we think in each case that
equality but equity” (Gallinero, 2018).
if they are unjust this is a strong, maybe even conclusive, reason to reject them. Classically,
 “Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic
justice was counted as one of the four cardinal virtues (and sometimes as the most important
liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others”.
of the four); in modern times John Rawls famously described it as ‘the first virtue of social
 “Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a) institutions.
reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage and
b) attached to positions and offices open to all”. Introduction: Justice as Fairness
John Rawls was an American philosopher who is best known for his theory of Justice as
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE Fairness. He believed that the best way to ensure that everyone had an equal opportunity, is to
“Everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the benefit of participate in the economic system. Rawls’s theory was based on the belief that everyone is
entitled to the same basic rights and liberties. His theory has been influential in the The Problem
development of social welfare policy. What is justice? It’s often used in tandem with morality, goodness, legality, and order, but
what distinguishes justice from these concepts? What factors do we take into account when
Original Position determining if a course of action or past deed can accurately be called “just”?
Rawl suggests that the original position is a hypothetical occurrence where we don’t know our
place in the society. He intends readers to conclude that the original position is justified since The Answer
the outcome shows many convictions regarding justice on particular issues. John Rawls, an American philosopher, argued that justice is fundamentally linked to the idea
of fairness. He spent many years refining his argument in a paper titled, “Justice As Fairness.”
He called the Thought experiment which is the idea that all people come together to form a
social contract and form an agreement on what principle would be the fairest and just for Definition of John Rawls' "Justice As Fairness"
everyone. Rawl’s original position ensures that there will be a unanimous consensus on the Rawls discusses justice on an institutional rather than an individual level. Justice is based upon
basic and core structure of our society. He proposed that social justice would only exist if the the concept of fairness. For something to be fair, no one can be exploited or made to submit to
institution truly functioned in a just and unbiased way. Therefore, suggesting the original claims that appear illegitimate.
position’s feature which is “The veil of ignorance”. The concept of the veil allows people not
to know anything about the deliberators, their social status, gender, age and race as if they In practice at an institutional level, this means that the institution must take subjective claims
have amnesia but know that the people in that circle are aware of the scarcity, social issues, and discern an objective truth from them. This must be a fair process: there needs to be a
and also comprehensive doctrines. With these, there would be no argument about someone balance between competing claims. Thus, in order to be just, there needs to be a mutual
favoring another because he/she is greater than them because they know nothing about each acknowledgment of claims.
other which makes it fair for everyone. In short, the original position lets us negotiate in a \
selfish way but the veil of ignorance ensures an unbiased approach. How It Works
John Rawls argues that justice can be conceptualized with two principles. The first principle
Rawls devised a hypothetical version of the social contract. Some have called it a "thought states, “each person participating in a practice, or affected by it, has an equal right to the most
experiment" (Rawls called it the "Original Position"). This was not a real gathering with real extensive liberty for all.” This means those people should have as much freedom as possible,
people, bargaining over an agreement. Instead, it was an imaginary meeting held under strict provided that their freedom doesn’t trample on the freedom of others in or affected by the
conditions that permitted individuals to deliberate only by using their reason and logic. Their system. It’s important to remember that this level of freedom isn’t available to one or two
task was to evaluate principles of social justice and choose the best ones. Their decision would select individuals, but to anyone in or affected by the system. Everyone involved has the same
be binding on their society forever. right to liberty. This idea is referred to as the liberty principle.

Rawls added a requirement to assure that the choice of social justice principles would truly be The second principle states that “inequalities are arbitrary unless it is reasonable to expect that
impartial. The persons in this mental exercise had to choose their justice principles under a they will work out for everyone’s advantage, and provided the positions and offices to which
"veil of ignorance." This meant that these individuals would know nothing about their they attach, or from which they may be gained, are open to all.” This statement reveals that, as
particular positions in society. It was as if some force had plucked these people from a society a rule, inequalities are not allowed. Any person, regardless of ethnicity, gender, or social class,
and caused them to experience severe amnesia. needs to have a fair chance at gaining or holding these benefits and burdens. Thus, the only
way to hold such responsibilities and privileges is to win a fair competition against other
Under the "veil of ignorance," these imaginary people would not know their own age, sex, contestants in which one is judged on their merits. This idea that any position or office must be
race, social class, religion, abilities, preferences, life goals, or anything else about themselves. open to any individual provided that they can prove their merit in fair competition is referred
They would also be ignorant of the society from which they came. They would, however, have to as the fair equality of opportunity.
general knowledge about how such institutions as economic systems and governments
worked. However, exceptions to this rule are not completely out of the question. If a system could
achieve greater liberty for every individual without sustaining permanent loss or conflict, the
Rawls argued that only under a "veil of ignorance" could human beings reach a fair and system should take the means to do so: doing otherwise would be irrational. Thus, inequalities
impartial agreement (contract) as true equals not biased by their place in society. They would can occasionally be tolerated, provided such exceptions can be justified. Any justification
have to rely only on the human powers of reason to choose principles of social justice for their needs to be proved by those wishing to break from the rule of equal liberty, not the practice
society. itself.
For example, say that your parents will let you and your siblings use the spare car on
Rawls set up his "thought experiment" with several given systems of social justice principles. Saturdays if you complete some big chores around the house by the end of the month. You
The task of the imaginary group members under the "veil of ignorance" was to choose one suggest to your older siblings that you split the chores up equally. However, they’re hesitant to
system of principles for their own society. agree - your brother’s theater group has him at school late, and your sister’s debate team needs
Rawls was mainly interested to see what choice the group would make between his own her to put in some extra hours, too. Thus, they suggest you take care of a larger chunk of the
Justice as Fairness concept and another called "Average Utility." This concept of justice called chores, but in exchange, you can decide the destination for every fourth Saturday.
for maximizing the average wealth of the people.
In this example, you take on the temporary responsibility of a higher workload so that you and
your siblings have greater freedom. Notice how this arrangement leads to the advantage of all
involved parties, not just the majority. Also, you, the least advantaged in the current situation,
stand to benefit the most. Rawls argues that this should always be the case when exceptions
are tolerated. This idea that any deviation from equality should benefit the least-advantaged
individual is called the difference principle.
The fair equality of opportunity and the difference principles together make up Rawls' second MODULE 5: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN
principle, which is sometimes called the equality principle. However, the equality principle is
more often broken down into these two different principles for ease of reference. PLURALISM AND FUNDAMENTALISM
Rawls also argued that like cases need to be treated alike. Practices, he said, have to “make in Pluralism
advance a firm commitment ...[so] that no one be given the opportunity to tailor the canons of - The word ‘pluralism’ generally refers to the view that there are many of the things in
a legitimate complaint to fit his own special condition, and then to discard them when they no question (concepts, scientific world views, discourses, viewpoints etc.) The issues
longer suit his purpose.” This would help ensure that any exceptions argued would be arising from there being many differ widely from subject area to subject area.
legitimate ones since if they were successfully justified, they could easily be used against o Ethical pluralism is a theory about the nature of the values or goods that
those who first proposed them. human beings pursue, and the pursuit of which make up the substance of
their moral lives.
Rawls proposes a thought experiment to explain how such a definition of justice could’ve
naturally developed. He explains that people wouldn’t be mad when they see or learn that
others are in better positions than themselves unless they feel that these people got these
positions unfairly or they themselves were slighted. He rewrote and reworded his argument
several times, but these principles consistently reappeared again and again.

Why Care?
John Rawls refuted the utilitarian idea of justice, stating that justice was more than efficiency.
He insisted that justice’s main factor was fairness. Now, over thirty years later, that idea of
justice is still very prevalent. We often argue whether punishments or rewards are deserved by
certain individuals. We fight for equal liberty among all people. When similar cases are treated
differently, we become outraged. Rawls’ idea of justice as fairness can be found in all aspects
of modern society.

Pluralism
 Berlin used the term to suggest that there is no single standard by which all values
can be ranked.
 Berlin also suggested that human beings can, at least sometimes, compare the
relative importance and desirability of different courses of action or different values
in particular circumstances.

Ethics: MORAL PLURALISM (Values)

 Moral pluralism is the idea that there can be conflicting moral views that are each
worthy of respect.
 Moral pluralists believe that many moral issues are extremely complicated. Thus, no
single philosophical approach will always provide all the answers.
  Moral pluralists tend to be open-minded when faced with competing viewpoints.  Religious fundamentalism is considered a threat to human rights and often violates
They analyze issues from several moral points of view before deciding and taking them.
action.
ARISTOTLE:
Fundamentalism “Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention,
- Fundamentalism is a religious movement that believes that the words found in sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many
religious texts are literally true and can not be challenged by new evidence or logical alternatives – choice, not chance, determines your destiny.”
analyses.
o A fundamentalist believes that the texts of his or her holy book were
written or inspired by God, a supernatural being, or a person directly MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION
inspired by some supernatural entity. Globalization
- Globalization can be defined as “the continuing world-wide economic integration,
recently facilitated by emerging information technologies, that has also affected the
environment, culture, and politics of different groups of people ” (Mariano, 2016)
o the rise of radical inequality.
o the problem of managing the global environment to prevent global
ecological collapse.
o the intrusion of international economic organizations on indebted nations.

Globalization: Good or Bad

Globalization seems to be looked on as an unmitigated “ good” by economists.
Unfortunately, economists seem to be guided by their badly flawed models; they miss real-
world problems.

Why are universal ethics necessary?

 To achieve a more peaceful and sustainable world in which every human individual,
family and community can have a good life and thrive.
 To serve as guidance for politics across places, cultures, beliefs and times
Types of Fundamentalism
James Rachels
 The opposition to the teaching of evolution in American schools. - Universal ethics could be based on a single supreme principle that is independent of
o Evolution contradicts the story of the creation found in the Book of worldview and culture: human dignity.
Genesis, and fundamentalist Christians believe that teaching evolution o caring for the young.
undermines their religious values. o murder is wrong.
 Sharia Law o telling the truth.
o is very conservative about women's rights, gay people, and several other
matters. Religious law is common in Islamic countries and forms the basis Conclusion
of the legal system in nations such as Saudi Arabia and Iran.
 The code does not require special erudition or even literacy to be understood and is
 Ultra-Orthodox communities easy to remember, facilitating compliance.
o These communities usually live in isolation from the rest of society. Their
 The code does not require special erudition or even literacy to be understand.
isolation includes isolation from more liberal-minded Jews. Ultra-
Orthodox communities usually have their own schools and businesses,
many of which are segregated according to gender.

Ethics: FUNDAMENTALISM (Morals)

 Fundamentalist religions are characterised by a belief that religious texts are
'infallible' , an 'us versus them' mentality, a high degree of commitment, an
opposition to modern society, aggressive reactions to threats, and conservative
political views.
 The two most common forms of religious fundamentalism in contemporary society
are the Christian and Islamic strands.
 Globalization seems to be looked on as an unmitigated “good” by economists. Unfortunately,
economists seem to be guided by their badly flawed models; they miss real-world problems.
In particular, they miss the point that the world is finite. We don’t have infinite resources, or
unlimited ability to handle excess pollution. So we are setting up a “solution” that is at best
temporary.

Economists also tend to look at results too narrowly–from the point of view of a business that
can expand, or a worker who has plenty of money, even though these users are not typical. In
real life, the business are facing increased competition, and the worker may be laid off because
of greater competition.
The following is a list of reasons why globalization is not living up to what was promised, and
is, in fact, a very major problem.
1. Globalization uses up finite resources more quickly
2. Globalization increases world carbon dioxide emissions.
3. Globalization makes it virtually impossible for regulators in one country to
foresee the worldwide implications of their actions.
4. Globalization acts to increase world oil prices.
5. Globalization transfers consumption of limited oil supply from developed
countries to developing countries.
Challenge of “Fillinials” 6. Globalization transfers jobs from developed countries to less developed
 The Generation Y, or the Millennials, who were born from 1981 to 2000, are also countries.
called the “digital natives” . They grew up in the digital age or the internet era. 7. Globalization transfers investment spending from developed countries to less
 On the other hand, the Generation Z are those who were born in 2001 to present. developed countries.
This generation is the era of mobile technologies such as smartphones, tablets, iPad, 8. With the dollar as the world’s reserve currency, globalization leads to huge US
etc. (Gallinero, 2018). balance of trade deficits and other imbalances.
o Traditionalists 9. Globalization tends to move taxation away from corporations, and onto
o Baby Boomers individual citizens.
o Generation X 10. Globalization sets up a currency “race to the bottom,” with each country trying
to get an export advantage by dropping the value of its currency.
o Generation Y
11. Globalization encourages dependence on other countries for essential goods and
o Generation Z
services.
12. Globalization ties countries together, so that if one country collapses, the
“Fair hope of the fatherland” collapse is likely to ripple through the system, pulling many other countries
 Indeed, how well the country will fare decades from now will depend on the with it.
performance of its future leaders and citizens – today’s youth.
 Whether they will turn out to be good and productive members of our society THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN ETHICS
depends to a great extent on how competently they are managing their current Religion
affairs, the life-changing decisions they make now and will continue to make and the  Religion is a “specific fundamental set ofbeliefs and practices generally agreed
level of support society provides in this trying period of their lives. uponby a number of persons or sects”.
 Any religion will assert that its religious codes and practices (including religious
In a nutshell moral codes and moral practices) represent a clear road to salvation or
 The moral challenges that are brought about by globalization are, 1) the rise of enlightenment.
radical inequality, 2) the problem of managing global environment to prevent global  Ethics on the other hand can be used byanyone regardless of religion, and even
ecological collapse, and 3) the intrusion of international economic organizations on thosewho do not belong to any religious affiliation(Gallinero, 2018).
indebted nations.
 There are certainly many issues that cause friction between the Filinnials and the The Role of Religion in Ethics
other generations. However, according to Gallinero, there are 3 enduring human  The relationship between religion and ethics is about the relationship between
truths encompassing all the generations, these are: 1) the notion of needing to “find revelation and reason.
yourself” , 2) friends are everything, and 3) finding your place in the world
 Religion is based in some measure on the idea that God (or some deity) reveals
(Gallinero, 2018).
insights about life and its true meaning. These insights are collected in texts (the
Bible, the Torah, the Koran, etc.) and presented as “revelation.
Twelve Reasons Why Globalization is a Huge Problem
 “Indeed a world market economy decimates throughout the planet fantasies of
Ethics happiness through consumption and the goods and services that allow entry into the
- Ethics refers to the philosophical concept of morality, endeavors to understand moral phantasmagoria of consumer capitalism.”
concepts and justify moral principles. It analysis concepts such right or wrong, and
seeks to establish principles of right behavior that may serve guide to action for
people to follow (Pojman, 1992).
Religion
- Religion is a symbolic system which confers to identity and marks out social and
ethnic and other boundaries . It is considered ad humans sensitivity to ultimate
meaning of existence, which springs from his relationship to a transcendent reality
(Kirland, 1976). Considered as the concept of inner spirituality, that radiates in mans
dialy interactionand connection to the whole of socity.

How Can Globalization be a Problem for the Religions of the World?

Religion in the Globalized World

 Erosion of human values, onslaught of materialism, spread of fantastic
entertainment, etc., are the threats for every religious tradition.
 The "Christian West" and " non-Christian East" no longer exist. There are more
practicing Christians in Asia and Africa than in the European countries. In the past
the West" used to send missionaries to the "East" . Now the "East" is in a position to
send missionaries to other parts of the world.
 Religious responses in global moral issues are necessarily normarive. It is in this
way that it asserts convictions which cannot be compromised. Thus it is inescapable
to invoke religious wisdom in moral and ethical issues, despite the clamor for
universalism.
 Faith of all kinds have their own convictions on moral matters. These religious
responses to moral issues are definitely considered sacred as the church believes that
it is tasked to guide humanity and moral consciousness.

Religion in the Globalized World  The divisions among human beings -- "the haves and the have-nots " -- have taken
 The Arabian Middle East cannot be considered to be the largest Islamic new connotations: earlier they were mainly based on money and power; now they
concentration in the world. depend upon information and technology.
 The biggest Muslim nations are found in Asia. Hinduism and Buddhism, which  "Globalization is exposing social fissures between those with education, skills, and
originated on the Indian soil, have spread to almost every country in the world. mobility to flourish in an unfettered world market the apparent ' winners ' and those
without. These apparent 'losers ' are increasingly anxious about their standards of
Globalization living and their precarious place in an integrated world economy. "
 Globalization is not a mere economic or political issue. It has immense effects on the
culture and values of life in each place. What is the Role of Religion?
 Riches are taken as the sign of God' s blessing, and poverty and sufferings as the Religions should take the lead in fostering universal fraternity.
result of his curse. This is in accordance with the pragmatic approach of  Science, economics, politics and religions should stand together in eliminating these
globalization in which a thing has value only if it has any utility. threats and building a new humanity.
 We should note that all religions were global and transnational; they could organize
Douglas Kellner 1999 people beyond national boundaries.
"New technologies are changing the nature of workand creating new forms of
leisure, including thehyperreality of cyberspace, new virtual realities, andnew modes of At this critical juncture the religions should show the way.
information and entertainment. Capitalis producing a new technoculture, a new form of  Against the spreading homogeneity we can see the eruption of " subcultures of
theentertainment and information society, andeverything from education to work to politics resistance that have attempted to preserve specific forms of culture and society
andeveryday life is dramatically changing . against globalization and homogenization " (Douglas Kellner, 1997).

What Religion can do?

  They can give life its meaning and goal and restore human dignity.
 They can lead men and women from fantasy to reality, from selfishness to sacrifice,
from dehumanization to re-humanization.
 They can establish the fact that it is God who rules the world, not a few business
corporations and the governments that support them.
 They can offer human beings hope in the midst of frustrations. People should be
encouraged to use the potential resources of religion.
 Religions can show the transcendental dimension of life.
 Self-actualization or self-fulfillment is the goal of all religions.

The Religious Response

"Religion is not ethics"
 Any religion will assert that its religious codes and practices (including religious
moral codes and moral practices) represent a clear road to salvation or
enlightenment.
 Ethics on the other hand can be used by anyone regardless of religion, and even
those who do not belong to any religious affiliation (Gallinero, 2018).
 Although religion and ethics are not the same, the role of religion is important in a
globalized world. Inter-religious dialogues are now being done thereby eliminating
the gap or disharmony among religions and “working together to promote peace,
justice and social harmony” (Banchoff, 2008)