ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT

SYSTEMS – EG 232
MECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS

By Mr. E.M Bwembya

Copperbelt University
2021
 Pressure Instruments
What is pressure?
• It is a measure of the force per unit area.

where
= pressure of a fluid
= Applied force on a surface
= Area of surface on which force acts
= fluid density
= acceleration due to gravity
= height of the fluid column
 Pressure Instruments
Pascal’s law
• This law states that intensity of pressure through a mass of fluid at
rest is transmitted equally in all directions.
• One application of this principle is in an hydraulic jack as shown in
figure 1 (a) and (b) below.
• This device used for lifting heavy loads by the application of much
smaller force.
 Pressure Instruments
Working Principle
• Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of different
diameters, which are interconnected at the bottom, through a
chamber, which is filled with some liquid as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
where
= Force applied on the plunger,
= Weight to be lifted
= Area of ram, and
= Area of plunger
• The pressure intensity, produced by the force F1, using Eq. 1
 Pressure Instruments
• As per Pascal’s law, the pressure intensity will be equally
transmitted in all directions.
• Therefore the pressure intensity on ram equals the pressure intensity
on the plunger as shown in Eq. 2.
• Therefore the force on the ram

• Above Equation indicates that by applying a small force on the

plunger, a large force may be developed by the ram.
Mechanical advantage
(a) Force multiplication
• A smaller input force on the small piston results in a greater output
force on the large piston so that there is a mechanical advantage
(M.A).
 Pressure Instruments
• The input force is called the effort and the output force is called the
load.
• This advantage is made possible by two characteristics of liquids,
namely that they cannot be compressed and that they distribute
pressure equally.
• The pressure on the small piston (area A1) is equal to the pressure on
the big piston (area A2).
• The following formula can be used to calculate the mechanical
advantage:
 Pressure Instruments
• If the force in the plunger is applied by a lever which has a mechanical
advantage of / as shown in Fig. 2, the total mechanical advantage
of machine

• The ratio / is known as leverage of press.

 Pressure Instruments
Mechanical advantage
(a) Distance output
• The piston with the large diameter will have a smaller distance out‐
put, and the piston with the small diameter will have a larger distance
output.
• The relationship of distance output is determined by the mechanical
force advantage.
 Pressure Measurement
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
• It is defined as the pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at any
point of time due to the force of gravity.
• The pressure of the atmosphere (about 105 n/m2) is due to the weight
of air above the Earth’s surface, that this pressure falls as one climbs
upward, and, correspondingly, that pressure increases as one dives
deeper into a body of water.
• Mathematically, the rate at which the pressure in a
stationary fluid varies with height z in a vertical gravitational field of
strength g is given by
 Pressure Measurement
Differential manometers
• These are instruments are based on the hydrostatic law to measure
pressure.
• They are used for comparing pressures and the simplest such instrument is
a U‐tube containing liquid, as shown in Figure 3.
• The pressure difference between the two
columns is calculated from the height
difference of the liquid column h.
• The points all x‐x’ are at the same
pressure.
• Equation 2 can then used to calculate the
pressure difference between the two
fluids.
 Pressure Measurement
Barometer
• This is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to
measure atmospheric pressure.
• A mercury barometer has a glass tube closed at one end with an open
mercury‐filled reservoir at the base.
• The weight of the mercury creates a vacuum in the top of the tube.
• The mercury in the tube adjusts until the
weight of the mercury column balances
the atmospheric force exerted on the
reservoir.
• High atmospheric pressure places more
force on the reservoir, forcing mercury
higher in the column.
 Pressure Instruments
Barometric Altimeter
• The altimeter is an instrument that
measures the height of an aircraft
above a given pressure level (Fig. 5).
• It consists of a stack of sealed aneroid
wafers.
• The wafers are evacuated to an
internal pressure of 760 mm Hg of
mercury (mmHg).
• They are free to expand and contract
with changes to the static pressure.
 Pressure Instruments
• A higher static pressure presses down on the wafers and causes them
to collapse.
• A lower static pressure (less than 760 mmHg) allows the wafers to
expand.
• A mechanical linkage connects the wafer movement to the needles
on the indicator face, which translates compression of the wafers into
a decrease in altitude and translates an expansion of the wafers into
an increase in altitude.
• The expansion and contraction of the wafers moves the mechanical
linkage which drives the needles on the face of the altimeter.
 Pressure Measurement
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
• It is made up of an elliptical section tube formed into a C‐shape and
sealed at one end as shown in Fig. 5.
• The sealed end, which is free to move, has a linkage arrangement
which will move a pointer over a scale.
• The applied pressure acts within the tube
entering through the open end, which is fixed in
place.
• The pressure within the tube causes it to change
in cross section and attempt to straighten out
with a resultant movement of the free end,
which registers as a needle movement on the
scale.
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• This is the volume of fluid passing through a specified volume at a
given time.
• This is given as

Where
= volume
= elapsed time
• For a closed tube, the volume equals the area × length.
• Therefore,
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• Figure 7 shows an incompressible fluid flowing along a pipe of
decreasing radius.
• Because the fluid is incompressible, the same amount of fluid must
flow past any point in the tube in a given time to ensure continuity of
flow.
• The flow is continuous because they are no sources or sinks that add
or remove mass, so the mass flowing into the pipe must be equal the
mass flowing out of the pipe.
• In this case, because the
cross‐sectional area of the
pipe decreases, the
velocity must increase.
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• This logic can be extended to say that the flow rate must be the same
at all points along the pipe.
• In particular, for arbitrary points 1 and 2 from figure 7.

• This is called the equation of continuity and is valid for any

incompressible fluid (with constant density).
• The consequences of the equation of continuity can be observed
when water flows from a hose into a narrow spray nozzle: It emerges
with a large speed—that is the purpose of the nozzle.
• That is speed increases when cross‐sectional area decreases, and
speed decreases when cross‐sectional area increases.
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• When the speed increases, the kinetic energy increases too.
• The increased kinetic energy comes from the net work done on the
fluid to push it into the channel.
• If the fluid changes vertical position, work is done on the fluid by the
gravitational force.
• A pressure difference occurs when the channel narrows.
• This pressure difference results in a net force on the fluid because
the pressure times the area equals the force, and this net force
does work.
• The net work done is given by
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• The net work done increases the fluid’s kinetic energy which results in
a pressure drop.
• Pressure drops in a rapidly moving fluid whether or not the fluid is
confined to a tube.
Bernoulli’s Equation
• The Bernoulli equation states that for an ideal fluid (that is, zero
viscosity, constant density and steady flow), the sum of its kinetic,
potential and thermal energy must not change.
• This constraint gives rise to a predictable relationship between the
velocity of the fluid, its pressure, and its elevation.
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• Specifically, given two points along a streamline as shown in Fig. 8,
the Bernoulli equation states that

where
P1 and P2 are the static pressure values at point 1 and 2
respectively
is the density of the fluid
1 and 2 are the velocities
at point 1 and 2
respectively
1 and 2 are the elevation
from the datum
g is the acceleration due to
gravity
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
Venturi meter
• The Bernoulli equation is an important expression relating
pressure, height and velocity of a fluid at one point along its
flow.
• The relationship between these fluid conditions along a
streamline is always equal the same constant along that
streamline in an idealized system.
• Because the Bernoulli equation is equal to a constant at all points
along a streamline, we can equate two points on a streamline.
• Using information on the system at one point, we can solve for
information at another.
 Volumetric Flow Rate
• The Venturi meter is a flow meter instrument that is used to measure
the flow rate (discharge) in a pipe and it works on the basis of the
Bernoulli principle.
• It is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid.
• To measure the flow rate that is discharged, a pressure drop occurs
between the entrance and throat of the venturi meter.
• With the use of a differential
manometer, the pressure drop
then pressure drop is used to
calculate the flow rate (Discharge).
• Lets consider a horizontal pipe on
which is fitted a venturi meter
where the fluid flows from section
1 to 2 as shown in Fig. 9.
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Let 1, 1, 1 and 1 be the corresponding pressure, velocity, height
above a datum and area in section 1, and 2, 2, 2 and 2 be the
corresponding values at section 2.
• Now applying Bernoulis equation in both the section one and two we
have

• The 1 and 2 will be eliminated because both section are at the same
height from the datum 1 2 .
• Equation 11 reduces to
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• The pressure head difference between sections 1 and 2 is equal
to , the height difference between the two columns of the
manometer.
• Therefore

• Here, 1 if the liquid in the manometer is lighter than

the flowing liquid and 1 if the liquid in the manometer
is heavier than the flowing liquid.
• Where is the reading on the manometer, is the density of the
liquid in the manometer and is the density of the flowing liquid.
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Now applying continuity equation (Eq. 7) at
sections 1 and 2

• Using the relation , using Eq. 14 for and simplifying gives

• Inserting Eq. 16 into Eq. 7 gives the theoretical flow rate as shown in
Eq. 17 on the next slide.
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement

• In practice the actual discharge is always less than the theoretical

discharge.
• So we multiply Eq. 17 by (Coefficient of discharge) to get the
actual discharge as

• The coefficient of discharge typically varies from 0.98‐0.99.

 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
Orifice meter
• An orifice meter is essentially a cylindrical tube that contains a plate
with a thin hole in the middle of it as shown in Fig. 10.
• The thin hole forces the fluid to
flow faster through the hole in
order to maintain a constant
flow rate.
• The point of maximum
convergence (vena contracta)
usually occurs slightly
downstream from the actual
physical orifice.
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Beyond the vena contracta point, the fluid expands again and velocity
decreases as pressure increases.
• Let 1, 1, 1 and 1 be the corresponding pressure, velocity, height
above a datum and area in section 1, and 2, 2, 2 and 2 be their
corresponding values at section 2.
• Applying Bernoulli’s equations at sections 1 and 2, we get
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Where, 1 if the liquid in the manometer is lighter than
the flowing liquid and 1 if the liquid in the manometer
is heavier than the flowing liquid.
• Let is the area of the orifice and the coefficient of contraction,

• Now applying continuity equation (Eq. 7)

• Hence
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement
• Therefore the discharge,
2

• The coefficient of discharge for orifice meter is defined as

1
 Volumetric Discharge Measurement

Hence
2

• The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter is much smaller than

that of a venturi meter.
 Velocity measurement
Pitot Tube
• A Pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure
fluid flow velocity.
• It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed
of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial
applications.
• The pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point in
the flow stream and not the average velocity in the pipe or conduit.
• Stagnation pressure‐ is a measure of ram fluid pressure (the pressure
created by motion due to the ramming air or water on a pressure
sensor).
• Static pressure – is a measure of the pressure when the fluid is at rest
(steady state).
• Dynamic pressure ‐is the difference between the stagnation pressure
and the static pressure.
 Velocity measurement
• The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid
flow.
• From Bernoulli’s equation we have

• Where 0 as the fluid at the

stagnation point is stagnant.
• Therefore the theoretical velocity is
2
 Velocity measurement
• The actual velocity is given by multiplying the theoretical value by the
coefficient of the pitot tube, .
2

• The factor takes care of the non‐idealities, due to friction, in

converting the dynamic head into pressure head and depends, to a
large extent, on the geometry of the pitot tube.
• The value of is usually determined from calibration test of the pitot
tube.
 Strain measurement
• Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied
force.
• More specifically, strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in
length, as shown in Figure 13 below.

∆
• Strain,
• Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive).
• Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such
as mm/mm.
• In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore,
strain is often expressed as microstrain (µε), which is ∗ 10 .
 Strain measurement
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations
in the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading.
• Stress is defined as

• Where is the stress, the applied force and the area on which
the force acts.
• The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of applied stress divided by the
resultant strain.
 Strain measurement
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force.
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured.
• In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded) on to a
larger specimen capable of withstanding an applied force (stress):
• When external forces are applied
to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result.
• Stress is defined as the object's
internal resisting forces, and strain
is defined as the displacement
and deformation that occur.
 Strain measurement
• As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the application of
force, the conductors of the strain gauge are similarly deformed.
• Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of
length over cross‐sectional area ∝ / , which means that
tensile deformation will increase electrical resistance by
simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross‐sectional area
while compressive deformation will decrease electrical resistance by
simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross‐sectional area.

• Where is the electrical resistance, the electrical resistivity, the

length and A the cross sectional area of the strain gauge.
 Strain measurement
• The gauge factor is the sensitivity of the strain gauge.
• It is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to
the fractional change in length (strain):
• The gauge factor is given by:
∆
∆
where
= the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
Δ = the change of initial resistance in ohms
= the initial length in meters (without strain)
Δ = the change of initial length in meters
 Displacement measurement
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• It is a common type of electromechanical transducer that can convert
the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is coupled mechanically
into a corresponding electrical signal.
• LVDT linear position sensors are readily available that can measure
movements as small as a few millionths of an inch up to several
inches, but are also capable of measuring positions up to ±30 inches
(±0.762 meter).
• Fig. 15 shows the
components of a typical
LVDT.
 Displacement measurement
• The transformer’s internal structure consists of a primary winding
centered between a pair of identically wound secondary windings,
symmetrically spaced about the primary.
• The coils are wound on a one‐piece hollow form of thermally stable
glass reinforced polymer, encapsulated against moisture, wrapped in
a high permeability magnetic shield, and then secured in a cylindrical
stainless steel housing.
• This coil assembly is usually the stationary element of the position
sensor.
 Displacement measurement
Practice question
An LVDT has the following data: Vin= 6.3 V, Vout= 5.2 V, displacement
range = 0.5 in.
Calculate the displacement when Vout = +2.6 V.
 Temperature measurement
Thermocouple
• In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered that if metals of two different
materials were joined at both ends and one end was at a different
temperature than the other, a current was created.
• This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect and is the basis for
all thermocouples.

• A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by

joining two dissimilar metals.
• The hotter joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION while the
cooler end is referred to as the COLD END or COLD JUNCTION.
 Temperature measurement
• Certain combinations of metals must be used to make up the
thermocouple pairs.
• When there is a difference in temperature between the hot junction
and cold junction, a small voltage is created.
• This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro‐motive force) and can be
measured and used to indicate temperature.
• The voltage created by a thermocouple is extremely small and is
measured in terms of millivolts.
• To establish a means to measure temperature with thermocouples, a
standard scale of millivolt outputs was established.
• This scale was established using 32 deg. F (0°C) as the standard cold
junction temperature (32 deg. F (0°C) = 0 millivolts output).
 Temperature measurement
• The temperature is usually expressed as a polynomial function of the
measured voltage.

• Where c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials

• T1 = temperature of the hot junction
• T2 = temperature of the cold/reference junction
 Temperature measurement
Types of thermocouples
• Type K : Chromel – Alumel, temp range ‐270 – 1370 oC.
• Type J : Iron – Constantan, temp range ‐210 – 1050 oC.
• Type E : Chromel – Constantan, temp range ‐270 – 790 oC.
• Type N : Nicros – Nisil, temp range ‐260 – 1300 oC
• Type T : Copper – Constantan, temp range ‐270 – 400 oC.
• It is important to note that thermocouples measure the temperature
difference between two points and not the absolute temperature.
 Temperature measurement
Thermocouple material selection
• Thermocouple materials to be used depends on requirements: –
• Temperature range
• Required accuracy
• Chemical resistance issues
• Abrasion or vibration resistance
• Installation requirements (size of wire)
• Thermal conduction requirements
END