MTY1102: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

help propel and mix food and
GENERAL GUIDLINES water in the digestive tract,
propel secretions from organs,
LEGEND FOR HEADERS and regulate blood flow through
vessels.
MAIN TOPIC • Contraction of the heart. The
SUBTOPIC contraction of cardiac muscle
SUB-SUBTOPIC causes the heart to beat,
propelling blood to all parts of
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF the body.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Movement of the body.
Contraction of skeletal muscles
is responsible for the overall
movements of the body, such as
walking running, and
manipulating objects with
hands.
• Maintenance of posture.
Skeletal muscles constantly
maintain tone, which keeps us
sitting or standing erect.
• Respiration. Muscles of the
thorax carry out breathing
movements.
• Production of body heat. When
skeletal muscle contract, heat is
given off as a by-product, this
released heat is critical to
maintenance of body
temperature.
• Communication. Skeletal
muscles are involved in all GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
aspects of communication, MUSCULAR TISSUE
including speaking, writing, • Contractility- the ability of
typing, gesturing, and facial muscle to shorten forcefully, or
expressions. contract.
• Constriction of organs and
vessels. The contraction of *Skeletal muscle contraction
smooth muscle within the walls causes structures to which
of internal organs and vessels they are attached to move.
causes those structures to *Smooth muscle/cardiac
constrict. This constriction can muscle contraction increases

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 pressure inside the organ it Ø Perimysium
surrounds. - Separates muscle fascicles from
*Forces that oppose attraction each other
cause muscle to lengthen. *Muscle fibers- separate muscle
*muscle shortening- forceful cells subdivided by each
muscle lengthening- passive fascicle
Ø Endomysium
• Excitability- the capacity of a - loose connective tissue that
muscle to respond to a stimulus. surrounds each muscles fiber
Normally, the stimulus is from
nerves that we consciously
control.

• Extensibility- means that skeletal

muscles stretch. After a
contraction, skeletal muscles
can be stretched to their normal
resting length and beyond to a
limited degree.

• Elasticity- the ability of skeletal

muscles to recoil to their original
resting length after they have
been stretched.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE

- Skeletal muscle/striated muscle Muscle Fiber
- Approximately 40% of bodyweight - single cylindrical fiber, with
- Transverse bands or striations several nuclei located at its
can be seen in the muscle under periphery
the microscope - the largest human muscle fibers
- Consist of skeletal muscle tissue, are up to 30 cm long and 0.15 mm
nervous tissue, connective in diameter. Such giant cells may
tissue, and adipose tissue contain several thousand nuclei

CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS Sarcolemma

OF MUSCLE - Cell membrane of muscle fiber
Ø Epimysium - The multiple nuclei of the muscle
- Also called as muscular fascia fiber are located just deep to the
- connective tissue sheath sarcolemma
*Fascicles- numerous visible
bundles that subdivides a whole Transverse tubules/T tubules
muscle

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 - Many tube like inward folds along - network of protein fibers forming
the surface of the sarcolemma an attachment site for actin
- occur at regular intervals along myofilaments
the muscle fiber and extend into
the center I band
- connect the sarcolemma to the - light-staining bands
sarcoplasmic reticulum - consists only of actin
myofilaments
Sarcoplasmic reticulum - spans each Z disk and ends at
- highly organized smooth the myosin myofilaments
endoplasmic reticulum
- has a relatively high A band
concentration of Ca2+, which - dark-staining band
plays a major role in muscle - extends the length of the myosin
contraction myofilaments. The actin and
*Terminal cisternae- enlarged myosin myofilaments overlap for
portions some distance at both ends of
the A band
Sarcoplasm
- Cytoplasm of a muscle fiber H zone
- in the center of each A band
Myofibrils - smaller and lighter-staining
- Bundles of protein filaments region
within the sarcoplasm - contains only myosin filaments
- Consist of actin myofilaments
and myosin filaments M line
- consists of fine protein filaments
SARCOMERES that anchor the myosin filaments
- basic structural and functional in place
unit of skeletal muscle because - actin filaments slide past the
it is the smallest portion of myosin filaments into the H zone
skeletal muscle capable of
contracting ACTIN AND MYOSIN FILAMENTS
- separate components of the Ø Actin myofilaments
sarcomere can slide past each - Also called thin filaments
other, causing the sarcomeres - The actin strands, which
to shorten resemble two minute strands of
- sarcomeres shorten = myofibrils pearls twisted together, have
shorten = ultimate cause of attachment sites for the myosin
contraction of the muscle fiber myofilaments
during a contraction - Made up of 3 components: actin,
troponin, and tropomyosin
Z disks
- separate one sarcomere from *Troponin
the next

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 - molecules are attached at - electrical charge differences
specific intervals along the across the cell membrane of an
actin myofilaments unstimulated cell
- These molecules have - inside of the cell membrane:
binding sites for Ca2+ negatively charged
*Tropomyosin outside the cell membrane:
- block the myosin filament positively charged
binding sites on the actin - it exist because:
filaments § The concentration of K+
- located along the groove inside the cell membrane
between the twisted strands is higher than that outside
of actin myofilament subunits. the cell membrane
- when Ca2+ is present, it binds § the concentration of Na+
to troponin, which causes the outside the cell
tropomyosin filaments to membrane is higher than
expose the attachment sites that inside the cell
on the actin myofilaments membrane
§ there are many negatively
Ø Myosin myofilaments charged molecules, such
- Also called thick myofilaments as proteins, inside the
- Resembles bundles of tiny golf cell. These negatively
clubs charged molecules do not
Myosin head exit the cell because they
- Parts of the myosin molecule are too large to diffuse
that resemble golf club heads across the cell membrane
- 3 important properties of myosin or exit through cell
heads: membrane channels
o The heads can bind to § the cell membrane is
attachment sites on the more permeable to K+
actin myofilaments than it is to Na+. Recall
o they can bend and from chapter 3 the
straighten during different types of ion
contraction; and channels: nongated, or
o they can break down ATP, leak, channels, which are
releasing energy always open, and
chemically gated
EXCITABILITY OF MUSCLE FIBERS channels, which are
closed until a chemical,
Polarized- electrically excitable cells such as a
neurotransmitter, binds to
2 major types of cell membrane them and stimulates them
channels: to open
- leak channels ACTION POTENTIALS
- gated channels
Resting membrane potential - rapid change in charge across
the cell membrane

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 - if the depolarization changes the - consist of several enlarged axon
membrane potential to a value terminals resting in indentations
called threshold, an action of the muscle fiber’s
potential triggered sarcolemma

*Motor units
- constitute a single muscle
- the fewer fibers there are in motor
units of a muscle, the greater
control you have over the muscle

Presynaptic terminal
- the axon terminal
- contains many small vesicles
called synaptic vesicles
*Synaptic vesicles
- contain the neurotransmitter
called acetylcholine or Ach
stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic
cells

Synaptic cleft
- space between the presynaptic
terminal and the muscle fiber
membrane
NERVE SUPPLY AND MUSCLE
FIBER STIMULATION Sarcolemma
Motor neurons - postsynaptic membrane
- specialized nerve cells that
stimulate muscles to contract
- generate action potentials that
travel to skeletal muscle fibers
- axons of these neurons enter
muscles and send out branches
to several muscle fibers

Neuromuscular junction
- general term: synapse
- junction with a muscle fiber
- refers to the cell-to-cell junction
between a nerve cell and either
another nerve cell or an effector
cell, such as muscle in a gland
- located near the center of a
muscle fiber

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 produced by other muscles or by
gravity

Sliding filament model

- sliding of actin myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments
during contraction

Acetylcholinesterase
- enzymatic breakdown ensures
that one action potential in the
neuron yields only one action
potential in the skeletal muscle
fibers of that motor unit and only
one contraction of each muscle
fiber

MUSCLE CONTRACTION
- Contraction of skeletal muscle
tissue occurs as actin and
myosin myofilaments slide past
one another, causing the
sarcomeres to shorten
- Shortening of the sarcomeres
causes myofibrils to shorten,
thereby causing the entire
muscle to shorten
- During contraction, neither the
actin nor the myosin fibers
shorten
- H zones and I bands shorten
during contraction, but the A
bands do not change in length
- During muscle relaxation,
sarcomeres lengthen. This
lengthening requires an
opposing force, such as that

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 from the presynaptic terminal,
diffuse across the synaptic cleft,
and bind to receptors that allow
the entry of Na+, which initiates
an action potential on the
postsynaptic membrane
• Contraction phase
- time during which the muscle
contracts
- results from cross-bridge
movement and cycling which
increases the tension produced
by the muscle fibers
• Relaxation phase
- time during which the muscle
relaxes
- Ca2+ is actively transported
back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. As Ca2+ diffuses
away from the troponin
molecules, tropomyosin
MUSCLE TWITCH, SUMMATION, molecules once again block the
TETANUS, AND RECRUITMENT attachment sites. Cross-bridge
formation is prevented, and the
Ø MUSCLE TWITCH tension produced by the muscle
- contraction of a muscle fiber in fibers decreases
response to a stimulus.
Because most muscle fibers are
grouped into motor units, a
muscle twitch usually involves
all the muscle fibers in a motor
unit.

3 Phases of Muscle Twitch

• Lag phase/Latent phase
- time between the application of
a stimulus and the beginning of
contraction
- action potentials are produced
in one or more motor neurons.
- An action potential travels along
the axon of a motor neuron to a
neuromuscular junction. Once
the stimulus reaches the
neuromuscular junction,
acetylcholine must be released
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 - As stimulus frequency
increases, there is not enough
time between contractions for
muscle fibers to relax
completely
- one contraction summates, or is
added onto, a previous
contraction. As a result, the
overall force of contraction
increases

Ø TETANUS
- a sustained contraction that
occurs when the frequency of
stimulation is so rapid that no
relaxation occurs
- complete tetanus is rarely
achieved under normal
circumstances and is more
commonly an experimentally
induced muscular response
- The increased force of
contraction produced in
summation and tetanus occurs
because Ca2+ builds up in
The force of contraction a muscle
myofibrils, which promotes
produces is increased in two ways: cross-bridge formation and
cycling
(1) Summation involves increasing the
force of contraction of the muscle
fibers within the muscle, and

(2) recruitment involves increasing the

number of muscle fibers contracting

Ø SUMMATION
- the force of contraction of
individual muscle fibers is
increased by rapidly stimulating
them
- When stimulus frequency,
which is the number of times a
motor neuron is stimulated per
second, is low, there is time for
complete relaxation of muscle
fibers between muscle twitches

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 - contain type I myosin as the
predominant or even exclusive
type
- contract slowly
- slow-twitch fibers work
aerobically

• Fast-twitch fiber
- contain either type IIa or type IIb
myosin myofilaments
- contract quickly
- fast-twitch fibers are more
suited for working anaerobically

* type IIb fibers

- the fastest and type IIa fibers
contract at an intermediate
speed
- can contract ten times faster
Ø RECRUITMENT than slow-twitch
- the number of muscle fibers
contracting is increased by
increasing the number of motor
units stimulated, and the muscle
contracts with more force
- When only a few motor units are
stimulated, a small force of
contraction is produced
because only a small number of
muscle fibers are contracting
- As the number of motor units
stimulated increases, more
muscle fibers are stimulated to
contract, and the force of
contraction increases

FIBER TYPES
- Muscle fibers are sometimes
classified as either slow-twitch
or fast-twitch fibers
- This classification is based on
differences in the rod portion of
the myosin myofilament

• Slow-twitch fiber

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 - more flexible than anaerobic
respiration because of the
ability to break down lipids and
amino acids to form ATP, as
noted earlier

Anaerobic Respiration
- does not require O2 , breaks
down glucose to produce ATP
and lactate
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR - High-intensity, short-duration
MUSCLE CONTRACTION exercise, such as sprinting or
carrying something very heavy,
Muscle Fibers
- very energy-demanding cells is supported through partially
whether at rest or during any anaerobic pathways
form of exercise - n produces far less ATP than
- This energy comes from either aerobic respiration, but can
aerobic (with O2 ) or anaerobic produce ATP in a matter of a
(without O2 ) ATP production few seconds instead of a few
minutes like aerobic respiration
ATP is derived from four processes in
skeletal muscle:
o Aerobic production of ATP
during most exercise and
normal conditions
o Anaerobic production of ATP
during intensive short-term
work
o Conversion of a molecule called
creatine phosphate to ATP
o Conversion of two ADP to one
ATP and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy
exercise

Aerobic Respiration
- occurs mostly in mitochondria,
FATIGUE
requires O2 and breaks down
- temporary state of reduced work
glucose to produce ATP, CO2 ,
capacity
and H2 O
- Without fatigue, muscle fibers
- can also process lipids or amino
would be worked to the point of
acids to make ATP
structural damage to them and
- Low-intensity, long-duration
their supportive tissues
exercise is supported through
- Major cause of fatigue
mainly aerobic pathways
(historically): buildup of lactic

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 acid and the corresponding
drop in pH (acidosis) Physiological Contracture
- occurs when there is too little
ATP to bind to myosin
Multiple Mechanisms Underlying myofilaments
Muscular Fatigue: - muscle may become incapable
of either contracting or relaxing
• Acidosis and ATP depletion due
to either an increased ATP Psychological fatigue
consumption or a decreased - most common type of fatigue
ATP production - involves the central nervous
• Oxidative stress, which is system rather than the muscles
characterized by the buildup of themselves
excess reactive oxygen species - muscles are still capable of
(ROS; free radicals) contracting, but the individual
• Local inflammatory reactions “perceives” that continued
muscle contraction is
ACIDOSIS AND ATP DEPLETION impossible
- Anaerobic respiration results in - overall benefit is that it prevents
breakdown of glucose to lactate complete exhaustion of ATP
and protons, accounting for reserves, which could lead to
lowered ph severe damage of the muscle
- Lowered pH= decreased fibers
effectiveness of Ca2+ on actin
and overall less Ca2+ release EFFECT OF FIBER TYPE ON
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum ACTIVITY LEVEL
- can also result when liver - Humans exhibit no clear
dysfunction results in reduced separation of slow-twitch and
clearance of lactate (such as fast twitch muscle fibers in
using it to produce glucose, for individual muscles.
example) - Most muscles have both types
of fibers, although the number
OXIDATIVE STRESS of each type varies in a given
- Increase in Reactive Oxygen muscle.
Species (ROS)= breakdown of - The large postural muscles
proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids contain more slow-twitch fibers,
- trigger an immune system whereas muscles of the upper
chemical called interleukin (IL)- limb contain more fast-twitch
6 a mediator of inflammation fibers.
(may cause muscle soreness)
Myoglobin
INFLAMMATION - The darker appearance is due
partly to a richer blood supply
T lymphocyte and partly because of its
- type of white blood cell, migrate presence
into heavily worked muscles

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 - The darker appearance is due - When stimulated, satellite cells
partly to a richer blood supply can differentiate and develop
and partly into a limited number of new,
- can continue to release oxygen functional muscle fibers
in a muscle even when a - stimulated by the destruction of
sustained contraction has existing muscle fibers, such as
interrupted the continuous flow by injury or disease, or during
of blood intensive strength training

Exercise TYPES OF MUSCLE

- increases: CONTRACTIONS
o the blood supply to
muscles • Isometric contractions
o the number of - Equal distance
mitochondria per muscle - the length of the muscle does
fiber not change
o the number of myofibrils - amount of tension increases
and myofilaments, during the contraction process
- thus causing muscle fibers to - responsible for the constant
enlarge, or hypertrophy length of the body’s postural
- With weight training, type IIb muscles, such as the muscles of
myosin myofilaments can be the back
replaced by type IIa myosin
myofilaments as muscles • Isotonic contractions
enlarge - Equal tension
- Muscle nuclei quit expressing - amount of tension produced by
type IIb genes and begin the muscle is constant during
expressing type IIa genes, contraction
which are more resistant to - length of the muscle decreases
fatigue - Movements of the arms or
- If the exercise stops, the type fingers are predominantly
IIa genes turn off, and the type isotonic contractions
IIb genes turn back on
- Vigorous exercise programs • Concentric contractions
can cause a limited number of - are isotonic contractions in
type I myofilaments to be which muscle tension increases
replaced by type IIa as the muscle shortens
myofilaments - Many common movements are
- As people age, the number of produced by concentric muscle
muscle fibers actually contractions
decreases
• Eccentric contractions
Satellite cells - are isotonic contractions in
- undifferentiated cells just below which tension is maintained in a
the endomysium muscle

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 - opposing resistance causes the depolarization and
muscle to lengthen repolarization phases
- used when a person slowly - can periodically and
lowers a heavy weight spontaneously generate action
- Substantial force is produced in potentials that cause the
muscles during eccentric smooth muscle cells to contract
contractions, and muscles can - under involuntary control,
be injured during repetitive whereas skeletal muscle is
eccentric contractions under voluntary motor control
- organized to form layers
- have gap junctions, specialized
MUSCLE TONE cell-to-cell contacts that allow
action potentials to spread to all
- constant tension produced by the smooth muscle cells in a
body muscles over long periods tissue
of time - all the smooth muscle cells tend
- responsible for keeping the to function as a unit and
back and legs straight, the head contract at the same time
in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging Autorhythmicity
- depends on a small percentage - resulting periodic spontaneous
of all the motor units causing contraction of smooth muscle
their muscle fibers to contract
tetanically and out of phase with Ø CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
one another - long, striated, and branching,
with usually only one nucleus
SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARDIAC per cell
MUSCLE - striated, but not as distinctly
striated as skeletal muscle
Ø SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS - When stimulated
- small and spindle-shaped, - by neurotransmitters, the rate of
usually with one nucleus per cardiac muscle contraction is
cell between those of smooth and
- contain less actin and myosin skeletal muscle
than do skeletal muscle cells, - Cardiac muscle contraction is
and the myofilaments are not autorhythmic
organized into sarcomeres - exhibits limited anaerobic
- contract more slowly than respiration
skeletal muscle cells when - continues to contract at a level
stimulated by neurotransmitters that can be sustained by
from the nervous system and do aerobic respiration and
not develop an oxygen deficit consequently does not fatigue
- The resting membrane potential - connected to one another by
of some smooth muscle cells intercalated disks
fluctuates between slow
Intercalated disk

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 - specialized structures that toward the other across the
include tight junctions and gap movable joint
junctions and that facilitate
action potential conduction Origin
between the cells - two points of attachment of
- cell to-cell connection each muscle
- allows cardiac muscle cells to - also called the head
function as a unit - most stationary end of the
muscle
- usually, but not always,
proximal or medial to the
insertion of a given muscle

Insertion
- end of the muscle attached to
the bone undergoing the
greatest movement

Belly
- part of the muscle between the
origin and the insertion

Agonist
- muscle that accomplishes a
SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY certain movement, such as
flexion
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
- Most muscles extend from one Antagonist
bone to another and cross at - muscle acting in opposition to
least one joint an agonist
-
Tendon
- the muscle that is connected to
the bone at both ends

Aponeuroses
- broad, sheetlike tendons

Retinaculum
- a band of connective tissue that
holds down the tendons at each
wrist and ankle

Muscle contraction
- causes most body movements
by pulling one of the bones

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 muscle, which extends from the
arm to the radius
- Some muscles are named
according to the number of
origins

Synergist
- Members of a group of muscles
working together to produce a
movement

Prime mover
- Among a group of synergists
- one muscle that plays the major
role in accomplishing the
desired movement
- the brachialis is the prime
mover in flexing the elbow

Fixators
- muscles that hold one bone in
place relative to the body while
a usually more distal bone is
moved

NOMENCLATURE
- Most muscles have descriptive
names
- Some muscles are named
according to their location, such
as the pectoralis (chest)
muscles
- Other muscles are named
according to their origin and
insertion, such as the
brachioradialis (brachio, arm)

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MUSCLE OF THE HEAD AND NECK
- include those involved in
forming facial expressions,
chewing, moving the tongue,
swallowing, producing sounds,
moving the eyes, and moving
the head and neck

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 - can be easily seen and felt on
FACIAL EXPRESSION the side of the head during
Occipitofrontalis mastication
- raises the eyebrows
Pterygoid
Epicranial aponeurosis - consisting of two pairs, are
- connects the occipital and deep to the mandible
frontal portions of the muscle

Orbicularis oculi
- encircle the eyes, tightly close
the eyelids, and cause “crow’s
feet” wrinkles in the skin at the
lateral corners of the eyes

Orbicularis oris
- encircles the mouth

Buccinators
- sometimes called the kissing
muscles because they pucker
the mouth
- flattens the cheeks as in
whistling or blowing a trumpet
and is therefore sometimes
called the trumpeter’s muscle

Zygomaticus
- accomplishes smiling

Levator labii superioris

- accomplishes sneering

Depressor anguli oris

- performs frowning and pouting
- depresses the corner of the
mouth

MASTICATION
- four pairs of muscles for
chewing, or mastication
- are some of the strongest
muscles in the body

Temporalis and masseter

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 Pharyngeal muscles
- open the auditory tube, which
connects the middle ear to the
pharynx
- Opening the auditory tube
equalizes the pressure between
the middle ear and the
atmosphere
TONGUE AND SWALLOWING
MUSCLES
Tongue
- moves food around in the mouth
and, with the buccinator muscle,
holds the food in place while the
teeth grind the food
- pushes food up to the palate
and back toward the pharynx to
initiate swallowing

Intrinsic muscles
- located entirely within the
tongue and change its shape

Extrinsic muscles
- located outside the tongue but
are attached to and move the
tongue

Hyoid muscles
- divided into a suprahyoid group
(superior to the hyoid bone) and
an infrahyoid group (inferior to
the hyoid bone)
- When the suprahyoid muscles
hold the hyoid bone in place
from above, the infrahyoid
muscles can elevate the larynx NECK MUSCLES
Deep neck muscles
Pharyngeal elevators - include neck flexors, located
- elevate the pharynx along the anterior surfaces of
the vertebral bodies, and neck
Pharyngeal constrictors extensors, located posteriorly
- constrict the pharynx from - Rotation and lateral flexion of
superior to inferior, forcing the the head are accomplished by
food into the esophagus

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 lateral and posterior neck - When the deep back muscles
muscles are stretched abnormally or
torn, muscle strains and sprains
Sternocleidomastoid of lumbar vertebral ligaments
- prime mover of the lateral can occur, resulting in low back
muscle group, is easily seen on pain
the anterior and lateral sides of
the neck THORACIC MUSCLES
- Contraction of only one - involved almost entirely in the
sternocleidomastoid muscle process of breathing
rotates the head
- Contraction of both External intercostals
sternocleidomastoids flexes the - elevate the ribs during
neck or extends the head, inspiration
depending on what the other
neck muscles are doing Internal intercostals
- contract during forced
Torticollis expiration, depressing the ribs
- or wry neck
- may result from injury to one of Diaphragm
the sternocleidomastoid - accomplishes the major
muscles movement produced in the
- sometimes caused by damage thorax during quiet breathing
to a baby’s neck muscles during - When it contracts, the dome is
a difficult birth and usually can flattened, causing the volume of
be corrected by exercising the the thoracic cavity to increase,
muscle resulting in inspiration

TRUNK MUSCLES ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES

Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall
MUSCLES MOVING THE - flex and rotate the vertebral
VERTABRAL COLUMN column
Erector spinae - compress the abdominal cavity
- group of muscles on each side - hold in and protect the
of the back are primarily abdominal organs
responsible for keeping the
back straight and the body erect Linea alba
- tendinous area of the abdominal
Deep back muscles wall
- located between the spinous - consists of white connective
and transverse processes of tissue rather than muscle
adjacent vertebrae
- are responsible for several Rectus abdominis
movements of the vertebral - each side of the linea alba
column, including extension,
lateral flexion, and rotation Tendinous intersections

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 - cross the rectus abdominis at
three or more locations, causing
the abdominal wall of a lean,
well-muscled person to appear
segmented

* Lateral to the rectus abdominis are

three layers of muscle:

External abdominal oblique

- superficial muscles

Internal abdominal oblique

- deep muscles

Transversus abdominis

PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEAL

MUSCLES
Pelvis
- a ring of bone with an inferior
opening that is closed by a
muscular floor through which
the anus and the openings of

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 the urinary tract and body and those in the arm,
reproductive tract penetrate forearm, and hand

Pelvic floor SCAPULAR MOVEMENTS

- also referred to as the pelvic Upper limb
diaphragm - primarily connected to the body
- formed by the levator ani by muscles
muscle
* The muscles that attach the scapula to
Perineum the thorax and move the scapula include
- area inferior to the pelvic floor the trapezius, the levator scapulae, the
- contains a number of muscles rhomboids, the serratus anterior, and the
associated with the male or pectoralis
female reproductive structures
Scapular muscles
- move the scapula into different
positions, thereby increasing
the range of movement of the
upper limb

Trapezius
- forms the upper line from each
shoulder to the neck

ARM MOVEMENTS
- The arm is attached to the
thorax by the pectoralis major
and latissimus dorsi

Pectoralis major
- adducts the arm and flexes the
shoulder
- It can also extend the shoulder
from a flexed position

Latissimus dorsi
- medially rotates and adducts
the arm and powerfully extends
the shoulder
- often called the swimmer’s
muscle

UPPER LIMB MUSCLES

- include those that attach the
limb and pectoral girdle to the

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 - primary extensor of the elbow,
occupies the posterior
compartment

Biceps brachii
- occupies anterior compartment

Brachialis
- primary flexors of the elbow

Brachioradialis
- a posterior forearm muscle,
helps flex the elbow

SUPINATION AND PRONATION

Supinator
- accomplishes supination of the
forearm, or turning the flexed
forearm so that the palm is up

Rotator cuff muscles Pronator

- attaches the humerus to the - Pronation, turning the forearm
scapula and forms a cuff or cap so that the palm is down, is a
over the proximal humerus function of two pronator
- stabilize the joint by holding the muscles
head of the humerus in the
glenoid cavity during arm WRIST AND FINGER MOVEMENTS
movements, especially - The twenty muscles of the
abduction forearm can also be divided into
anterior and posterior groups
Deltoid
- muscle attaches the humerus to
the scapula and clavicle and is
the major abductor of the upper
limb
- common site for administering
injections

Pectoralis major
- forms the upper chest, and the
deltoid forms the rounded mass
of the shoulder

FOREARM MOVEMENTS
Triceps brachii

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LLAGAS, L. 23
 of the posterior forearm
muscles cause extension.

Flexor carpi muscles

- flex the wrist

Extensor carpi muscles

- extend the wrist

Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis

- serves as a landmark for
locating the radial pulse

Tendons of the wrist extensors

- visible on the posterior surface
of the forearm

Tennis elbow
- Forceful, repeated contraction
of the wrist extensor muscles
- occurs in a tennis backhand
- may result in inflammation and
pain where the extensor
muscles attach to the lateral
humeral epicondyle where the
extensor muscles attach to the
lateral humeral epicondyle

Flexor digitorum
- Function: flexion of the fingers

Extensor digitorum
- Accomplishes extension of the
fingers
- thumb has its own set of flexors,
extensors, adductors, and
abductors

Intrinsic hand muscles

- nineteen muscles
- located within the hand

Interossei muscles
Anterior forearm muscles - located between the metacarpal
- responsible for flexion of the bones
wrist and fingers, whereas most

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- responsible for abduction and
adduction of the fingers

LOWER LIMB MUSCLES

- include those located in the hip,
the thigh, the leg, and the foot

THIGH MOVEMENTS
Iliopsoas
- anterior muscle

Gluteal muscle
- posterior muscle

Tensor fasciae latae

- is so named because it tenses a
thick band of fascia on the
lateral side of the thigh called
the iliotibial tract

Gluteus maximus
- extends the hip and abducts
and laterally rotates the thigh,
contributes most of the mass
that can be seen as the buttocks
- sciatic nerve lies deep to the
gluteus maximus and could be
damaged during an injection

Gluteus medius
- which abducts and medially
rotates the thigh, creates a
smaller mass just superior and
lateral to the maximus
- common site for injections in the
buttocks

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 LEG MOVEMENTS
Quadriceps femoris muscles
- anterior muscle
- primary extensors of the knee
Sartorius
- longest muscle in the body
- is called the “tailor’s muscle”
because it flexes the hip and
knee and rotates the thigh
laterally for sitting cross-legged,
as tailors used to sit while
sewing

* They have a common insertion, the

patellar tendon, on and around the patella

Patellar ligament

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 - extension of the patellar tendon Gastrocnemius and the soleus
onto the tibial tuberosity - form the bulge of the calf
- tapped with a rubber hammer - they join to form the common
when testing the knee-jerk calcaneal tendon, or Achilles
reflex in a physical examination tendon
- these muscles are flexors and
Hamstring muscles are involved in plantar flexion of
- posterior thigh muscles the foot
- responsible for flexing the knee
- their tendons are easily felt and Fibularis muscles
seen on the medial and lateral - lateral muscles of the leg
posterior aspect of a slightly - primarily everters (turning the
bent knee lateral side of the foot outward)
- are so named because these of the foot, but they also aid in
tendons in hogs or pigs could be plantar flexion
used to suspend hams during
curing Intrinsic foot muscles
- twenty muscles located within
Adductor muscles the foot
- medial thigh muscles - flex, extend, abduct, and adduct
- primarily involved, as the name the toes
implies, in adducting the thigh - arranged in a manner similar to
the intrinsic muscles of the hand

EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL

MUSCLE
- Aging skeletal muscle
undergoes several changes that
reduce muscle mass, increase
the time a muscle takes to
contract in response to nervous
stimuli, reduce stamina, and
increase recovery time
- Loss of muscle fibers begins as
early as 25 years of age
- d by age 80 the muscle mass
has been reduced by
approximately 50%
- Weight-lifting exercises help
ANKLE AND TOE MOVEMENTS slow the loss of muscle mass
- thirteen muscles in the leg, with but do not prevent the loss of
tendons extending into the foot, muscle fibers
can be divided into three - fast-twitch muscle fibers
groups: anterior, posterior, and decrease in number more
lateral rapidly than slow-twitch fibers

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- most of the loss of strength and
speed is due to the loss of
muscle fibers, particularly fast-
twitch muscle fibers
- surface area of the
neuromuscular junction
decreases, and as a result,
action potentials in neurons
stimulate action potentials in
muscle cells more slowly; thus,
fewer action potentials are
produced in muscle fibers
- number of motor neurons also
decreases, and the remaining
neurons innervate more muscle
fibers
- Aging is also associated with a
decrease in the density of
capillaries in skeletal muscles
so that a longer recovery period
is required after exercise

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

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- usually identified in children
around 3 years of age
- parents notice slow motor
development with progressive
weakness and muscle wasting
(atrophy)
- muscular weakness begins in
the pelvic girdle, causing a
waddling gait
- Therapy primarily involves
exercises to help strengthen
muscles and prevent
contractures
- results from an abnormal gene
on the X chromosome and is
therefore a sex-linked (X-linked)
condition
- gene is carried by females, but
DMD affects males almost
exclusively, at a frequency of 1
in 3000
- DMD gene is responsible for
producing a protein called
dystrophin, which plays a role in
attaching myofibrils to other
proteins in the cell membrane
and regulating their activity

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