Muscular System Contractility

- ability of muscle to shorten forcefully or

3 Types of Muscle Tissue contract

Skeletal Muscle Excitability

- Voluntary muscle and constitutes about - capacity of muscle to respond to an
40% of body’s weight. electrical stimulus
- Locomotion, facial expressions, posture,
respiratory functions, speech, and other Extensibility
body movements - means a muscle can be stretched beyond
- Nervous system controls the voluntary its normal resting length and still be able to
aspects of skeletal muscle. contract

Smooth Muscle Elasticity

- Involuntary muscles and most widely - ability of muscle to spring back to its original
distributed type of muscle in the body. resting length after it has been stretched.
- Found in the walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus and tubes such as blood Muscle Cell
vessels and ducts of certain glands. - muscle fiber
- Contraction propels urine through the
urinary tract, mixes food in the stomach and Connective Tissue Coverings
the intestine, regulates the flow of blood
through blood vessels, and controls the Skeletal Muscle
pupil of the eye. - Surrounded by several connective tissues
that support the muscle during contraction.
Cardiac Muscle
- Involuntary muscle and is found only in the 3 Layers of Connective Tissue
heart
- Contractions provide the major force for Epimysium
moving blood through the circulatory system - Forms a connective tissue sheath that
- Cardiac and smooth muscles are surrounds each skeletal muscle.
autorythmic. - Layer of dense irregular connective tissue
whose protein fibers gradually merge with
Autorhythmicity the muscular fascia
- allows the cells to contract spontaneously
and rythmically Muscle Fascia
- The layer of connective tissue between
7 Functions of the Major Muscles adjacent muscles and between muscles and
- Movement of the Body the skin
- Maintenance of Posture - Keep the muscles from surrounding tissues
- Respiration and organs
- Production of Body Heat
- Communication Perimysium
- Constriction of Organs and Vessels - Subdivides each whole muscle into
- Contraction of the Heart numerous and visible bundles of muscle
fibers called fascicles
4 Functional Properties
 - A loose connective tissue serving as 1. Sarcolemma
passageways for blood vessels and nerves 2. Transverse Tubules
that supply each fascicle 3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Sarcolemma
Endomysium - Plasma membrane of muscle fibers
- Delicate layer of connective tissue that
separates the individual muscle fibers within Transverse Tubules
each fascicle. - Tubelike inward folds of the sarcolemma
- Serves as passageways for nerve fibers - Formed by sarcolemma by projecting and
and blood vessels that supply each extending into the anterior of the muscle
fiber
separate muscle fiber
- Carries electrical impulses into the center of
the muscle fiber so that every contractile
Tendons unit of the muscle fiber contracts in unison
- Formed by collagen fibers of the three
layers converge at the ends of the muscles
- Attachments serve to move the bones or
skin for locomotion, facial expression and
other types of movements.

Nerves and Blood Vessels

Motor Neurons
- Specialized nerve cellls responsible for
stimulating skeletal muslce contraction
- Originate in the brain and spinal cord and
extend to skeletal muscle fibers through Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
nerves. - Highly specialized smooth endoplasmic
reticulum in skeletal muscle fibers that
Synapses or Neuromuscular Junctions stores high levels of Ca2+
- Release of Ca2+ form the sarcoplasmic
- The contact points between the axons and
reticulum is a “switch “ for muscle
the muscle fibers contraction

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy Terminal Cisternae

- they develop from the fusion of several - Where T tubules lie next to enlarged
hundred embryonic cells called myoblasts portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Hypertrophy Triad
- Enlargement of muscles in children and - Two terminal cisternae and their associated
adults T tubule form a critical structure for muscle
- Increase in muscle fiber size rather than contraction
number
Sarcoplasm
Histology of Muscle Fiber - Cytoplasm of the muscle fiber wherein
organelles such as numerous mitochondria
Main Aspects of Muscle Contraction and energy-storing glycogen granules are
1. Electrical Component constituted.
2. Mechanical Component Mechanical Component Structure
Electrical Component Structures - Contractility (myofibrils and myofilaments)
- Excitability

3 Muscle Fiber Components that respond to and Myofibrils

transmit electrical signals - Bundles of protein filaments
 - Protein filaments in the myofibrils that
interact to shorten the muscle fiber during
contraction

Myofilaments
- Actin myofilaments
- Myosin filaments

Actin Filaments
- Thin filaments

Sarcomere
- Structural and functional units of the skeletal
muscles.
- Arranged the myosin and myofilaments into
highly ordered units
- Smallest portion of a muscle that can
contract

Z disks
- Filamentous networks
- Forms a stationary anchor for actin-myosin
filaments
- Sarcomeres extends from one Zdisk to the
next Z disk
- The arrangement of the actin and myosin
filaments within sarcomeres that gives
skeletal muscle its striated appearance

I bands
- Two-lighter-staining regions
- Includes a Zdisk and extend to the ends of
the myosin filaments
- Contain only actin myofilaments and thus
appear lighter staining Titin
- A protein in that gives muscles the ability to
A bands stretch and recoil
- Darker-staining band in the center of each - One of the largest known proteins and is the
sarcomere largest protein in humans consisting og
- Band contains both actin and myosin nearly 27,000 amino acids.
myofilaments overlapping, except in the - Each titin molecule extends form the M line
center of the A band to the Z disk
- Myosin molecule in the A band is - It anchors the myosin filaments to the M
surrounded by six actin myofilaments line, keeping them centered in the
sarcomere
H zone - When attached to Z disks, it functions as a
- Center of A bands spring which allows the sarcomeres to recoil
- Contains only myosin myofilaments back to their resting length after being
stretched
M line
- A dark line in the middle of the H zone
- Consists of dilate filaments that hold the Actin and Myosin Myofilament Structures
myosin myofilaments in place
Actin Myofilaments
- Composed of three separate proteins
1. Globular Actin
 2. Tropomyosin 1. The heads bind to active site on the actin
3. Troponin molecule to form cross-bridges to contract a
muscle
Globular Actin (G Actin) 2. The head are attached to the rod portion by
- Globular subunits that form a long chain of a hinge region that bends and straightens
about 200 subunits during contraction
- The g subunits for a into a strand called F 3. The heads are ATPase enzymes, which
Actin breakdown ATP, releasing energy
- Each g subunit has an active site for mysoin
myofilament binding during muscle - Part of the energy is used to bend the hinge
contraction region of the myosin molecule during
- Active sites on the G actin as a receptor contraction
sites for a portion of the myosin
myofilament, the myosin head Neuromuscular Junction Structure

Tropomyosin Action Potentials

- A long, fibrous protein that lies in the groove - Motor neurons carry electrical signals that
along the fibrous actin strand causes action potentials in the muscle fiber
- It covers the active sites on the G actin
subunits in a relaxed muscle Neuromuscular Junction or Synapse
- A muscle can’t contract until the - The point of contact of motor neuron axon
tropomyosin moves to uncover the active branches with the muscle fiber
sites - Consists of a group of enlarged axon
terminals that rest in an invagination of the
Troponin sarcolemma
- Composed of 3 subunits: - Contains the axon terminals and the area of
1. A subunit that anchors the troponin the muscle fiber sarcolemma they innervate
to the actin
2. A subunit that prevents the Presynaptic Terminal
tropomyosin from uncovering the G - Eahc axon terminal
actin active sites in a relaxed muscle
3. A subunit that binds Ca2+ Synaptic Cleft
- The space between the presynaptic terminal
- The relationship among troponin and and the muscle fiber
tropomyosin that dictates when the skeletal
muscle will contract Motor End-plate / Postsynaptic Membrane
- Muscle plasma membrane in the area of the
Myosin Myofilaments junction
- Composed of many elongated myosin
molecules shaped like golf clubs Synaptic Vesicles
- Each myosin molecule consists of two - Contains numerous mitochondria and many
myosin heavy chains wound together to small spherical sacs in each presynaptic
form a red portion lying parallel to the terminal
myosin myofilament and two myosin heads
that extend laterally Acetylcholine
- Four light myosin chains are attached tot he - Neurotransmitter that is in the synaptic
heads of each myosin molecule vesicles
- Consists of 300 myosin molecules arranged
that about 150 of them have their heads Neurotransmitter
projecting toward each end - A molecule that allows the neuron to
- The center consist only of the rod portions communicate with its target ‘
of the myosin molecules - Released from a presynaptic membrane
and diffuses across the synaptic cleft to
3 Properties of Myosin Heads alter the activity of the muscle fiber
- Can stimulate or inhibit the production of an
action potential in the motor end-
 plate(sarcolemma) by binding to ligand- Termination of Contraction: When the action
gated ion channels potential ceases and calcium ions are pumped
back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the
Ligand-gated Ion Channels concentration of calcium ions in the sarcoplasm
- Specialized membrane transport proteins decreases. This allows troponin to return to its
that are opened or closed by specific original position, causing tropomyosin to block the
molecules, such as neurotransmitters active sites on actin once again. Muscle contraction
- Allows ions to cross the plasma membrane ceases, and the muscle returns to its resting state.
when opened
Relaxed Sarcomere
Sliding Filament Model - the actin and myosin myofilaments overlap
slightly, and the H zone is visible. The
Resting State: In the resting state, actin and myosin sarcomere length is at its normal resting
filaments overlap only slightly within the sarcomere, length. As a muscle contraction is initiated,
the basic functional unit of a muscle fiber. The actin myofilaments slide past the myosin
myosin heads are in a low-energy state, with ATP myofilaments, the Z disks are brought closer
bound to them. together, and the sarcomere begins to
shorten.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling: When a motor
neuron stimulates a muscle fiber, an action Fully Contracted Sarcomere
potential propagates along the sarcolemma (cell - The A bands, which are equal to the length
membrane) and into the transverse tubules (T- of the myosin myofilaments, do not narrow
tubules). This triggers the release of calcium ions because the length of the myosin
(Ca2+) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) into myofilaments does not change, nor does
the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle cell). the length of the actin myofilaments. In
addition, the ends of the actin myofilaments
Calcium Binding: Calcium ions bind to troponin, a are pulled to and overlap in the center of the
protein associated with the actin filament. This sarcomere, increasing their overlap with the
causes a conformational change in troponin, which myosin myofilaments. As a result, the H
moves tropomyosin (another protein) away from its zone disappears and the sarcomere
blocking position on the actin filament's active sites. shortens.

Cross-Bridge Formation: With the active sites on Excitability of Muscle Fibers

actin exposed, myosin heads bind to actin, forming - Muscles fibers are electrically excitable
cross-bridges. - Electrically excitable cells are polarized
- Inside of the plasma membrane is
Power Stroke: The myosin heads undergo a negatively charged compared with the
conformational change (the power stroke), using outside thus voltage and electrical charge
energy from ATP hydrolysis. This causes the actin difference exists across each plasma
filaments to slide relative to the myosin filaments, membrane
pulling the Z-lines (which mark the boundaries of
the sarcomere) closer together. Resting Membrane Potential
- Charge difference across the plasma
ADP and Phosphate Release: After the power membrane of an unstimulated cell
stroke, ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are
released from the myosin head. Ion Channels

Cross-Bridge Detachment: ATP binds to the myosin 2 Major Types of Ion Channels
head, causing it to detach from actin. 1. Leak Channels
2. Gated Channels
Reactivation of Myosin Heads: ATP is hydrolyzed Leak Ion Channels
into ADP and Pi by the enzyme ATPase associated - In resting cells, it allow for the slow leak of
with the myosin head. This re-energizes the myosin ions down their concentration gradient
head, preparing it for another cycle of cross-bridge - Specific for a particular ion
formation and power stroke.
Gated Ion Channels
 - Important in stimulated cells
- Their presence governs the production of
action potentials

Ligand-gated Ion Channels

- Open when a specific ligand, a chemical
signal such as a neurotransmitter, binds to a
receptor that is part of the ion channel

Example: motor neurons at the neuromuscular

junction release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine,
which binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels in the
sarcolemmas of the muscle fibers. When
acetylcholine binds, the Na+ channels open,
allowing Na+ to enter the cell

Voltage-gated Ion Channels

- These channels are gated membrane
channels that open and close in response to
a specific membrane potential
- When a neuron or muscle fiber is
stimulated, the charge difference changes,
and a specific charge causes certain
voltage-gated ion channels to open or close. Milivolts
- The voltage-gated channels that play major - Units that can measure the resting
roles in an action potential are voltage- membrane potential
gated Na+, K+, and Ca2+ channels. - -70 and -90 mV potential differences across
the plasma membranes of neurons and
Example: opening voltage-gated Na+ channels muscle fibers
allows Na+ to cross the plasma membrane,
whereas opening voltagegated K+ channels allows Action Potentials
K+ to cross and opening Ca2+ channels allows - Occurs when the excitable cell is stimulated
Ca2+ to cross. - The reversal of the resting membrane
potential
The Resting Membrane Potential - The inside of the plasma membrane is
- Charge difference in an unstimulated cell positively charged
- The cell is more like a sprinter in starting - It happens because of ion channels open
blocks: its ready to respond at a moment’s when a cell is stimulated
notice - Diffusion of ions through these channels
changes the charge across the plasma
Result of 3 Factors membrane and produces an action potential
1. Concentration of K+ inside the plasma - Lasts from approximately 1 millisecond to a
membrane is higher than that outside the few milliseconds
plasma membrane
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the plasma Depolarization
membrane is higher than that inside the - Caused by stimulation of a cell
plasma membrane - Occurs when the inside of the plasma
3. The plasma membrane is more permeable membrane becomes more positive
to K+ than to Na+ - Causes the membrane potential to reach
threshold
Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential - The charge difference across the plasma
membrane is said to be reversed when the
membrane potential becomes a positive
value
- the membrane potential changes from
approximately –85 mV to approximately +20
mV.
 - previous time the car started (the “all” part).
Threshold If the ignition switch is pressed but not fully
- The membrane potential at which voltage- (does not reach threshold), the car does not
gated Na+ channels open start (the “none” part).
- Action potential is produces once reached
threshold Events in an Action Potential along the
Sarcolemma
Depolarization Phase of Action Potential
- A brief period during which further
depolarization occurs and the inside of the
cells becomes even more positively charged

Repolarization Phase
- The return of the membrane potential to ita
resting value
- the inside of the plasma membrane
changes from approximately +20 mV back Action potentials occur in one area of the plasma
to –85 mV. membrane and then travel or propagate. Along the
plasma membrane
Occur in the Membrane During an Action Potential
Produced at one location in the plasma membrane
stimulated the production of an action potential in
the neighboring section of plasma membrane

An action potential at one location stimulates the

production of a second action potential in an
adjacent location, which in turn stimulates the
production of another, and so on. It is like a long
row of dominoes in which each domino knocks
down the next. Each domino falls, but no single
domino actually travels the length of the row.
All-or-none Principle
- All action potentials are identical for a given Action Potential Frequency
excitable cell - Number of action potentials produced in a
- If a stimulus is strong enough to produce a certain amount of timmed
depolarization that reaches threshold, or - The strength of the stimulus applied to a
even if it exceeds threshold by a substantial neuron or a muscle fiber increases, the
amount, all of the permeability changes number of action potentials fired increases
responsible for an action potential proceed - The action potential frequency can affect
without stopping the strength of a muscle contraction
- If a stimulus is so weak that the
depolarization does not reach threshold, few Neuromuscular Junction to Generate Muscle
of the permeability changes occur. Contraction
- The membrane potential returns to its
resting level after a brief period without
producing an action potential (the “none”
part).
- An action potential can be compared to the
starter in a car. Once the ignition switch is
pressed (reaches threshold), the car starts
(an action potential is produced), and each
time, the engine runs the same as the
 - The energy form one ATP molecule is
required for each cross-bridge cycle
- Before each cycle, the myosin head is in its
resting position

Steps that Cause Shortening of the Sarcomere that

Leads to a Contracted Muscle

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
- Occurs at the triad
The Events at Neuromuscular Junction and the
- Linksthe electrical component of muscle
Action Potential along the Sarcolemma Result in
contraction to the mechanical component
Muscle Contraction
- The link between an action potential on the
sarcolemma and the sarcomere shortening

An Action Potential Propagated Along the

Sarcolemma to the Shortening of the Muscle

Cross-bridge Movement
- Mechanical component of muscle
contraction Muscle Relaxation
- Causes the sarcomeres to shorten and the - Occurs when acetylcholine is no longer
muscle will contract released at the neuromuscular junction
 - Cessation of action potentials along the sarcoplasm decreases slowly due to active
sarcolemma as well as the repolarization of transport into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
the sarcolemma to the resting membrane
potential stops Ca2+ release from the Tension
sarcoplasmic reticulum - Muscle contraction is measured as a force
- Calcium ions are then actively transported
back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum Types of Muscle Contractions
- As the Ca2+ concentration decreases in the 1. Isometric Contractions
sarcoplasm, the Ca2+ diffuses away form 2. Isotonic contractions
the troponin molecules.
- The troponin-tropomyosin complex then Isometric Contractions
reestablishes its position, which blocks the - The muscle does not shorten
active sites on the actin molecules - Increases the tension in the muscle, the
- As consequence, cross-bridges cannot re- length of the muscle stays the same
form and the muscle relaxes - Happens when try to lift something that is
far too heavy for you, when you stand still
Three Major ATP-dependent events required for and postural muscles hold your spine erect
Muscle Relaxation
1. After an action potential has occurred in the Isotonic Contractions
muscle fiber, the sodium-potassium pump - The muscle shortens
must actively transport Na+ out of the - Increases the tension in the muscle and the
muscle fiber and K+ into the muscle fiber to length of the muscle decreases
return to and maintain resting membrane - Happens anytime you lift an object and
potential. move it or you move your limbs
2. ATP is required to detach the myosin heads - Isotonic twitch may change its overall
from the active sites for the recovery stroke. characteristics depending on how much
3. ATP is needed for the active transport of force is needed to lift the weight
Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum from
the sarcoplasm. Summation
- The amount of force in an individual muscle
Muscle Twitch fiber
- Response of a muscle fiber to a single
action potential along its motor neuron Recruitment
- The amount of force in a whole muscle
3 Phases of Muscle Twitch
1. Lag
2. Contraction
3. Relaxation

Lag Phase
- The gap between the time of stimulus
application to the motor neuron and the
beginning of contraction
- It is the time during which the action
potential is traveling along the axon, the
events at the neuromuscular junction occur,
and the action potential travels along the
sarcolemma

Contraction Phase
- Commences once Ca2+ is released form
the sarcoplasmic reticulum and cross-bridge
cycling occurs
Relaxation Phase
- Much longer than the contraction phase
because the concentration of Ca2+ in the
 - If the frequency is increased beyond treppe,
Motor Unit the muscle fiber will continue to contract
- Consists of a single motor neuron and all with even greater force until a maximum
the muscle fibers its branches innervate force with no relaxation is achieved
- An action potential in the neuron of a motor
unit causes contraction of all the muscles Muscle fibers stimulated at greater frequencies first
fibers in that unit display wave summation, followed by incomplete
- Motor units are unique and vary in both size tetanus and complete tetanus
and sensitivity to stimulus
- Insensitive motor unit respond only to strong
stimuli
- Sensitive motor unit respond readily to weak
stimuli

Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers

- The strength of muscle contractions varies
form weak to strong.
- Muscles respond to stimuli in a graded
fashion
- The amount of force generated in a single
muscle fiber depends on the number of
cross-bridges formed
- Increasing the number of cross-bridges
allows the muscle fiber to contract with
more force

Three Major Factors That Increase The Number of

Cross-Bridges That Form Into A Muscle Fiber
1. Frequency of stimulation
2. Muscle fiber diameter
3. Muscle fiber length at the time of contraction
Muscle Fiber Diameter
Treppe - The greater the muscle fiber diameter, the
- At a higher frequency, the muscle fiber will greater the force the muscle fiber can
contract with greater force with each generate
successive stimulus - The more cross-bridges that get formed, the
- To cause treppe, the stimulus frequency more force a muscle can generate
must allow the muscle fiber to completely
relax, followed by another immediate Muscle Fiber Length at the Time of Contraction
stimulation - The initial length of a muscle fiber has a
strong influence on the amount of tension it
At these higher stimulus frequencies, there is an produces.
increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels over time
Active Tension
- The force applied to an object to be lifted
when a muscle contracts

Active Tension Curve

- The muscle fiber length plotted against the
tension produced by the muscle fiber in
response to maximus stimuli

Muscle Tone
- Constant tension
 - Responsible for keeping the back and lower
limbs straight, the head upright, and the Skeletal muscle fibers produce ATP through four
abdomen flat processes
- Depends on a small percentage of all of the 1. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one
motor flat adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by the
enzyme adenylate kinase
Concentric contractions 2. Transfer of a phosphate from a molecule
- Isotonic contractions in which tension in the called creatine (KREE-a-teen) phosphate by
muscle is great enough to overcome the the enzyme creatine kinase from ADP to
opposing resistance, and the muscle form ATP
shortens. 3. Anaerobic production of ATP during
- Results in increasing tension as the muscle intensive short-term exercise
shortens 4. Aerobic production of ATP during most
exercise and normal conditions
Eccentric Contractions
- Isotonic contractions in which tension is Adenylate Kinase
maintained in a muscle, but th eopposing - Transfers one phosphate from one ADP to a
resistance is great enough to cause the second ADP, resulting in one ATP and one
muscle to increase length AMP

Heat Production Creatine Kinase

- Some energy is released in the form of - This extra ATP is utilized in muscle fibers to
heat, a chemical reactions occur within transfer a phosphate from the ATP to a
cells small protein synthesized by muscle fibers
- The rate of chemical reactions increases in called Creatine
muscle fibers during contraction, the rate of - The transfer of the phosphate creates the
heat production also increases, causing a molecule creatine phosphate. This molecule
rise in body temperature acts like a “bank” for “high-energy”
- After exercise, increased metabolism phosphate.
resulting from recovery oxygen consumption - When ATP levels start to drop in a
helps keep the body temperature elevated, contracting muscle fiber, the enzyme
but sweating and vasodilation of blood creatine kinase will transfer a phosphate
vessels in the skin speed heat loss and from creatine phosphate to ADP,
keep the body temperature within its normal immediately producing ATP
range
- When body temperature declines below a Anaerobic Respiration
certain level, the nervous system responds - Does not require O2 and involves the
by inducing shivering, rapid skeletal muscle breakdown of glucose to produce ATP and
contractions that produce shaking rather lactate
than coordinated movements. - Produces only enough ATP to power
- During shivering, the muscle movement muscle contraction for 30-40 seconds
increases heat production up to 18 times - Produces far less ATP than other pathways,
that of resting levels and the heat produced but can produce ATP in a matter of a few
can exceed the amount produced during seconds.
moderate exercise
- Shivering helps raise the body temperature Glycolysis
to its normal range - Enzymatic pathway that is first step of
anaerobic respiration
Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction
- In glycolysis, one glucose molecule is
3 Major ATP-dependent enzymes broken down into two pyruvate molecules,
1. Myosin head producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.
2. Na+-K+ pump to maintain the resting In anaerobic respiration, the pyruvate is
membrane potential then converted to a molecule called lactate
3. Ca2+ reuptake pump in the sarcoplasmic - ATP production in skeletal muscle was
reticulum thought to be clearly delineated into purely
 aerobic activities versus purely anaerobic
Pathwa Myokin Creatin Anaero Aerobic
activities and that the product of anaerobic
y ase e bic Respira
respiration was principally lactic acid. Lactic
Kianse Respira tion
acid was considered to be a harmful waste
tion
product that must be removed from the
body. Energy ADP Creatin Glucose Glucose
- it is now widely recognized that anaerobic source e , fatty
respiration ultimately gives rise to lactic Phosph acids,
acid’s alternate chemical form, the ate amino
conjugate base lactate acids
- it is now known that lactate is a critical
metabolic intermediate that is formed and Oxygen No No No Yes
used continuously even under fully aerobic required
conditions. Lactate is produced by skeletal
muscle cells at all times, but particularly ATP 1 per 1 per 2 per Up to
during exercise, and is subsequently broken yield ADP creatine glucose 36 per
down (65–70%) or used to make new phosph molecul glucose
glucose (30–35%). ate e molecul
e
Aerobic Respiration
- Requires O2 and breaks down glucose to Duratio Up to Up to Up to 3 Hours
produce ATP, CO2, and H2O n of 10 10 minutes
- glucose breakdown pathways produce the energy second second
maximum number of ATP, lipids and amino supply s s
acids as well as other nutrients can also be
- used to produce ATP. The ATP from Type of Moderat Moderat Extrem Resting
aerobic respiration supplies 95% of the total work e e e and all
ATP required by a cell and provides enough support exercis exercis exercis exercis
ATP for hours of muscle contraction as long ed e and e and e e
as O2 is readily available. extreme extreme
- occurs mostly in the mitochondria and is exercis exercis
much more efficient than anaerobic e e
respiration. With aerobic respiration
pathways, the breakdown of a single Muscle Fatigue
glucose molecule produces up to 36 ATP, - Temporary state of reduced work capacity.
18 times more than anaerobic respiration. - Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be
- the two pyruvate molecules are transported worked to the point of structural damage to
into the mitochondria. There, pyruvate is them and their supportive tissues.
processed through the citric acid cycle,
followed by the electron-transport chain. There are multiple mechanisms underlying
- It is the electron-transport chain that muscular fatigue:
produces the bulk of ATP for aerobic 1. Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an
respiration and is the oxygen-dependent increased ATP consumption or a decreased
pathway of aerobic respiration. ATP production
2. Oxidative stress, which is characterized by
the buildup of excess reactive oxygen
species (ROS; free radicals)
3. 3. Local inflammatory reactions

Acidosis and ATP Depletion

- Anaerobic respiration results in the
breakdown of glucose to lactate and protons
accounting for lowered pH. Lowered pH has
ATP Production as Exercise Progresses several cellular effects, including weak
cross-bridge formation by interfering with
Ca2+ binding to troponin and overall less
 Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic and myosin myofilaments cannot be broken,
reticulum. Lactic acidosis can also result and the muscle cannot relax.
when liver dysfunction results in reduced
clearance of lactate. Psychological Fatigue
- Increased lactate levels are due to - involves the central nervous system rather
increased anaerobic respiration production than the muscles themselves. The muscles
of ATP when aerobic respiration production are still capable of contracting, but the
of ATP is reduced. Increases in lactate are individual “perceives” that continued muscle
also seen in patients with mitochondrial contraction is impossible.
disorders and chronic obstructive pulmonary - Although fatigue reduces power output, the
disease (COPD) increased lactate levels overall benefit is that it prevents complete
are due to increased anaerobic respiration exhaustion of ATP reserves, which could
production of ATP when aerobic respiration otherwise lead to severe damage of the
production of ATP is reduced. Increases in muscle fibers.
lactate are also seen in patients with
mitochondrial disorders and chronic Muscle Soreness
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) - The pain is more common in untrained
- Recent studies demonstrated that people. In addition, highly repetitive
sarcoplasmic ATP levels stay relatively eccentric muscle contractions produce pain
constant even in the face of decreasing more readily than concentric contractions
muscle force production. But decreased do.
ATP does cause fatigue. More specifically, it - The pain is related to inflammatory chemical
is the localized decreases in ATP levels or influx into the muscle fibers.
those associated with specific transport - In people with exercise-induced muscle
systems that are correlated with muscle soreness, enzymes that are normally found
fatigue. inside muscle fibers can be detected in the
extracellular fluid. These enzymes are able
Oxidative Stress to leave the muscle fibers because injury
- ROS are a natural by-product of metabolism has increased the permeability of plasma
and include molecules such as peroxides. membranes, or has even ruptured them.
They can result in damage to cells. Also found in the extracellular fluid of
- During intense exercise, increases in ROS muscles are fragments of collagen,
production cause the breakdown of indicating that both muscle fibers and the
proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. In addition, connective tissue of muscles have been
ROS trigger an immune system chemical injured.
called interleukin-6 (IL-6). IL-6 is a mediator
of inflammation, which is the most likely Oxygen deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen
cause of muscle soreness. Consumption

Inflammation 2 distinct phase of oxygen use:

- T-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, 1. Oxygen deficit
migrate into heavily worked muscles. The 2. After exercise has ended
presence of immune system intermediates
increases the perception of pain, which Oxygen deficit
most likely serves as a signal to protect - Is the lag time between when a person
those tissues from further damage. begins to exercise and when he or she
begins to breathe more heavily because of
Physiological Contracture the exercise
- Incapable of contracting and relaxing - The oxygen deficit is the insufficient oxygen
muscles consumption relative to increased activity at
- Occurs when there is too little ATP to bind the onset of exercise. This deficit must be
to myosin myofilaments. Because binding of repaid during and after exercise once
ATP to the myosin heads is necessary for oxygen consumption catches up with the
cross-bridge release between the actin and increased activity level.
myosin, the cross-bridges between the actin - At the onset of exercise, muscles primarily
acquire the ATP they need from the creatine
 kinase and myokinase systems, as well as - Where actin myofilaments are attached
anaerobic respiration—three systems that
can supply ATP relatively quickly and Dense Areas
without requiring oxygen (table 9.5). The - Where actin myofilaments are scattered
ability of aerobic respiration to supply ATP
at the onset of exercise lags behind that of
the creatine kinase system and anaerobic
respiration.

Excess postexercise oxygen consumption

- is the lag time before breathing returns to its
preexercise rate once exercise stops.
- These changes in breathing patterns reflect
muscles’ need for more oxygen to produce
ATP through aerobic respiration.
- Excess postexercise oxygen consumption is
the elevated
- oxygen consumption that occurs after
exercise has ended. A
- small part of the excess postexercise
oxygen is used to “repay”
- the oxygen deficit incurred at the onset of
exercise, but most
- of the excess postexercise oxygen is used
to support metabolic
- processes that restore homeostasis after it
was disturbed during
- exercise. Such disturbances include
exercise-related
- increases in body temperature, changes i
intra- and extracellular ion concentrations,
and changes in metabolite and hormone
levels.
- Excess postexercise oxygen consumption
generally lasts minutes to hours, depending
on the individual’s physical conditioning and
on the length and intensity of the exercise
session.

Smooth Muscle
- Distributed widely throughout the body and
is more variable in function than other
muscle types.
- Smooth muscle cells (figure 9.24) are
smaller than skeletal muscle fibers, ranging
from 15 to 200 μm in length and from 5 to 8
μm in diameter.
- Spindle-shaped, with a single nucleus in the
middle of the cell.
- There are more actin than myosin
myofilaments. The actin and myosin
myofilaments overlap, but they are
organized as loose bundles instead of
sarcomeres.

Dense Bodies