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u n d e r s ta n d i n g
Social Problems
11e
Linda A. Mooney
EAST CAROLINA UNIVERSIT Y
Molly Clever
WEST VIRGINIA WESLEYAN COLLEGE
Australia
• Brazil
• Canada
• Mexico
• Singapore
• United Kingdom
• United States
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Understanding Social Problems, © 2022, 2019 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Eleventh Edition
WCN: 02-300
Linda A. Mooney, Molly Clever,
and Marieke Van Willigen Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
SVP, Higher Education & Skills Product: ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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IN MEMORIAM
IN HONOR
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Brief Contents
EPILOGUE E-1
APPENDIX: METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS A-1
GLOSSARY G-1
REFERENCES R-1
NAME INDEX I-1
SUBJECT INDEX I-5
iv
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Contents
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Strategies for Action: Improving Health and • Self and Society: Warning Signs for Mental
Health Care 61 Illness 65
Improving Health in Low- and Middle-Income Preparing for the Next Pandemic 66
Countries 61 Understanding Problems of Illness
Expanding U.S. Health Care Coverage 62 and Health Care 68
Strategies to Improve Mental Chapter Review 69
Health Care 64 Test Yourself 70
Key Terms 70
vi Contents
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Understanding Crime and Social Control 155 Chapter Review 157
• The Human Side: “I Don’t Want My Body Test Yourself 158
Anymore” 156 Key Terms 159
Contents vii
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Marriage Opportunity Gap and Family Problems The Safety Net: Public Assistance and Welfare
Associated with Poverty and Economic Programs in the United States 228
Inequality 224 Welfare in the United States: Myths
Intergenerational Poverty 224 and Realities 231
Strategies for Action: Reducing Poverty and Understanding Economic Inequality, Wealth,
Economic Inequality 225 and Poverty 234
International Responses to Poverty and Chapter Review 235
Economic Inequality 225 Test Yourself 237
Reducing U.S. Poverty and Economic Key Terms 237
Inequality 227
viii Contents
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The Impact of COVID-19 on Education 303 Educational Policy across the States 308
K–12 Schools 304 Advocacy and Grassroots Movements 311
Higher Education 305 Character Education 312
• The World in Quarantine: Those Who Can, The Debate over School Choice 313
Teach 306 Understanding Problems in Education 315
Economic Impacts 308 Chapter Review 316
Test Yourself 317
Strategies for Action: Trends and Innovations
Key Terms 317
in American Education 308
Contents ix
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• Self and Society: The Household Division Gender-Based Violence 389
of Labor 381 • The Human Side: “I Don’t Want My Body
The School Experience and Cultural Anymore” 390
Sexism 383 Strategies for Action: Toward Gender
Media, Language, and Cultural Sexism 385 Equality 393
Religion and Cultural Sexism 386 Social Movements 393
Social Problems and Traditional Gender Role Online Activism 397
Socialization 387 U.S. State and National Policies 398
The Feminization of Poverty 387 International Efforts 400
The Social-Psychological Costs of Gender Understanding Gender Inequality 401
Socialization 388 Chapter Review 403
Gender Role Socialization and Health Test Yourself 403
Outcomes 389 Key Terms 404
x Contents
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Food Insecurity and Environmental Efforts to Increase Population 480
Problems 465 • The World in Quarantine: Will the
Ageism: Prejudice and Discrimination toward COVID-19 Pandemic Decrease the Size of
the Elderly 467 the U.S. Population Long Term? 481
• Self and Society: Facts on Aging Quiz 468 The Key Role of the Economy in Family
Family Caregiving for Our Elders 471 Planning 482
Financial Security of Older Americans 472 Supporting Employment among the
• The Human Side: Elderly and Homeless in Elderly 483
the United States 475 Options for Reforming Social Security 484
Contents xi
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Technology and the Transformation The Human Side: Down the Rabbit Hole 576
of Society 554 The Challenge to Traditional Values and
Technology and the Workplace 554 Beliefs 579
The Computer Revolution 557 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Information and Communication Technology Technology 580
and the Internet 560 Technology and Corporate America 580
Science and Biotechnology 563 Science, Ethics, and the Law 581
Societal Consequences of Science Science, Technology, and Social Control 582
and Technology 567 Science, Technology, and Government
Social Relationships, Social Media, and Social Policy 583
Interaction 568 Understanding Science and Technology 584
Loss of Privacy and Security 568
• The World in Quarantine: The Other Virus
Unemployment and Underemployment 570
That Kills 585
The Digital Divide 571
Problems of Mental and Physical Health 572 Chapter Review 587
Malicious Use of the Internet 573 Test Yourself 589
Key Terms 589
15 Conflict, War, and Terrorism 591 Rape, Forced Prostitution, and the Displacement
of Women and Children 616
The Global Context: Conflict in • Social Problems Research Up Close:
a Changing World 592 The Transmission of Trauma in Refugee
War and Social Change 593 Families 617
The Economics of Military Spending 595 Social-Psychological Costs 618
• Self and Society: The United States and Diversion of Economic Resources 619
Global Security 596 Destruction of the Environment 619
Sociological Theories of War 598 Strategies in Action: In Search of Global
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 598 Peace 621
Conflict Perspective 600 Redistribution of Economic Resources 621
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 603 The United Nations 622
Causes of War 604 Mediation and Arbitration 623
Conflict over Land and Other Natural Arms Control and Disarmament 624
Resources 604 The Problem of Small Arms 625
Conflict over Values and Ideologies 605 Understanding Conflict, War,
Racial, Ethnic, and Religious Hostilities 605 and Terrorism 626
Defense against Hostile Attacks 606 Chapter Review 628
Revolutions and Civil Wars 607 Test Yourself 629
The Human Side: Life after War 608 Key Terms 629
Nationalism 609
Terrorism 610
Epilogue E-1
Types of Terrorism 610
Domestic Terrorism 610 Appendix: Methods of Data Analysis A-1
The Roots of Terrorism 611 Glossary G-1
America’s Response to Terrorism 613
References R-1
Social Problems Associated with Conflict,
War, and Terrorism 615 Name Index I-1
Death and Disability 615 Subject Index I-5
xii Contents
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Features
xiii
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Julia’s Story 164
College, Debt, and Economic Opportunity 215
Life as a Child Worker in a Garment Factory 256
Educating the Children of the Pandemic 285
Experiencing Racism at School 342
“I Don’t Want My Body Anymore” 390
Billy Porter—Better than Ever! 439
Elderly and Homeless in the United States 475
Phyllis Omido Takes on the Kenyan Government to Protect Her Community from
Contaminated Water 522
Down the Rabbit Hole 576
Life after War 608
xiv Features
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Preface
W
e are living in unprecedented times. In addition to the COVID-19 pandemic, the
social and political institutions of the United States have come under attack by
both domestic and foreign actors. Millions have questioned the legitimacy of
the 2020 election fomented by former president Trump and his allies, leading to an at-
tack on the U.S. Capitol, the first since 1814. How are we to understand, and work to
solve, the problems facing our society today?
Understanding Social Problems is intended for use in college-level sociology courses.
We recognize that many students enrolled in undergraduate sociology classes are not
sociology majors. Thus we have designed our text with the aim of inspiring students—no
matter what their academic major or future life path may be—to think critically about
the problems facing our society today and their potential role in addressing those
problems.
In addition to providing a sound theoretical and research basis for sociology majors,
Understanding Social Problems also speaks to students who are headed for careers in
business, psychology, health care, social work, criminal justice, and the nonprofit sector,
as well as those pursuing degrees in education, fine arts, and the humanities, or those
who are “undecided.” Social problems, after all, affect each and every one of us, directly
or indirectly. Regardless of their eventual career paths, all students are also members of
society—at the local, national, and global levels—and have an obligation to be informed
and active participants in that society. We hope that Understanding Social Problems
plants the seeds of social awareness that will grow no matter what academic, occupa-
tional, and life path a student chooses.
xv
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Chapter 1 (“Thinking about Social Problems”), in response to the increasing politici-
zation of social problems, now begins with new sections on “The Social Context:
A Divided Nation, Politics in America” (with subsections on “The Roots of Political Par-
tisanship,” “The Growth of Political Partisanship,” and “State of the Union”). All What
Do You Think? features are new and address such topics as the meaning of democracy,
the role of social sciences in fighting the pandemic, former President Trump's alleged
culpability in the January 2021 attempted coup, and the impact of political partisanship
on family relations. There are three new features in this heavily revised chapter, includ-
ing The Human Side, which offers advice from student activists on getting involved in
“good trouble,” and a Social Problems Research Up Close, which examines generational
variations in following the news on the 2020 election, COVID-19, and Black Lives Matter
protests. New topics include globalization, the American political spectrum, political
polarization, populist movements, and the media’s role in defining social problems.
Chapter 2 (“Physical and Mental Health and Health Care”) begins with the global
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, from contrasting country-level response strategies to
the impact of testing initiatives, and from factors that contributed to failures within the
U.S. public health system to the politicization of mask wearing. The new opening vi-
gnette focuses on the demanding role that health care workers played in providing emo-
tional support to dying COVID-19 patients in the absence of families. A newly titled
section on health disparities integrates the impact of inequality on COVID-19 patient
outcomes as well as on other health conditions. The new Social Problems Research Up
Close feature examines the increasing importance of education in relationship to life
expectancy by race. An updated section on mental illness includes a new The Human
Side feature that describes what it is like to live with mental illness during a pandemic,
and a new Self and Society that asks students to examine their own mental health risks.
The chapter integrates updated information on the Affordable Care Act, Medicaid
expansion, trends in health insurance coverage, and factors affecting the cost of health
care in the United States compared to other countries. A revised “Strategies for Action”
section examines policy initiatives to expand health care coverage, increased services to
the mentally ill, and preparation for the next pandemic. New What Do You Think? ques-
tions throughout the chapter prompt students to consider such issues as what cultural
values would promote universal mask wearing and social distancing, whether U.S.
women should have access to over-the-counter birth control pills as in other countries,
and what factors might explain why education is a stronger contributor to life expec-
tancy in some U.S. states than in others. New key terms include health disparities, pan-
demic, contact tracing, positivity rate, death rate, and the criminalization of mental
illness.
Chapter 3 (“Alcohol and Other Drugs”) is thoroughly revised with all new features
and What Do You Think? questions. Changes to the organization of the chapter reflect
the emerging patterns in state-level decriminalization and prescription drug abuse that
are blurring the lines between legal and illegal drug use. The chapter has an increased
emphasis on the impact of the opioid addiction crisis, including a new opening vignette
and The Human Side that focus on families mourning losses from drug overdose as well
as coverage of recent lawsuits against pharmaceutical companies. The chapter also offers
expanded and updated coverage on the impact of the War on Drugs, the growing shift
toward a medical model of drug and alcohol abuse in public policy, the relationship
between poverty and substance abuse, and the growing trend of vaporizers and
e-cigarettes. Other updates and new topics include polling data on Americans’ views
about marijuana decriminalization and drug abuse as a social problem, updated data on
drug use and abuse patterns globally and within the United States, and the complex re-
lationships between poverty, mental health, and substance abuse.
Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social Control”) has been thoroughly revised and begins with
a new opening vignette. There is also new content in this chapter’s three features. The
Self and Society feature allows students to assess their fear of various crimes, the Social
Problems Research Up Close feature examines the media’s portrayal of serial killers, and
in The Human Side a victim of a campus rape emotionally describes its impact on every
facet of her life. New topics include the BLM protests and responses to them, police
xvi Preface
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reform initiatives, the militarization of police, political crime, prisoners and COVID-19,
the cost to families of having an incarcerated relative, several new pieces of legislation
including the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2020, and the Biden administra-
tion’s proposed reform of the criminal justice system.
All of the What Do You Think? questions in this chapter are new and address such
topics as the impact of COVID-19 on property and violent crime rates, whether sitting or
former presidents should have criminal charges levied against them, the disconnect be-
tween actual crime statistics and the public’s perception of crime, and accountability for
lethal police violence.
Chapter 5 (“Family Problems”) begins with a new opening vignette spotlighting the
problem of domestic violence, as exemplified by the Turpins who were convicted of
imprisoning and torturing their 13 children. Domestic violence is also addressed in the
new The World in Quarantine feature documenting the victimization of women during
the pandemic and in a revised section examining the types of domestic violence as well
as factors associated with it. The chapter includes updated data on family trends, ex-
panded coverage of foster and blended families, and a fuller integration of same-sex
couples/families. A new section examines unplanned pregnancies, as well as access to
contraception and abortion.
The new Social Problems Research Up Close feature examines how racialized im-
migration policies force women in mixed-status families into the role of single parents.
A new The Human Side features a woman who was forced into an arranged marriage as
a teenager, and a new Self and Society feature prompts students to consider their own
views on abortion in a variety of circumstances. The “Strategies for Action” section has
been fully revised, including strategies for improving access to contraception. New What
Do You Think? questions prompt students to consider issues such as what age is too
young to get married, why arranged marriages result in fewer divorces, and why more
women over 30 are planning to be single parents.
Chapter 6 (“Economic Inequality, Wealth, and Poverty”) opens with a new vignette
about a family living in their car after losing their jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This fully revised chapter includes all new tables and figures featuring the most up-to-
date data available on poverty rates and wealth inequality. The chapter focuses exten-
sively on the growing levels of inequality globally and within the United States, with
special attention given to the wealth accumulated by the world’s billionaires. The chap-
ter also includes new topics on social mobility trends, the impact of climate change on
low-income Americans, anti-poverty social movements, and the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on poverty, housing instability, and food insecurity. A new Social Problems
Research Up Close feature examines the effectiveness of Housing First programs to ad-
dress homelessness, and a new The Human Side feature explores how Americans with
college debt increasingly see the American Dream as out of reach. New What Do You
Think? questions ask students to think about how much CEOs should be paid, what the
new minimum wage should be, what types of limits should be placed on welfare usage,
and how much wealth should be considered “extreme.”
Chapter 7 (“Work and Unemployment”) contains extensive coverage of the impact of
the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of working Americans, including workplace health
and safety, unemployment, the employment prospects for the “unlucky cohort” of 2020
graduates, work/life balance and stress, and family and medical leave policies. The
chapter’s new The World in Quarantine feature delves into the unique plight facing
working mothers during the 2020 pandemic.
This chapter provides updated data on Americans’ shifting attitudes about capitalism
and socialism, while a new Self and Society feature asks students to assess their own
attitudes toward capitalism and socialism. The chapter also examines work from the
perspective of the global supply chain, with a new The Human Side feature in which
child garment factory workers tell their stories, expanded coverage of the ongoing global
impact of the Great Recession, new coverage of changes to international free trade agree-
ments under the Trump administration, and a new discussion on the pattern of policy
drift as it relates to globalization and outdated labor laws. Other new and updated topics
include the generational divide in perceptions about capitalism and socialism, the
Preface xvii
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growth of the gig economy, the role of prison labor in American manufacturing, and the
impact of Right to Work (RTW) laws on labor unions. The impact of RTW laws on local
economies and worker pay is also examined in depth in a new Social Problems Research
Up Close feature.
Chapter 8 (“Problems in Education”) includes a new section focusing on the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic on teachers, students, and their families, including the chal-
lenges of virtual learning and hybrid education, conflict over mask policies in schools,
and the impact of the digital divide on K–12 and university students. The chapter’s new
The World in Quarantine feature examines the potential impact of the pandemic on the
already critical teacher shortages in the United States. Ongoing problems contributing to
teacher shortages are depicted in the chapter’s opening vignette featuring a teacher
whose resignation in a televised school board meeting went viral in 2020.
Other new topics include the debate between later school start times versus lengthen-
ing the school day and year to accommodate working parents, factors contributing to the
declining educational outcomes among boys, inadequate and declining school facilities,
and the lack of federal compliance with loan forgiveness and anti-predatory lending
policies. New What Do You Think? questions ask students to think critically about Presi-
dent Biden’s proposal for universal preschool, what age students should be allowed to
drop out of school, and what role they believe the phrases “China virus” and the “kung
flu” had on the bullying of Asian students in schools. The chapter’s new Social Problems
Research Up Close feature examines the impact of income segregation between school
districts on the educational outcomes for students. The chapter’s new Self and Society
feature allows students to assess their skills against a list of skills employers have identi-
fied as critical for new employees. A new The Human Side feature, written by a former
school superintendent, appeals to teachers to first address the emotional needs of chil-
dren returning to school before imposing academic expectations.
Chapter 9 (“Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration”) begins with a new vignette about one
southern town’s efforts to provide financial reparations for slavery. The chapter includes
all new features and What Do You Think? questions that encourage students to think
critically about the social construction of race and the lived experiences of racism. The
impact of racism is described in a new The Human Side feature in which individuals
share their experiences of racism while at school, while a new Social Problems Research
Up Close feature details one possible strategy to combat racism in the criminal justice
system—implicit bias training.
The World in Quarantine feature examines the events of the summer of 2020 as a “Tale
of Two Pandemics”: COVID-19 and structural racism. The chapter focuses extensively on
current events surrounding the Black Lives Matter movement and the threat of alt-right and
white supremacist movements to national security. New and updated topics include statis-
tics on immigration and hate crimes and new coverage of cyber-racism and the role of social
media in propagating racist ideologies. This chapter also covers the sweeping changes to
immigration policy under the Trump administration, as well the proposed reversals to
these policies under the Biden administration. New terms, including coercive pluralism
and sanctuary city, are introduced to enhance students’ understanding of the historical
trajectory and power dynamics embedded in the United States’ immigration policies.
Chapter 10 (“Gender Inequality”) has been thoroughly revised and updated and in-
cludes new topics and terms such as “red pill,” the domestic and global #MeToo move-
ments, cisgender, dowry killings, femicide, gender-based violence, toxic masculinity,
attributional gender bias, patriarchy, men’s rights groups versus men’s liberation groups,
and “say their name,” i.e., protests against violence directed toward transgender people
of color. There are expanded sections on gender-based violence including a subsection
on misogyny and men’s rights groups, a new section on social movements with a subsec-
tion on feminism and the women’s movement and, under that, Black feminism and
marching for equality. There are also new sections on the men’s equality movement and
online activism, as well as an expanded section on sexual harassment including three
types: sexual coercion, unwanted sexual attention, and gender harassment.
All the What Do You Think? questions are new and, for example, ask students to
think about (1) whether transgender individuals should have the same legal rights as
xviii Preface
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
cisgender individuals, (2) why the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths is lower in
countries with female leaders, (3) should teachers be required to inform parents if their
child is acting outside of their assigned gender role, (4) why religious institutions
(e.g., churches, synagogues, and mosques) are allowed to discriminate on the basis of
gender when it is illegal to discriminate in the workplace, and (5) why, when gender is
more fluid than ever before, young men compared to older men are more likely to act in
stereotypical masculine ways. New feature content includes a new The Human Side by
Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez entitled, “I Am Someone’s Daughter Too” and a new Self and
Society assessment on the division of household labor.
Chapter 11 (“Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality”) features a new Self
and Society: Attitudes toward Sexual and Gender Minorities around the World, a new
Social Problems Research Up Close: Microaggressions toward Sexual Orientation and
Gender Minority Families, and a new The Human Side: Billy Porter, Better than Ever!.
New What Do You Think? topics for discussion include whether gender should be as-
signed at birth or be self-determined; the implications of Pete Buttigieg, an openly gay
man’s high-profile primary campaign for president and subsequent cabinet appointment;
the transgender bathroom ban; who should make the decision whether or when a trans-
gender minor can transition; and whether or not religious objections should be able to
be used to violate a state’s LGBTQ nondiscrimination clause.
New topics include the history of "homosexuality" from sin to mental disorder, the
role of medicine and psychiatry in pathologizing "homosexuality," Bostock v. Clayton
County, Georgia 2020, the legitimacy hypothesis, the polarization hypothesis, the Do No
Harm Act of 2019, and the Student Non-Discrimination Act. New key terms include
homophobia, pansexual, queer, the Stonewall Uprising, the Religious Freedom Restora-
tion Act (RFRA), corrective rape, and cisgenderism. This chapter has been reorganized
to include a new section entitled, “The LGBTQ Population in the United States,” a new
subsection on “Non-Heterosexuality as Pathology” under the “Cultural Origins of Anti-
LGBTQ Bias,” and a new section under “Discrimination against Lesbians, Gay Men, and
Bisexuals” on “The Health Care Industry.” Lastly, there is also a new subsection on “The
Equality Act” under “Strategies for Action.”
Chapter 12 (“Population Growth and Aging”) begins with a new vignette illustrating
the isolation of the elderly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The fully revised chapter
includes an expanded list of key population terms such as birth rate, mortality rate, and
population growth rate, and introduces students to population pyramids as a method of
understanding challenges facing populations. The new Social Problems Research Up
Close examines why a mother’s education impacts child mortality. The chapter includes
an expanded discussion of demographic transition theory, presentation of the world
system theory, inclusion of food insecurity as a consequence of population growth, and
an expanded discussion of the impacts of informal caregiving as well as changes in re-
tirement benefits. The chapter’s new The Human Side provides three perspectives on
what life is like for homeless elderly people.
In this chapter’s The World in Quarantine feature, factors by which the pandemic
will impact population growth are discussed. The updated Self and Society feature
prompts students to test their knowledge of aging and the elderly. The chapter’s new
What Do You Think? questions ask students to consider issues such as whether societies
should invest in efforts toward radical life extension, whether the United States should
support the World Health Organization in assisting low-income countries, and why the
pharmaceutical industry has not yet developed contraception for men.
Chapter 13 (“Environmental Problems”) has been completely revised with a larger
focus on global warming and climate change, including coverage of global efforts to
address these issues. A new section examines how energy sources impact environmen-
tal problems, as well as the influence of corporate interests on policy makers. As an
illustration of the consequences of global warming, the new opening vignette dis-
cusses the frequency and devastating impact of wildfires in the United States. The
revised “Strategies for Action” section includes the work of youth activists like Greta
Thunberg, cap and trade programs, the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Climate Agreement,
the Green New Deal, and Biden’s Build Back Better Plan. New What Do You Think?
Preface xix
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questions include whether politicians should be allowed to buy and sell stock while
in office and whether social media sites should be able to block posts that promote
climate denial.
A new Social Problems Research Up Close examines why property owners allow
fracking on their land and what happens when they do. The new The Human Side docu-
ments the retaliation and violence Kenyan environmental activist and whistleblower
Phyllis Omido experienced in calling out lead pollution by a company in her village. A
new Self and Society allows students to compare their opinions on the environment and
climate change with those of the U.S. public. Key terms include mountaintop removal
mining, strip mining, community solar gardens, solar farms, and coral bleaching, among
others.
Chapter 14 (“Science and Technology”) contains a new opening vignette and all new
What Do You Think? questions on such topics as artificial intelligence, the use of algo-
rithms in corroborating jury sentences, workplace surveillance technology, the banning
and/or labeling of social media posts, and deepfake videos. Given the events of the last
three years, this chapter has been reorganized and thoroughly revised to include five
new subsections under the heading “Technology and the Workplace”: “Robotics, Soft-
ware Robotics,” “Worker Error and Technological Failure,” “Telecommute and Telepres-
ence,” and “Technology and Social Control”; new subsections on “Algorithms” and
“Computers as Big Business” under the heading “The Computer Revolution”; a new
subsection on “Smart Technologies” under “The Digital Divide”; and, under the heading
Malicious Use of the Internet, four new subsections including “The Deep and Dark
Web,” “Malware and Hacking,” “Disinformation, Deepfakes, and Conspiracy Theories,”
and “Politics and Election Tampering.”
New topics and key terms include new social media (e.g., Triller, Tik-Tok, Parler), the
anti-science administration, the science administration, Internet censorship, the use of
predictive algorithms, artificial intelligence, election tampering, the use of social media
for activism (e.g., #BLACKLIVESMATTER), CRISPR, three types of genetic cloning, re-
placement therapy, heritable genome editing, problems associated with facial recogni-
tion technology, QAnon, and national and international efforts to fight disinformation.
Finally, The World in Quarantine: The Other Virus That Kills feature in this chapter is
on the harmful effects of disinformation campaigns, along with new content for each of
the other three features including a Self and Society that allows students to evaluate
their “science and technology IQ.”
Chapter 15 (“Conflict, War, and Terrorism”) begins with a vignette telling the story of
Nobel Peace Prize winner Nadia Murad, a former ISIS sex slave and human rights activist.
New features in the chapter include The Human Side and Social Problems Research
Up Close, which examine the long-term impact of experiencing war on U.S. veterans and
Syrian refugees. The chapter provides extensive coverage of the impact of President
Trump’s America First agenda on the U.S. role in international relations, as well as a discus-
sion of likely foreign policy changes to occur during the Biden administration. Throughout
this thoroughly revised chapter, students are encouraged to critically examine their own
perspectives on the role of the United States in global affairs. A new Self and Society fea-
ture asks students to assess the extent to which they think the United States should be in-
volved in global affairs. New What Do You Think? questions ask, for example, (1) whether
the United States should withdraw from NATO, (2) whether the abrupt withdrawal from
Iraq and Afghanistan is worth the potential long-term risks, (3) the conditions under which
the United States is justified in using force against foreign governments, and (4) whether
policies limiting refugee admission is an appropriate response to the threat of terrorism.
The chapter includes updated data on military spending, the arms trade, and the costs
of war as well as war trends and conflicts in Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, and Yemen. New
and updated topics also include the establishment of a new Space Force branch of the
military, coverage of women’s combat roles and transgender policies in the military, up-
dated coverage of the ongoing global refugee crisis, and new coverage of the legal and
ethical issues associated with private military and security contractors. Coverage of ter-
rorism is expanded and reorganized, reflecting the blurring boundaries between domestic
and international terrorism, and includes a new section on white supremacist terrorism.
xx Preface
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Features and Pedagogical Aids
We have integrated a number of features and pedagogical aids into the text to help stu-
dents learn to think about social problems from a sociological perspective. Understand-
ing Social Problems was designed to actively engage students in examining social issues
from a variety of perspectives. Through content that is visually appealing, connected to
current events, and relevant to their everyday lives, Understanding Social Problems
provides students with the tools to sharpen their sociological imaginations.
Boxed Features
Self and Society. Each chapter includes a Self and Society feature designed to help
students assess their own attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, or behaviors regarding some
aspect of the social problem under discussion. In Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social
Control”), for example, the “Fear of Crime Assessment” invites students to evaluate
their own fear of criminal victimization. The Self and Society feature in Chapter 11
(“Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality”) allows students to assess their
attitudes toward gay and transgender men and women and compare their responses to
a sample of respondents from all over the world.
The Human Side. Each chapter includes a boxed feature that describes personal
experiences and views of individuals who have been directly affected by social
problems. The Human Side feature in Chapter 10 (“Gender Inequality”), for example,
describes U.S. House of Representatives member Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s response
to an unprovoked verbal attack by a congressman on the U.S. Capitol steps, and The
Human Side feature in Chapter 7 (“Working and Unemployment”) poignantly
describes “life as a child worker in a garment factory.” The Human Side in Chapter 14,
sadly, describes the tensions between family members and friends as a result of the
unfounded conspiracy theories put forth by QAnon.
Social Problems Research Up Close. This feature, found in every chapter, presents
examples of social science research, summarizing the sampling and methods involved
in data collection and presenting the findings and conclusions of the research study.
Examples of Social Problems Research Up Close topics include opposition to needle
exchange programs, media portrayals of serial killers, implicit bias training to reduce
racial disparities, the relationship between mother’s education and decreased child
mortality rates, and variables that predict belief in scientific conspiracies.
Preface xxi
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
What Do You Think? Feature. Each chapter contains multiple feature boxes called
What Do You Think? These features invite students to use critical thinking skills to
answer questions about issues related to the chapter content. For example, one What
Do You Think? in Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social Control”) asks students to consider
whether or not the “law should require the use of algorithms in murder cases,” and a
What Do You Think? question in Chapter 8 (“Problems in Education”) asks students,
“Do you think standardized tests should be eliminated entirely and, if not, how long
after the end of the pandemic should they be reinstated?”
Margin Quotes and Margin Tweets. New to this edition, margin quotes and margin
tweets connect with students through their interest in social media, while introducing
students to alternative points of view, perhaps from someone they are “following.”
They also encourage students to apply sociology to everyday life as they see celebrities,
politicians, authors, and the like, doing so. Margin quotes and margin tweets come
from a diverse array of commentators and organizations, including, for example,
former Presidents Obama and Trump, Lady Gaga, Pharrell Williams, and Taylor Swift,
as well as the LGBT Foundation, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and
the United Nations.
Understanding [Specific Social Problem] Sections. All too often, students, faced with
contradictory theories and research results, walk away from social problems courses
without any real understanding of their causes and consequences. To address this
problem, chapter sections titled “Understanding [a specific social problem]” cap the
body of each chapter just before the chapter summaries. Unlike the chapter summaries,
these sections sum up the present state of knowledge and theory on the chapter topic
and convey the urgency for rectifying the problems discussed in the chapter.
Supplements
The eleventh edition of Understanding Social Problems comes with a full complement
of supplements designed for both faculty and students.
xxii Preface
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
challenge students to think critically by exploring, analyzing, and creating content,
while developing their sociological lenses through personal, local, and global issues.
MindTap Understanding Social Problems is easy to use and saves instructors time by
allowing you to:
●● Break course content down into manageable modules to promote personalization,
encourage interactivity, and ensure student engagement.
●● Bring interactivity into learning through the integration of multimedia assets (apps
from Cengage and other providers) and numerous in-context exercises and supple-
ments; student engagement will increase, leading to better student outcomes.
●● Track students’ use, activities, and comprehension in real-time, which provides
opportunities for early intervention to influence progress and outcomes. Grades
are visible and archived so students and instructors always have access to current
standings in the class.
●● Assess knowledge throughout each section: after readings and in automatically
graded activities and assignments.
●● A digital implementation guide will help you integrate the new MindTap Learning
Path into your course.
Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the support and assistance of Carol L. Jenkins, Leslie
Carter, Ila T. Logan, Crosby Hipes, Mary Clever, Larry Clever, Doug Mace, and Sabina
Mace. To each we send our heartfelt thanks.
Additionally, we are interested in ways to improve the text and invite your feed-
back and suggestions for new ideas and material to be included in subsequent editions.
You can contact us at [email protected], [email protected], and mvanwilligen@
georgiasouthern.edu.
Preface xxiii
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Ira L. Black - Corbis/Corbis News/Getty Images
Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot,
nothing is going to get better. It’s not.”
DR. SEUSS
The Lorax
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1
Thinking about
Social Problems
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IN AN OCTOBER 2020 survey, respondents were asked,
“What is the most important problem facing this country
today?” Only 14 percent of respondents reported
economic problems such as the economy in general,
unemployment, and the gap between the rich and
poor. Eighty-seven percent of respondents reported
noneconomic social problems, from the most to the
least frequent, coronavirus/diseases, poor government
AP Images/David Zalubowski
leadership, race relations/racism, unifying the country,
crime/violence, health care, the judicial system/courts,
and the environment (Gallup Poll 2020a). Moreover, a
2020 survey indicates that just 14 percent of Americans
are satisfied “with the way things are going in the United
The year 2020 was a year of activism as Black Lives
Matters and supporters protested police violence, student States”—a decrease from 33 percent in the previous
strikes marked Sweden's day of climate action, lockdown year (Gallup Poll 2020b). The increase in dissatisfaction
opponents rallied against government mandates, and is likely, among other things, a result of the COVID-19
election results in the United States were met with both
pandemic, racial unrest, and a contentious political
celebrations and demonstrations questioning the results.
environment.
Problems related to government leadership, COVID-19, race, crime and violence, divi-
siveness, health care, and environmental destruction, as well as many other social is-
sues, are both national and international concerns. Because of globalization, i.e., the
growing economic, cultural, and technological interdependence between countries and
regions, some social problems are clearly universal such as climate change, while others
appear to only impact the nation in which they occur. The economy, for example, is often
discussed in terms of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP), the U.S. inflation rate, or
Americans’ consumer confidence. And yet U.S. economic indicators don’t operate in a
vacuum. Even before COVID-19 was considered a significant threat to the United States,
We reject as it spread from Asia to Europe, U.S. financial markets fell to their lowest point in years
globalism and as a result of what was happening overseas (Imbert and Huang 2020).
embrace the Globalization was championed by the United States and other Western nations
doctrine of patriotism.” after World War II as a way to deter future international conflict (Goodman 2019; Posen
–DONALD TRUMP, 2018). Facilitated by advances in technology and transportation, population growth and
FORMER PRESIDENT geographic mobility, and the expansion of multinational corporations, countries became
OF THE UNITED STATES reliant on one another for the production and consumption of goods and services. Raw
materials and labor, rather than coming from a single country, were drawn from all over
the world leading to a global marketplace. Free trade zones were established, tariffs elim-
inated, trade agreements forged, and dispute resolution processes put into place.
However, fears that globalization would reduce the importance of nation-states and lead
globalization The grow-
to cultural homogenization wherein the lynchpins of American society—individual achieve-
ing economic, cultural, and
technological interdepen-
ment, self-determination, hard work, and national unity—would be lost continue today. In
dence between countries fact, some research suggests that Brexit (i.e., the exit of Great Britain from the European Union,
and regions. framed by the slogan “take back control”), the election of Donald Trump (“America First”),
and other populist movements in Europe are a direct response to such fears (Adnane 2019;
populist movements
Silver, Schumacher, and Mordecai 2020). Populist movements, which claim to represent “the
Emphasize “the people”
people” rather than government elites and their political parties, tend to be conservative, right
rather than the “govern-
ment elite” and their
to far-right leaning, anti-immigrant, nationalistic, and anti-globalist (Ruzza and Salgado 2020).
political parties, tend to Given globalization and its inevitable continuation (Goodman 2019), it is impor-
be conservative, right tant that America maintain its standing as a world leader. And yet, in a 2020 survey of
to far-right leaning, anti- 14 countries, only respondents from South Korea and Japan named the United States as
immigrant, nationalistic, the world’s leading economic power with, for example, the United Kingdom, Canada,
and anti-globalist. France, Australia, and Germany naming China (Poushter and Moncus 2020).
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
In response to an anti-globalist stance, the Biden administration has made it clear that
they reject the former president’s “America First” policy and has assured foreign leaders
that the United States has returned to the world stage (Ordonez 2020). President Biden is
working with prominent allies to fight the COVID-19 pandemic, and rejoined the World
Health Organization (WHO) (see Chapter 2). His administration is also focused on the
environmental crisis by, for example, rejoining the Paris climate accord (see Chapter 13),
and on restructuring foreign policy, including the Iran nuclear deal that former President
Trump withdrew from in 2018 (see Chapter 15). After his election, President Biden also
announced a “Democracy Summit” of heads of states from leading democratic countries
to be held in the United States in 2021 (Holpuch et al. 2020)
Krupnikov and Ryan (2020) argue that there is an “attention divide” in the United
States between those who follow politics closely, about 15 to 20 percent of the
population, and the remainder who follow it casually or not all. Democrats and What
Republicans who don’t follow politics closely are much more likely to agree on the
most important problems facing America than Democrats and Republicans who do do you
follow politics closely. Why do you think there is much more disagreement about
the importance of social problems between Democrats and Republicans who follow
think?
the news closely when compared to those who don’t?
Figure 1.1 graphically portrays the thoughts of American and United Kingdom focus
group participants who were tasked with discussing “how people in the U.K. and the U.S.
feel about globalization and how this relates to their views about their communities and
their country” (Silver, Shoemaker, and Mordecai 2020, p. 1). Most participants, American
and British, had difficulty defining globalization but were able to voice concerns (e.g.,
“diluting our culture”) as well as elements of cooperation (e.g., “learning from other
cultures”) leading to the emergence of five key themes as indicated in Figure 1.1.
Outsourcing
Trade
Loss of Industry and Inequality Agreements
Small Business
Multinational
Corporations
Freer Trade
China Taking
Advantage of Us Economics
Online Shopping
and Trade
and Global Supply
Brexit Chains
Overextending Competition More
Our Power Awareness
of Current
Events
Balance of
EU Global
Power Community
Citizenship
Figure 1.1 Key Themes of Globalization, Focus Group Participants, U.S. and U.K., 2020*
*When asked to define globalization, focus group participants found it easier to illustrate than to define.
SOURCE: Silver, Schumacher, and Mordecai 2020.
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Because many Americans are often unfamiliar with world events, with the exception of
this chapter, every subsequent chapter begins with a section on the global context of the
social problem under discussion; at the end of each chapter, policy initiatives from the
United States and, where appropriate, from around the world are highlighted.
The topics covered in this book vary widely; however, all chapters share common
objectives: to explain how social problems are created and maintained; to indicate how
they affect individuals, social groups, and societies as a whole; and to examine programs
and policies for change. We begin by looking at the sociopolitical climate surrounding
social problems in America.
Politics in America
Although there are smaller and lesser known political parties such as the Libertarian Party, the
Green Party, and the Constitutional Party, historically the United States has been character-
ized by a two-party system with either Democrats or Republicans winning the White House
since the 1860s. Democratic presidents include Franklin D. Roosevelt, John Kennedy, Bill
Clinton, Barack Obama, and presently Joe Biden. Republican presidents include Abraham
Lincoln, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush, and, most recently, Donald Trump.
The two parties differ in their philosophy of the role of government in society and on social
and economic policies (see Figure 1.2). Democrats and progressives are often referred to as be-
ing on the left, while Republicans and reactionaries are often referred to as being on the right
Centrist
Liberal Conservative
Left Right
Role of Government
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(Tanenhaus 2016). In general, the left is considered liberal,
and the right is considered conservative. However, as
political scientists note, “the very meaning of ‘liberalism’
and ‘conservatism’ changes” over time (Lewis 2019, p. 1).
AP Images/Sipa USA
After the killing of four students by the Ohio National
Guard at an antiwar protest at Kent State University in
1970, student demonstrations in support of the protesters
erupted across the nation. The majority of Americans, The 2020 presidential election was one of the most contentious
however, supported the National Guard and when antiwar in American history. Here supporters of President-Elect Joe
demonstrations broke out in New York City, four days af- Biden drive by a group of supporters of the former president
ter the Kent State killings, groups of construction workers, following the announcement of the outcome of the election.
defining the students as “un-American,” attacked them
with crowbars, resulting in several serious injuries. Thus,
as explained by Paul Kuhn (2020), author of The Hardhat Riot: Nixon, New York City, and the
Dawn of the White Working-Class Revolution, “[I]f there’s an era when tribalization … began,
it’s this time … between Kent State and the hardhat riot [where] you have the best microcosm
that there is of the beginning of the polarization that haunts America today” (McGreal 2020).
The Growth of Political Partisanship. Political partisanship has increased dramatically over
the last several decades. In 1960, just 4 percent of Republicans and 4 percent of Democrats
said they would be “somewhat or very unhappy” if their son or daughter married someone
from the opposite political party. In 2019, however, 45 percent of Democrats and 35 percent
of Republicans said they would be “somewhat or very unhappy” if their son or daughter mar-
@Mitt
ried someone from the opposite political party (Najle and Jones 2019). Interestingly, research Romney
indicates that ideological position as either a liberal or a conservative is a better predictor of
The President is within
partisan dislike of ideological opponents than positions on social issues; i.e., political party
his rights to request
and its accompanying ideology has become a social identity in and of itself (Mason 2018). recounts, to call for
Given the significance of social identity, it is not surprising that the term political tribalism is investigation of alleged
sometimes used to describe unquestioning loyalty to a political belief or party. voting irregularities
where evidence exists,
and to exhaust legal
After months of claiming that the 2020 presidential election had remedies—doing these
been stolen, on January 6, 2021, President Trump encouraged a things is consistent with
crowd of his supporters to go to the U.S. Capitol and “take back
our country.” Thousands stormed the Capitol, breaking windows,
What our election process.
He is wrong to say that
assaulting Capitol police, and ransacking lawmakers’ offices. As a
result of the insurrection, six people died, hundreds were arrested,
do you the election was rigged,
corrupt and stolen—doing
and Donald Trump was impeached for a second time, charged with think? so damages the cause of
freedom here and around
incitement of insurrection. Do you think Donald Trump should have
the world, weakens the
been impeached so close to leaving office?
institutions that lie at
the foundation of the
Political partisanship is thought to be the result of several interacting social forces in Republic, and recklessly
inflames destructive and
the United States (Mansbridge 2016; Bail et al. 2018; Blankenhorn 2018; Carothers and
dangerous passions.
O’Donohue 2019). These social forces include:
●● movement from the center of the political spectrum; –Mitt Romney
●● greater racial, religious, and ethnic diversity;
●● increased division between socioeconomic classes;
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
●● polarizing leaders who demonize opponents;
●● residential and geographical homogeneity;
●● “media ghettos” segregated by political party (e.g., MSNBC, Huffington Post vs. Fox
News, Breitbart);
●● viral misinformation and disinformation;
●● exposure to “news” consistent with existing beliefs, i.e., social media as an echo
chamber.
Note, however, it is difficult to establish causality. For example, do people with polar-
ized beliefs seek news outlets that are consistent with those beliefs, or does consuming
ideologically slanted media create polarized beliefs? The answer is probably both.
Figure 1.3 displays the differences between Republicans and Democrats who, when
asked about a particular social problem, reported they believed it was a “very big prob-
lem in the country today” (Dunn 2020, p. 1). With the exception of the federal budget
deficit, violent crime, terrorism, and illegal immigration, Democrats were more likely to
report each of the social problems listed as a “very big problem” compared to Republi-
cans. When political party is held constant, more Americans report that ethics in govern-
ment, COVID-19, and the affordability of health care are significant problems today than,
for example, those who cite illegal immigration or terrorism.
Unfortunately, beliefs about political polarization in America, whether accurate or
not, increase the likelihood of further polarization. Fewer than 10 percent of Amer-
icans define themselves as at the extremes of the political spectrum. Yet extreme
views, whether far right or far left, are more likely to be popularized in the news,
posted on social media, and shared with others (Heltzel and Laurin 2020). As a result,
Americans see their political opponents as extremists, which reinforces and hardens
their own partisan resolve. In a 2020 survey, 81 percent of Republicans said that “the
Democratic Party has been taken over by socialists,” and 78 percent of Democrats said
that “the Republican Party has been taken over by racists” (Public Religion Research
Institute 2020).
Climate change 13 62 40
Unemployment 36 61 50
Ethics in government 55 70 63
Violent crime 37 44 41
Terrorism 21 29 25
Illegal immigration 15 43 28
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 1.3 Percentage Who Said Is a Very Big Problem in the Country Today, by Political
Party, 2020*
*Survey of U.S. adults conducted June 16–22, 2020; Republicans include Republicans and those leaning toward
Republican, and Democrats include Democrats and those leaning toward Democratic.
SOURCE: Dunn 2020.
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Although few Americans adhere to extreme far left or right ideologies:
political differences are ripping our country apart … Political scientists find that
our nation is more polarized than it has been at any time since the Civil
@ladygaga
War. This is especially true among partisan elites – leaders who, instead of
bringing us together, depict our differences in unbridgeable, apocalyptic terms. Queen Kamala
(Brooks 2019 p. 2)
-Lady Gaga
Former President Trump, for example, accused then Vice President Biden as “run-
ning on the most extreme far-left platform of any nominee in American history” and ReTweeting
called Black Lives Matters protesters “thugs” (quoted in Wise 2020, p. 1). In the first de- @KamalaHarris
bate, candidate Biden, after being bullied and repeatedly interrupted by former President
I hope every little girl
Trump, called him a “liar” and a “clown” (quoted in Manchester 2020, p. 1). It is thus
watching tonight sees
not surprising that the political divide between right- and left-leaning Americans, often that this is a country of
seems insurmountable. possibilities.
–Kamala Harris
State of the Union
The results of the 2016 election and, to a lesser extent, the 2020 election, signaled
Americans’—and particularly White working-class Americans’—dissatisfaction with
the status quo. Although Democrats Joe Biden and Kamala Harris won, the results
documented just how polarized the United States was at the time of the election. A re-
cord number of Americans voted, with over 72 million, 47.5 percent of the electorate,
voting for Republican incumbents Donald Trump and Mike Pence (Fox News 2020).
As Deane and Gramlich (2020, p. 1) note, one takeaway from the election is the:
continuing political polarization that has come to define the United States.
Democrats and Republicans could both walk away from the election with cause
for disappointment, and [a] divided government in Washington. … The elected
officials who take the oath of office in January [2021]
will be representing two broad coalitions of voters
who are deeply distrustful of one another and who
fundamentally disagree over policies, plans and even
the very problems that face the country today.
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President Biden has proposed raising the corporate tax rate from the prior administra-
tion’s preferred rate of 21 percent to 28 percent (Ember 2020).
@JoeBiden The Trump administration also lobbied for the repeal of the Affordable Care Act
(ACA), an Obama-era legislative initiative supported by then Vice President Biden. With
We may be opponents— the repeal of the individual mandate and the end to subsidies to insurance companies
but we are not enemies. in the exchanges after President Trump took office, the number of uninsured Americans
increased by 2.3 million, including over 725,000 children (Gee 2020) (see Chapter 2).
We are Americans.
Further, the Trump administration removed health care and health insurance non-
–Joe Biden discrimination protections for LGBTQ citizens (Simmons-Duffin 2020) (see Chapter 11).
There were also concerns that the repeal of the ACA would make substance abuse services
financially out of reach for many in need (Firozi 2019) (see Chapter 3). Not surprisingly,
one of President Biden's first official actions was to sign an executive order strengthening
the ACA by opening enrollment thereby allowing more Americans to sign up for health
care during the pandemic (Deliso 2021) (see Chapter 2).
Concerns, primarily by Republicans, over immigration from Mexico and Central
America led to a national policy of family separation in 2017 and 2018 that became a
significant point of contention in the 2020 election. As of this writing, 545 children re-
main separated from their parents or guardians as the Trump administration has been un-
able to track down their families after detaining them at the U.S.–Mexico border (Lantry
2020) (see Chapter 9). Further, the former administration’s delays in approving student
visas has resulted in fewer international students at American colleges and universities
(see Chapter 8). Some analysists believe that the Biden administration would be wise to
“make a clean break from the Trump era by undoing all executive orders and proclama-
tions on immigration that are not directly tied to health concerns related to COVID-19”
(Anderson 2020, p. 1). To that end, President Biden has signed several immigration-
related orders including one terminating the construction of and funding for the border
wall between the United States and Mexico (Deliso 2021) (see Chapter 9).
Existing social problems, of course, have been exasperated by the onset of the COVID-19
pandemic in 2020 and by the former administration’s anti-science stance (see Chapter 2 and
Chapter 14). Just prior to the election, the unemployment rate hovered around 8 percent
nationally (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2020), an increase of nearly 5 percent from the
same time period in the previous year (see Chapter 7). Moreover, by the fall of 2020, economic
growth had dropped by over 30 percent (BBC 2020) and student repayment of loans, with debt
at an all-time high, had to be deferred as less educated workers, including college students,
were the most likely to lose their jobs (Baum and Looney 2020) (see Chapter 8).
Acknowledging the devastating impact of the pandemic on the economy, the Biden
administration believes that it is time to “build back better” and to address the “old economy’s
structural weaknesses and inequalities” (Economic Recovery 2020, p. 1). More specifically, for
example, the new administration supports student loan forgiveness for low-income families,
increasing Social Security payments, federal grants for small businesses, and creation of a
Public Health Job Corps to help fight the pandemic and reduce unemployment (Economic
Recovery 2020; Sherman 2020) (see Chapter 2, Chapter 7, Chapter 8, and Chapter 12).
Not surprisingly, given the trajectory of the country over the last several years, many
Americans have questioned the future of the country, and political polarization has led
to a lack of confidence in traditional institutions (Gallup 2020c). For example, a 2020
poll of Americans between the ages of 18 and 29 found that, at the time, fewer than
10 percent of respondents believed that the government was working as it should. Fifty-
one percent of Democrats surveyed believed, “Our government has problems, and in or-
der for them to be solved, we need to replace and create new institutions to address those
challenges” compared to 38 percent of Independents and just 19 percent of Republicans
(Harvard Kennedy School 2020).
Finally, in 2020, Americans reported being unhappier than they’ve been since 1972 (see
Chapter 2), as well as more pessimistic about the future of their children with only 42 percent
responding that their children will have a higher standard of living than they have, the lowest
recorded level since 1994 (Lush 2020) (see Chapter 6). Although there is little doubt that
the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to the higher rates of personal unhappiness and
pessimism about the future, the increases for both began in 2018, pre-dating the pandemic.
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We now turn our attention to the objective and subjective components of social prob-
lems and the role of the media in defining them. We also examine the variability of social
problems, i.e., how definitions of social problems change over time, both within and
between societies.
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Not surprisingly, research also indicates those who feel less vulnerable and are less
well-informed about the risks of the disease are more likely to oppose government in-
@TIMESUP- terventions such as lockdowns, school closures, and mask and social distancing man-
dates (Jorgenson et al. 2020). Given the foregoing, it is not unreasonable to hypothesize
NOW that watching Fox News may be linked to opposition to state lockdown orders. Indeed,
For just the third time in research from several countries documents the relationship between right-leaning
U.S. history, a woman will political beliefs and anti-lockdown protests (Vieten 2020). In fact, former President
be a major party’s #VP Trump, a Republican, called for the “liberation” of U.S. states with lockdown orders
nominee. We won’t let
(Katsambekis and Stavrakakis 2020), and Fox News “covered the [protests] favourably
the media’s sexist political
attacks tear down
while criticising the governors who implemented the lockdowns” (Ananyev, Poyker,
@KamalaHarris or and Tian 2020, p. 1). Thus, variability in what is defined as the real social problem, in
any other women this example, lockdowns or the pandemic, can be traced, at least in part, to variations
candidates. Speak out in media presentations.
& add your name to the
#WeHaveHerBack open
letter:
Variability in Definitions of Social Problems
–TIME’S UP Individuals and groups, often on the basis of demographic variables such as age,
race, gender, and political party, frequently disagree about what constitutes a social
problem. For example, some Americans view gun control as a necessary means of
reducing gun violence, whereas others believe that gun control is a threat to civil
rights and individual liberties. Similarly, some Americans view the availability of
abortion as a social problem, whereas others view restrictions on abortion as a social
problem.
Definitions of social problems, and their importance, vary not only within societ-
ies but also across societies and geographic regions. Just 3 percent of Americans listed
health care as an important problem facing the country today compared to 21 percent
of a sample of 16- to 64-year-olds from 27 countries. Similarly, 30 percent of the global
respondents identified crime and violence as a top concern compared to just 8 percent of
Americans (Gallup 2020a; Ipsos 2020). Country-specific rankings of COVID-19 also vary
dramatically with 72 percent of South Koreans compared to 27 percent of Swedes rank-
ing the virus as their country’s top concern.
What constitutes a social problem also
varies over time. For example, before the 19th
century, a husband’s legal right and marital
obligation was to discipline and control his
wife through the use of physical force. To-
day, the use of physical force is regarded as
a social problem rather than a marital right.
Even a matter of months can make a sig-
nificant difference. In February 2020, just
Win McNamee/Getty Images News/Getty Images
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become a national problem. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), every day, approximately nine people are killed and over 1,000 injured in crashes
involving a distracted driver. The majority of those injured or killed are between the ages
of 20 and 29. The average time a distracted driver is not paying attention is five seconds.
At 55 mph, it’s like driving the length of a football field blindfolded (CDC 2020a).
Because social problems can be highly complex, it is helpful to have a framework
within which to view them. Sociology provides such a framework. Using a sociological
perspective to examine social problems requires knowledge of the basic concepts and
tools of sociology. In the remainder of this chapter, we discuss some of these concepts
and tools: social structure, culture, the “sociological imagination,” major theoretical per-
spectives, and types of research methods.
Institutions. An institution is an established and enduring pattern of social relation- structure The way soci-
ships. The five traditional institutions are family, religion, politics, economics, and edu- ety is organized including
cation, but some sociologists argue that other social institutions—such as science and institutions, social groups,
technology, mass media, medicine, sports, and the military—also play important roles in statuses, and roles.
modern society. Many social problems are generated by inadequacies in various institu-
institution An established
tions. For example, unemployment may be influenced by the educational institution’s
and enduring pattern of
failure to prepare individuals for the job market and by alterations in the structure of the social relationships.
economic institution.
social group Two or more
Social Groups. Institutions are made up of social groups. A social group is defined as people who have a common
identity, interact, and form a
two or more people who have a common identity, interact, and form a social relationship.
social relationship.
For example, the family in which you were reared is a social group that is part of the fam-
ily institution. The religious association to which you may belong is a social group that primary groups Usually
is part of the religious institution. small numbers of individuals
Social groups can be categorized as primary or secondary. Primary groups, which characterized by intimate
tend to involve small numbers of individuals, are characterized by intimate and informal and informal interaction.
interaction. Families and friends are examples of primary groups. Secondary groups, secondary groups Involv-
which may involve small or large numbers of individuals, are task oriented and char- ing small or large numbers
acterized by impersonal and formal interaction. Examples of secondary groups include of individuals, groups that
employers and their employees and clerks and their customers. are task oriented and are
characterized by impersonal
Statuses. Just as institutions consist of social groups, social groups consist of statuses. A and formal interaction.
status is a position that a person occupies within a social group. The statuses we occupy status A position that a
largely define our social identity. The statuses in a family may consist of mother, father, person occupies within a
stepmother, stepfather, wife, husband, partner, child, and so on. Statuses can be either social group.
ascribed or achieved. An ascribed status is one that society assigns to an individual on ascribed status A status
the basis of factors over which the individual has no control. For example, we have no that society assigns to an
control over the sex, race, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status into which we individual on the basis of
are born. Similarly, we are assigned the status of child, teenager, adult, or senior citizen factors over which the indi-
on the basis of our age—something we do not choose or control. vidual has no control.
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An achieved status is assigned on the basis of some characteristic or behavior over
which the individual has some control. Whether you achieve the status of college gradu-
ate, spouse, parent, bank president, or prison inmate depends largely on your own efforts,
behavior, and choices. One’s ascribed statuses may affect the likelihood of achieving
other statuses, however. For example, if you are born into a poor socioeconomic status,
you may find it more difficult to achieve the status of college graduate because of the high
cost of a college education.
Every individual has numerous statuses simultaneously. You may be a student, par-
ent, tutor, volunteer fund-raiser, female, and Hispanic. A person’s master status is the
status that is considered the most significant in a person’s social identity. In the United
States, a person’s occupational status is typically regarded as a master status. If you are a
full-time student, your master status is likely to be student.
Roles. Every status is associated with many roles, or the set of rights, obligations, and ex-
pectations associated with a status. Roles guide our behavior and allow us to predict the
behavior of others. As students, you are expected to attend class, listen and take notes,
study for tests, and complete assignments. Because you know what the role of teacher
involves, you can predict that your teachers will lecture, give exams, and assign grades
based on your performance on tests.
A single status involves more than one role. The status of prison inmate includes one
role for interacting with prison guards and another role for interacting with other prison
inmates. Similarly, the status of nurse involves different roles for interacting with physi-
cians and with patients.
Beliefs often determine values. For example, if I believe in democracy, I value vot-
What ing, free speech, and freedom. One common element of a shared culture is agree-
ment about beliefs and values, and yet in a recent poll there was only one value
do you Republicans and Democrats agreed on—“freedom” (Luntz 2018). While Democrats
thought of freedom as freedom from (e.g., discrimination, poverty), Republicans
think? thought of it as freedom to (e.g., own a gun, practice your religion). What do you
think is the meaning of the fundamental American value freedom?
achieved status A status Values. Values are social agreements about what is considered good and bad, right
that society assigns to an and wrong, desirable and undesirable. Frequently, social conditions are viewed as
individual on the basis of social problems when the conditions are incompatible with or contradict closely held
factors over which the indi- values. For example, poverty and homelessness violate the value of human welfare;
vidual has some control. crime contradicts the values of honesty, private property, and nonviolence; racism,
roles The set of rights, ob- sexism, and heterosexism violate the values of equality and fairness. Often responses
ligations, and expectations to opinion surveys (see this chapter’s Self and Society feature) reveal an individual’s
associated with a status. values. For example, agreeing with the statement that “a chief benefit of a college
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SELF
and
society Social Problems Student Survey
Indicate with a check mark whether you agree (either somewhat agree or strongly agree) or disagree (either somewhat dis-
agree or strongly disagree) with the following statements. When you are done, compare your responses to those that follow.
Agree Disagree
The following percentages are from a national sample of first-semester, first-year college students, at bachelor-granting
institutions in the United States who “somewhat agree” or “strongly agree” with the following statements.*
Percentage Agreeing
education is that it increases one’s earning power” reflects the American value of culture The meanings and
economic well-being. ways of life that characterize
a society, including beliefs,
Values play an important role not only in the interpretation of a condition as a so-
values, norms, sanctions,
cial problem but also in the development of the social condition itself. For example,
and symbols.
most Americans view capitalism, characterized by free enterprise and the private
accumulation of wealth, positively. Nonetheless, a capitalist system, in part, is beliefs Definitions and
responsible for the inequality in American society as people compete for limited explanations about what is
resources. assumed to be true.
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TABLE 1.1 Types and Examples of Sanctions
Positive Negative
Informal Being praised by one’s neighbors for orga- Being criticized by one’s neighbors for re-
nizing a neighborhood recycling program fusing to participate in the neighborhood
recycling program
Formal Being granted a citizen’s award for organiz- Being fined by the city for failing to dispose
ing a neighborhood recycling program of trash properly
we are expected to do them because they are part of the cultural tradition, or folkways,
of the society in which we live.
Laws are norms that are formalized and backed by political authority. It is norma-
tive for a Sikh to wear a turban and to have long hair and a beard. However, when
Kanwar Singh requested a religious exemption to the Army’s grooming regulations in
2014, he was denied a commission, beginning a four-year quest to join the National
Guard. In 2016, Mr. Singh was granted a temporary religious accommodation and
in 2018, after the Army passed a directive making the wearing of religious articles
permissible, Kanwar Singh was sworn in as a commissioned officer in the U.S. Army
(Lacdan 2020).
Mores are norms with a moral basis. Both littering and child sexual abuse are viola-
tions of law, but child sexual abuse is also a violation of our mores because we view such
behavior as immoral.
All norms are associated with sanctions, or social consequences for conforming
to or violating norms. When we conform to a social norm, we may be rewarded by
a positive sanction. These may range from an approving smile to a public ceremony
in our honor. When we violate a social norm, we may be punished by a negative
sanctions Social conse- sanction, which may range from a disapproving look to the death penalty or life in
quences for conforming to prison. Most sanctions are spontaneous expressions of approval or disapproval by
or violating norms.
groups or individuals—these are referred to as informal sanctions. Sanctions that
symbol Something that are carried out according to some recognized or formal procedure are referred to
represents something else. as formal sanctions. Types of sanctions, then, include
positive informal sanctions, positive formal sanctions,
negative informal sanctions, and negative formal sanc-
tions (see Table 1.1).
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The Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination, a term C. Wright Mills (1959) coined, refers to the ability
to see the connections between our personal lives and the social world in which we live.
When we use our sociological imagination, we are able to distinguish between “private
troubles” and “public issues” and to see connections between the events and conditions
of our lives and the social and historical context in which we live.
For example, that one person is unemployed constitutes a private trouble. That mil-
lions of people are unemployed in the United States constitutes a public issue. Once
we understand that other segments of society share personal troubles such as intimate
partner abuse, drug addiction, criminal victimization, poverty, and racism, we can look
for the elements of the social structure and culture that contribute to these public issues
and private troubles. If the various elements of the social structure and culture contribute
to private troubles and public issues, then society’s social structure and culture must be
changed if these concerns are to be resolved.
Rather than viewing the private trouble of obesity and all of its attending health con-
cerns as a result of an individual’s faulty character, lack of self-discipline, or poor choices
regarding food and exercise, we may understand the obesity epidemic as a public issue
that results from various social and cultural forces, including government policies that
make high-calorie foods more affordable than healthier, fresh produce; powerful food
lobbies that fight against proposals to restrict food advertising to children; and techno- @Dave
logical developments that have eliminated many types of manual labor and replaced Ashelman
them with sedentary “desk jobs.”
We are all a product of
our social history. Nearly
everyone (who isn’t a
Although being unable to talk about politics to family and/or Sociologist) forgets that.
friends may feel like a private trouble, of late, it is actually a public
issue. In a 2019 survey of 12,043 U.S. adults, nearly half reported
that they had stopped talking about politics with someone as
What –Dave Ashelman
Theoretical Perspectives 17
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skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of governing mem-
bers of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a
higher power.
The structural-functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of soci-
ety by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For exam-
ple, the increase in dual-earner families has contributed to the increase in day cares and
after-school programs. As a result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more
technical programs, and many adults are returning to school to learn new skills that are
required in the workplace. The increasing number of women in the workforce has con-
tributed to the formulation of policies against sexual harassment and job discrimination.
Structural functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the
effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute
to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of so-
ciety can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in
that it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But according to
Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to
heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion.
Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton
1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized.
Latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example,
the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth.
But public elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and col-
leges offer a place for young adults to meet potential mates. The babysitting and mate
selection functions are not the intended or commonly recognized functions of education;
hence, they are latent functions.
Social Pathology. According to the social pathology model, social problems result from
some “sickness” in society. Just as the human body becomes ill when our systems, organs,
and cells do not function normally, society becomes “ill” when its parts (i.e., elements
of the structure and culture) no longer perform properly. For example, problems such as
crime, violence, poverty, and juvenile delinquency are often attributed to the breakdown
of the family institution; the decline of the religious institution; and inadequacies in our
economic, educational, and political institutions.
Social “illness” also results when members of a society are not adequately socialized
to adopt its norms and values. People who do not value honesty, for example, are prone to
dishonesties of all sorts. Early theorists attributed the failure in socialization to “sick” people
who could not be socialized. Later theorists recognized that failure in the socialization pro-
cess stemmed from “sick” social conditions, not “sick” people. To prevent or solve social
problems, members of society must receive proper socialization and moral education, which
may be accomplished in the family, schools, places of worship, and/or through the media.
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identification cards (IDs) to purchase alcohol, and parents model drinking behavior by hav-
ing a few drinks after work or at a social event. Solutions to teenage drinking may involve
strengthening norms against it through public education, restricting media depictions of
youth and alcohol, imposing stronger sanctions against the use of fake IDs to purchase al-
cohol, and educating parents to model moderate and responsible drinking behavior.
Conflict Perspective
Contrary to the structural-functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective views soci-
ety as composed of different groups and interests competing for power and resources.
The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our social world by looking at which
groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement. For example, femi-
nist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a hierarchical system of organiza-
tion controlled by men. Although there are many varieties of feminist theory, most would
hold that feminism “demands that existing economic, political, and social structures be
changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p. xii).
The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx.
Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As so-
cieties evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is
replaced by concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrial-
ization leads to the development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners
of the means of production (e.g., factories, farms, businesses), and the proletariat, or the
workers who earn wages.
The division of society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “have-
nots”—is beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may
earn only subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the
wealthy owners. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the insti-
tutions of society to their advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as
an “opiate of the masses” in that it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the
working-class lifestyle and focuses the workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the
afterlife rather than on worldly concerns such as living conditions. In essence, religion
Theoretical Perspectives 19
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diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being rewarded in heaven for living a
moral life rather than on questioning their exploitation.
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what constitutes a social problem. For anti-abortionists, the availability of abortion is
the social problem; for pro-choice advocates, the restrictions on abortion are the social
problem. Sometimes the social problem is not the conflict itself but rather the way that
conflict is expressed. Even most pro-life advocates agree that shooting doctors who per-
form abortions and blowing up abortion clinics constitute unnecessary violence and
lack of respect for life. Value conflicts may occur between diverse categories of people, in-
cluding non-White versus White, gay versus straight, young versus old, Democrats versus
Republicans, and environmentalists versus industrialists.
Solving the problems that are generated by competing values may involve ensuring
that conflicting groups understand one another’s views, resolving differences through
negotiation or mediation or agreeing to disagree. Ideally, solutions should be win-win,
with both conflicting groups satisfied with the solution. However, outcomes of value
conflicts are often influenced by power; the group with the most power may use its posi-
tion to influence the outcome of value conflicts. For example, when Congress could not
get all states to voluntarily increase the legal drinking age to 21, it threatened to withdraw
federal highway funds from those that would not comply.
Blumer’s Stages of a Social Problem. Herbert Blumer (1971) suggested that social problems
develop in stages. First, social problems pass through the stage of societal recognition—the
process by which a social problem, for example, drunk driving, is “born.” Drunk driving
wasn’t illegal until 1939, when Indiana passed the first state law regulating alcohol con-
sumption and driving (Indiana State Government 2013). Second, social legitimation takes
Theoretical Perspectives 21
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Arbeit, den Schwierigkeiten, die sich ihm nach seiner Ansicht in
äußeren Umständen wie in seinem eigenen Wesen
entgegenstellten. Daß Jenny Winge nicht von sich selbst sprach,
merkte er kaum, wohl aber, daß sie es vermied, das Problem
Franziska mit ihm zu erörtern.
Es fiel ihm auch nicht auf, daß er so wie mit Jenny niemals mit
Franziska würde reden können, die ihn für weit weit bedeutender,
stärker und sicherer halten würde, als er in seinen eigenen Augen
war —.
Es war verabredet, daß Heggen, Ahlin und Gram bei den Damen
zu Abend essen sollten — Franziska hatte eine Weihnachtskiste von
zu Hause bekommen. Man hatte norwegischen Weihnachtskäse auf
den Tisch gebracht, der mit Tausendschön aus der Campagna und
Kerzen in siebenarmigen Leuchtern geschmückt war.
Franziska trat als letzte ein und hatte den Dänen mitgebracht.
„Ist es nicht nett, Jenny — daß Hjerrild mit kam?“
Es stellte sich heraus, daß es sowohl Bier wie auch Genfer Likör
zu Tisch gab. Und norwegische Butter, braunen Käse und kalten
Auerhahn, Sülze und Räucherschinken.
Franziska hatte neben Hjerrild Platz genommen, und sobald das
Gespräch am Tisch sich belebte, wandte sie sich an ihn.
„Kennen Sie den Pianisten Herrmann, mit dem Fräulein Eck sich
verheiratet hat?“
„Ja, sehr gut. Ich habe in einem Pensionat mit ihm gewohnt, in
Kopenhagen, und jetzt in Berlin traf ich ihn wieder.“
„Wie finden Sie ihn?“
„Er ist ein netter Mensch. Ungeheuer begabt — er schenkte mir
seine letzten, nach meiner Meinung äußerst originellen
Kompositionen. Ja. Ich mag ihn recht gut leiden.“
„Haben Sie die Kompositionen mit? Darf ich sie nicht einmal
sehen? Ich würde gern in den Verein gehen und sie durchspielen.
Wir waren in früheren Zeiten befreundet,“ sagte Franziska.
„Richtig! Jetzt entsinne ich mich. Er besitzt Ihre Photographie! Er
wollte mir nicht erzählen, wer es war.“
„Ja, das stimmt,“ sagte Franziska leise. „Er bekam wohl einmal
ein Bild von mir, glaube ich.“
„Im übrigen —“ Hjerrild leerte sein Glas — „ist er ein wenig zu
brutal, kann unglaublich rücksichtslos sein. Aber — vielleicht ist es
eben das, was ihn bei den Frauen unwiderstehlich macht. Mir
persönlich war er mitunter etwas zu sehr — Prolet.“
„Eben das ist es.“ Sie suchte nach Worten. „Das bewunderte ich
gerade so an ihm. Daß er sich von unten herauf durchgekämpft
hatte zu dem, was er jetzt ist. So ein Kampf m u ß brutal machen,
finde ich. Ja — meinen Sie nicht, es entschuldigt sehr viel — fast
alles?“
„Halt, Cesca,“ sagte Heggen plötzlich: „Hans Herrmann wurde
entdeckt, als er dreizehn Jahre alt war — und seitdem hat man ihm
geholfen.“
„Ja — aber fremde Hilfe annehmen — und für alles danken
müssen! Immer fürchten müssen, nicht genug beachtet, übersehen,
d a r a n e r i n n e r t zu werden, daß er — nun wie Hjerrild sagte, ein
Proletarierkind war.“
„Ich kann auch darauf pochen, daß ich ein Proletarierkind bin.“
„Nein, das kannst du nicht, Gunnar. Du bist immer erhaben über
deine Umgebung gewesen, dessen bin ich sicher. Wenn du in einen
Kreis kamst, der in sozialer Hinsicht höher stand als der, in welchem
du geboren bist — so warst du auch dort schon der Ueberlegene,
wußtest mehr, warst klüger, dachtest vornehmer. Du hast immer in
dem starken Bewußtsein leben dürfen, daß du dir alles selbst
erkämpft und erarbeitet hast. — Du warst niemals gezwungen,
anderen Menschen zu danken, von denen du wußtest, daß sie
vielleicht auf dich herabsahen um deiner Herkunft willen — Snobs,
die sich etwas darauf zugute taten, einer Begabung hilfreiche Hand
zu leisten, von deren Größe sie keinen Dunst hatten, die dir innerlich
unterlegen waren und glaubten, über dir zu stehen; du brauchtest
niemandem zu danken, gegen den du keine Dankbarkeit
empfandest. Du kannst nicht von den Gefühlen des Proletariers
reden, Gunnar. Du hast ja niemals gewußt, was das heißt.“
„Ein Mensch, Cesca, der solche Hilfe annimmt — von Leuten,
denen gegenüber er Dankbarkeit nicht empfinden kann — ist ein
unverbesserliches Individuum der Unterklasse.“
„Aber begreifst du denn das nicht, Junge? Man handelt so, wenn
man weiß, daß man Talent hat, vielleicht ein Genie ist, das nach
Entwicklung verlangt. Im übrigen, du: der du sagst, du seiest
Sozialdemokrat, du solltest nicht von Individuen der Unterklasse
sprechen, finde ich.“
„Ein Mensch, der vor seinem eigenen Talent Achtung hat,
prostituiert es nicht. Und was den Sozialdemokraten betrifft:
Sozialdemokratie, das ist das Verlangen nach Gerechtigkeit. Aber
die Gerechtigkeit fordert, daß Leute von seiner Art unterdrückt, auf
den Boden der menschlichen Gesellschaft niedergepreßt, mit Ketten
und Peitschen niedergehalten werden. Die tatsächliche, legitime
Unterklasse muß gebändigt werden.“
„Das ist ein eigentümlicher Sozialismus,“ lachte Hjerrild.
„Es gibt keinen anderen — für reife Menschen. Ich rechne nicht
mit den hellen blauäugigen Kinderseelen, die da glauben, alle
Menschen seien gut und an dem Bösen sei die Gesellschaft schuld.
Wären alle Menschen gut, so wäre die soziale Gemeinschaft ein
Paradies. Die Proletarierseelen sind es aber gerade, die das
Schlechte hineintragen. Sie sind in allen Gesellschaftsklassen zu
finden: sind sie die Herren, so sind sie grausam und brutal; dienen
sie, so sind sie kriechend und heuchlerisch und faul. Ich habe genug
von dieser Sorte in den Reihen der Sozialdemokraten angetroffen.
— Ja, Herrmann rechnet sich ja auch zu den Sozialisten. Wenn sie
ein Paar Hände finden, die sie vorwärtsbringen wollen, so nehmen
sie die Hilfe an, um hinterher auf diesen selben Händen
herumzutrampeln. Wittern sie einen Trupp, der vorwärtsmarschiert,
so schließen sie sich ihm an, um Teil an der Beute zu haben —
Loyalität aber, Kameradschaftsgefühl, das besitzen sie nicht. Das
Ziel — sie verlachen es insgeheim. Die Gerechtigkeit — sie hassen
sie im Grunde, denn sie wissen ja, wenn sie siegt, so geht es ihnen
übel. — Alle, die die Gerechtigkeit fürchten, nenne ich eben das
legitime Proletariat, das bekämpft werden muß, schonungslos. Hat
es Macht über die Armen und Schwachen, so quält und tyrannisiert
es sie und macht auch sie zu Proletariern. Ist es selber arm und
schwach, so kämpft es nicht — nein, es bettelt und heuchelt sich
vorwärts und überfällt jeden hinterrücks, wenn es seinen Vorteil darin
erblickt. — Das Ziel muß eine Gemeinschaft sein, in welcher die
Oberklassenindividuen die Führer sind. Denn diese kämpfen niemals
für sich selbst, sie sind sich ihrer eigenen unerschöpflichen Quellen
wohl bewußt, sie verschwenden sie an die Armen, kämpfen um Licht
und Luft für jedes schwache Zeichen von Gutem und Schönem, das
sich bei den kleinen Seelen zeigt, die weder das eine noch das
andere sind, gut, wenn sie sichs leisten können, schlecht, wenn das
Proletariat sie dazu zwingt. Das Ziel ist, daß diejenigen zur Macht
gelangen, die ein Verantwortungsgefühl haben für jede kleinste gute
Regung, die unterdrückt wird.“
„Du verstehst trotzdem Hans Herrmann nicht,“ sagte Franziska
leise. „Er war nicht nur um seiner selbst willen aufgebracht über das
soziale Unrecht. Die kleinen guten Seelen, die untergingen — e r war
es, der von ihnen sprach, oh ja. Wenn wir einen Spaziergang nach
dem Osten der Stadt machten und die kleinen blassen Kinder in den
häßlichen, trüben, überfüllten Kasernen sahen, die er, wie er sagte,
am liebsten in Brand stecken würde.“
„Phrasen. Wenn er die Hausmiete zu bekommen hätte —.“
„Pfui, Gunnar,“ sagte Franziska heftig.
„Ja, ja, er wäre eben kein Sozialist gewesen, wenn er reich
geboren wäre. Aber ein ebenso unverfälschter Proletarier.“
„Bist du dessen so sicher, daß du Sozialdemokrat gewesen
wärst?“ sagte Franziska — „wenn du — nun als Graf zum Beispiel
geboren wärest?“
„Heggen i s t ein Graf,“ lachte Hjerrild, „über viele luftige
Schlösser.“
Heggen warf den Kopf nach hinten und schwieg einen
Augenblick.
„Ich habe jedenfalls niemals das Gefühl gekannt, arm geboren zu
sein,“ sagte er, mehr für sich.
„Nun ja,“ ließ sich Hjerrild vernehmen. „Um auf Herrmanns
Kinderliebe zurückzukommen — um seinen eigenen kleinen Jungen
kümmert er sich nicht viel. Und die Art und Weise, wie er sich gegen
sie benahm, war auch recht häßlich. Erst drohte und bettelte er, daß
sie sein wurde und als sie dann ein Kind bekommen sollte, mußte
sie sicher drohen und betteln, daß er sie heiratete.“
„Haben sie einen kleinen Jungen?“ flüsterte Franziska.
„Ja ja. Der kam, als sie sechs Wochen miteinander verheiratet
waren — gerade in den Tagen, als ich Berlin verließ. Herrmann war
nach Dresden gereist und hatte sie im Stich gelassen, nachdem sie
einen Monat zusammen gehaust hatten. Ich begreife nicht, warum er
sie nicht etwas früher heiraten konnte. Es war ja abgemacht, daß sie
wieder geschieden werden sollten und sogar ihr eigener Wille.“
„Pfui!“ sagte Jenny. Sie hatte dem Gespräch eine ganze Zeit
gelauscht. „Daß man hingeht und sich verheiratet mit dem Vorsatz,
sich hinterher wieder scheiden zu lassen!“
„Herrgott.“ Hjerrild lachte ein wenig. „Wenn man einander außen
und innen kennt, und weiß, daß man nicht miteinander fertig wird.“
„Dann muß man das Heiraten lassen.“
„Gewiß. Der freie Zustand ist ja weit schöner. Aber Herrgott, sie
mußte ja. Sie will nächsten Herbst ein Konzert in Kristiania geben
und muß sehen, daß sie Gesangschüler bekommt. Das würde ihr
aber als unverheirateter Frau mit einem Kinde unmöglich sein.
Armes Ding!“
„Mag sein. — Aber ekelhaft ist es darum doch. Wenn Sie unter
freien Zuständen das verstehen, daß sich Leute miteinander
einlassen, obgleich sie genau wissen, sie werden einander
überdrüssig, so habe ich dafür kein Verständnis. Schon die
Auflösung einer so ganz alltäglichen, platonisch bürgerlichen
Verlobung .... ich finde, schon daran haftet immer ein Makel. Ist man
aber einmal so unglücklich gewesen, sich zu irren — dann um der
Leute willen noch diese abscheuliche Komödie spielen — eine
blasphemische Trauung, wo man steht und Dinge gelobt, die man im
voraus entschlossen ist, nicht zu halten! ...“