EG 232 Mechanical Measurements
EG 232 Mechanical Measurements
EG 232 Mechanical Measurements
SYSTEMS – EG 232
MECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS
where
= pressure of a fluid
= Applied force on a surface
= Area of surface on which force acts
= fluid density
= acceleration due to gravity
= height of the fluid column
Pressure Instruments
Pascal’s law
• This law states that intensity of pressure through a mass of fluid at
rest is transmitted equally in all directions.
• One application of this principle is in an hydraulic jack as shown in
figure 1 (a) and (b) below.
• This device used for lifting heavy loads by the application of much
smaller force.
Pressure Instruments
Working Principle
• Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of different
diameters, which are interconnected at the bottom, through a
chamber, which is filled with some liquid as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
where
= Force applied on the plunger,
= Weight to be lifted
= Area of ram, and
= Area of plunger
• The pressure intensity, produced by the force F1, using Eq. 1
Pressure Instruments
• As per Pascal’s law, the pressure intensity will be equally
transmitted in all directions.
• Therefore the pressure intensity on ram equals the pressure intensity
on the plunger as shown in Eq. 2.
• Therefore the force on the ram
Where
= volume
= elapsed time
• For a closed tube, the volume equals the area × length.
• Therefore,
Volumetric Flow Rate
• Figure 7 shows an incompressible fluid flowing along a pipe of
decreasing radius.
• Because the fluid is incompressible, the same amount of fluid must
flow past any point in the tube in a given time to ensure continuity of
flow.
• The flow is continuous because they are no sources or sinks that add
or remove mass, so the mass flowing into the pipe must be equal the
mass flowing out of the pipe.
• In this case, because the
cross‐sectional area of the
pipe decreases, the
velocity must increase.
Volumetric Flow Rate
• This logic can be extended to say that the flow rate must be the same
at all points along the pipe.
• In particular, for arbitrary points 1 and 2 from figure 7.
where
P1 and P2 are the static pressure values at point 1 and 2
respectively
is the density of the fluid
1 and 2 are the velocities
at point 1 and 2
respectively
1 and 2 are the elevation
from the datum
g is the acceleration due to
gravity
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
Venturi meter
• The Bernoulli equation is an important expression relating
pressure, height and velocity of a fluid at one point along its
flow.
• The relationship between these fluid conditions along a
streamline is always equal the same constant along that
streamline in an idealized system.
• Because the Bernoulli equation is equal to a constant at all points
along a streamline, we can equate two points on a streamline.
• Using information on the system at one point, we can solve for
information at another.
Volumetric Flow Rate
• The Venturi meter is a flow meter instrument that is used to measure
the flow rate (discharge) in a pipe and it works on the basis of the
Bernoulli principle.
• It is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid.
• To measure the flow rate that is discharged, a pressure drop occurs
between the entrance and throat of the venturi meter.
• With the use of a differential
manometer, the pressure drop
then pressure drop is used to
calculate the flow rate (Discharge).
• Lets consider a horizontal pipe on
which is fitted a venturi meter
where the fluid flows from section
1 to 2 as shown in Fig. 9.
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Let 1, 1, 1 and 1 be the corresponding pressure, velocity, height
above a datum and area in section 1, and 2, 2, 2 and 2 be the
corresponding values at section 2.
• Now applying Bernoulis equation in both the section one and two we
have
• The 1 and 2 will be eliminated because both section are at the same
height from the datum 1 2 .
• Equation 11 reduces to
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• The pressure head difference between sections 1 and 2 is equal
to , the height difference between the two columns of the
manometer.
• Therefore
• Inserting Eq. 16 into Eq. 7 gives the theoretical flow rate as shown in
Eq. 17 on the next slide.
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Hence
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Therefore the discharge,
2
1
Volumetric Discharge Measurement
Hence
2
∆
• Strain,
• Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive).
• Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such
as mm/mm.
• In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore,
strain is often expressed as microstrain (µε), which is ∗ 10 .
Strain measurement
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations
in the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading.
• Stress is defined as
• Where is the stress, the applied force and the area on which
the force acts.
• The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of applied stress divided by the
resultant strain.
Strain measurement
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force.
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured.
• In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded) on to a
larger specimen capable of withstanding an applied force (stress):
• When external forces are applied
to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result.
• Stress is defined as the object's
internal resisting forces, and strain
is defined as the displacement
and deformation that occur.
Strain measurement
• As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the application of
force, the conductors of the strain gauge are similarly deformed.
• Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of
length over cross‐sectional area ∝ / , which means that
tensile deformation will increase electrical resistance by
simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross‐sectional area
while compressive deformation will decrease electrical resistance by
simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross‐sectional area.