A method for the seasonal performance

rating of a residential water heating heat

pump

M.N. Ras

Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree Master of Engineering at the Potchefstroom Campus of
the North-West University

Supervisor: Prof. Martin van Eldik

November 2015
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to thank God, whose many blessings and guidance through the
Bible have made me who I am today.

This project has taken a great deal of effort to complete. However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of Eskom Research and Innovation Department. I
would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the organisation and individuals for their support
throughout the study.

I am highly indebted to my study supervisor, Prof. Martin van Eldik for the time he has set aside to
provide guidance and supervision in the process of completing this study.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my wife, Lurinda Ras for her kind co-operation and
encouragement which helped me to stay motivated throughout the duration of my study.

My thanks and appreciation also goes to the various people in M-Tech Industrial for assisting me
during my research, including their willingness to help me with their knowledge and abilities.

I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to THRIP for their financial support, as this
study would not have been possible without them.
 Abstract

To save electricity in the South African residential market, energy efficient air source water
heating heat pumps have been widely implemented in combination with conventional hot water
storage vessels, also known as geysers. The performance of these heat pump installations are
significantly influenced by seasonal changes in the surrounding ambient conditions as well as the
municipal water supply temperature. As heat pumps are designed and built by different
manufacturers, differences in terms of the sub-components used and their specifications are
common. As a result, each heat pump model must be tested to determine its energy saving
capabilities. From the literature review it became evident that very little research has been done
world-wide on the performance verification of residential heat pump water heaters. It was further
found that there are currently no standard for the performance testing of a residential heat pump
water heater in South Africa.

The aim of this study was therefore to research and develop a laboratory testing methodology
that will accurately represent a residential heat pump’s in-field performance taking into account
the seasonal influences on these systems. In order to reach this objective, the seasonal
performance of air source water heating heat pumps were measured and reviewed for different
climate regions in South Africa. The measured data was then used to generate general
performance curves at different ambient conditions. The performance curves were verified and
validated with laboratory tests as well as a Flownex® SE simulation model. The results were then
used to determine which factors must be included in a laboratory test to accurately represent the
in-field performance. Based on this a proposed laboratory testing methodology was developed.

-----------------------
KEYWORDS: Heat pump, testing methodology, simulation model, performance rating.

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 Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... I

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... II

TABLE OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... VI

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... VII

ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... VIII

NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................... IX

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Objectives.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Method of investigation ...................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Limitations of the study ...................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE SURVEY ............................................................................ 5

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 5
2.2 A review of different heat pump technologies .................................................................... 5
2.3 Performance rating of an air source heat pump water heater............................................. 7
2.4 Performance influencing factors ...................................................................................... 10
2.5 The Eskom rebate test methodology ............................................................................... 11
2.5.1 Test room ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.5.2 Storage tanks .................................................................................................................. 12
2.5.3 Tank temperature verification equipment ......................................................................... 12
2.5.4 Testing conditions and equations .................................................................................... 13
2.6 The British standard for testing a residential heat pump .................................................. 15
2.7 Optimisation of an air source heat pump ......................................................................... 17
2.8 Numeric modelling of an air source heat pump ............................................................ 2019
2.9 Linear regression of in-field data...................................................................................... 24
2.10 Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 3 : IN-FIELD MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY .................................... 2827

3.1 Data gathering ............................................................................................................. 2827

3.2 Data reduction ............................................................................................................. 3029
3.2.1 Initial data reduction .................................................................................................... 3029
3.2.2 Data reduction methodology ........................................................................................ 3130

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3.2.3 Relevant equations ...................................................................................................... 3231
3.3 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 3433

CHAPTER 4 : LABORATORY TEST METHODOLOGY ............................................ 3534

4.1 Data gathering ............................................................................................................. 3534

4.2 Data reduction ............................................................................................................. 3736
4.2.1 Data reduction methodology ........................................................................................ 3736
4.2.2 Relevant equations ...................................................................................................... 3736
4.3 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 3736

CHAPTER 5 : FLOWNEX SE SIMULATION MODEL METHODOLOGY .................. 3837

5.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 3837

5.2 Simulation model layout............................................................................................... 3938
5.3 Integrated EES functions ............................................................................................. 4039
5.4 Component specifications............................................................................................ 4140
5.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 4241

CHAPTER 6 : RESULTS ............................................................................................ 4342

6.1 In-field measurements results ...................................................................................... 4342

6.1.1 Recorded data for each relative humidity ..................................................................... 4342
6.1.2 Results summary for in-field measurements ................................................................ 4443
6.2 Laboratory test results ................................................................................................. 4645
6.2.1 Results summary for laboratory measurements ........................................................... 4645
6.3 Simulation model results.............................................................................................. 4847
6.3.1 Summary of simulation results ..................................................................................... 4847
6.4 Results comparison ..................................................................................................... 5049
6.5 The influence on performance considering the climate conditions ............................... 5251
6.5.1 Climate in Bloemfontein during heat pump operation ................................................... 5251
6.5.2 Climate in Potchefstroom during heat pump operation ................................................ 5352
6.5.3 Climate in Centurion during heat pump operation ........................................................ 5453
6.5.4 Climate in Tzaneen during heat pump operation.......................................................... 5554
6.5.5 Climate in Durban during heat pump operation ............................................................ 5655
6.6 Results comparison for different regions considering climate data ............................... 5655

CHAPTER 7 : PROPOSED TEST METHODOLOGY .................................................. 5958

7.1 Test procedure and requirements ................................................................................ 5958

7.1.1 Phase 1 (System COP) ............................................................................................... 6059
7.1.2 Phase 2 (Tapping Profile) ............................................................................................ 6160
7.1.3 Phase 3 (Instantaneous COP) ..................................................................................... 6362

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7.2 Testing equipment ....................................................................................................... 6463
7.2.1 Test room specifications .............................................................................................. 6463
7.2.2 Test storage vessel ..................................................................................................... 6564
7.2.3 Measuring equipment .................................................................................................. 6564
7.3 Performance rating of the heat pump........................................................................... 6765

CHAPTER 8 : CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 6867

8.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 6867

8.2 Recommendations for future studies ........................................................................... 6867

BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................... 7069

ANNEXURE A: IN-FIELD DATA ................................................................................. 7372

ANNEXURE B: LABORATORY TEST .......................................................................... 115

ANNEXURE C: SIMULATION MODEL ......................................................................... 119

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 Table of Figures

Figure 1: Schematic of a simplified HPHW system by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009). ...................... 6
Figure 2: Heat pump system layout by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009). ............................................. 7
Figure 3: Results plot by Morrison et al. (2004). ............................................................................ 9
Figure 4: Coefficient of degradation against air flow rate by Palmiter et al. (2011). ..................... 11
Figure 5: Experimental heat pump setup (Guo et al., 2011). ....................................................... 18
Figure 6: CO2 heat pump test setup (Yokoyama et al., 2005). ..................................................... 20
Figure 7: Mathematical evaporator model (McKinley & Alleyne, 2008). ....................................... 22
Figure 8: Evaporator schematic (McKinley & Alleyne, 2008). ...................................................... 23
Figure 9: Bloemfontein average, minimum and maximum temperatures (World Weather & Climate
Information, 2015). ...................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 10: The use of a buffer tank. ........................................................................................ 2625
Figure 11: In-field heat pump installation schematic. ............................................................... 2928
Figure 12: Flownex® SE simulation model. .............................................................................. 4039
Figure 13: In-field measurement results. ................................................................................. 4443
Figure 14: In-field measurements performance regression line. .............................................. 4645
Figure 15: Laboratory test results. ........................................................................................... 4746
Figure 16: Laboratory test data regression line. ...................................................................... 4847
Figure 17: Flownex® simulation model results. ........................................................................ 4948
Figure 18: Simulation model data regression line. ................................................................... 5049
Figure 19: Performance line comparison. ................................................................................ 5150
Figure 20: Climate during heat pump operation in Bloemfontein. ............................................ 5352
Figure 21: Climate during heat pump operation in Potchefstroom. .......................................... 5453
Figure 22: Climate during heat pump operation in Centurion. .................................................. 5554
Figure 23: Climate during heat pump operation in Tzaneen. ................................................... 5554
Figure 24: Climate during heat pump operation in Durban. ..................................................... 5655
Figure 25: Average climate during heat pump operation on all sites. ....................................... 5756
Figure 26: Results comparison with climate consideration. ..................................................... 5857
Figure 27: Measurement equipment positions on installation. ................................................. 6665

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 List of tables

Table 1: Presentation of main results according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011). ................... 15

Table 2: Test conditions applicable to all systems tested according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI,
2011)........................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 3: Test conditions for particular types of systems according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI,
2011)........................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 4: Number of in-field recorded values for each defined RH............................................ 4342
Table 5: Example of a tapping profile. ..................................................................................... 6261

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 Abbreviations

COP: Coefficient of performance

EES: Engineering Equation Solver

HPWH: Heat pump water heater

NERSA: National Energy Regulator of South Africa

RH: Relative humidity

SABS: South African Bureau of Standards

SANS: South African national standard

SCOP: Seasonal coefficient of performance

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 Nomenclature
2
A: Cross sectional area of the restrictor [m ]
2
Evaporator heat transfer area [m ]

:
2
Heat transfer area [m ]

:
2
Secondary heat transfer area [m ]

: Instantaneous coefficient of performance [kW/kW].

: Hydraulic diameter [m]

: Wall thickness [m]

: Total electrical energy consumed during the heating cycle [Joules]

: Fluid path length [m]

: Number of increments [ - ]

: Total number of tubes [-]

: Compressor discharge pressure [Pa]

: Amount of electricity consumed [kWh]

Electricity used per minute [kJ/ minute]

: Compressor suction pressure [Pa]

Thermal energy added to the water [kW]

: Inside surface roughness [µm]

: Secondary surface roughness [µm]

: Air dry bulb temperature before the heat pump [°C]

: Water temperature into the heat pump [°C]

: Temperature difference [°C].

: Ambient dry bulb temperature [°C]

: Temperature of the water at the end of the heating cycle [K]

: Tube internal diameter [m]

: Tube pass length [m]

: Temperature of the water at the start of the heating cycle [K]

: Geyser tank temperature [°C]

: Tube wall thickness [m]

: Compressor discharge temperature [°C]

: Water temperature entering the heat pump [°C]

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 : Water temperature exiting the heat pump [°C]

: Compressor suction temperature [°C]

: Heat pump inlet water temperature [°C]

: Internal energy of the water at final tank temperature [kJ/kg.K]

: Internal energy of the water at initial tank temperature [kJ/kg.K]

:
3
Dead volume [m ]

:
3
Swept volume [m ]

:
3
Volume of test tank [m ]

Electricity used per second [kW].

: Electricity used in total [kWh]

̇: Water mass flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s]

:
3
Density of water at final tank temperature [kg/m ]

:
3
Density of water at initial tank temperature [kg/m ]

: System coefficient of performance [kW/kW].

: Coefficient of performance [kW/kW]

: Specific heat capacity of water [kJ/kgK]

: R410A

: Water mass [kg]

: Rotations per minute [rpm]

: Surface roughness [µm]

: Relative Humidity [%]

: Number of parallel circuits per row [ - ]

: Number of tube passes [ - ]

: Number of stages [ - ]

: Discharge coefficient [ - ]

: Isentropic efficiency [%]

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The fast increasing price of electricity in South Africa has led to a national drive towards
energy efficient technologies and solutions (Carte Blanche, 2012). This is not only true for
the industrial and commercial sectors but for the residential sector as well (Winkler et al.,
2006:xi). The major drive towards energy efficient technologies started in 2010 when the
National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) approved annual electrical price
increases above 24% for 2010, 2011 and 2012 (Eskom, 2010a). With the demand for
energy efficient products rising exponentially, the number of companies supplying and
installing these products also increased significantly.

The sudden and dramatic growth in the energy efficient product market has also led to
consequent problems in this regard. These are mainly due to inexperience and/or a
general lack of knowledge about the products, both in terms of suppliers and consumers.
Most of the energy efficient products sold in South Africa entered the country as products
of high quality already available to the European market. There is, however, speculation
that some companies used the opportunity to import low quality products to ensure larger
profits. Problems caused by the variance in the performance due to incorrect installation or
poor product quality has unfortunately grown to such an extent that social media and
consumers are questioning the functionality of these technologies as a whole. The
products that have come under the most scrutiny have been residential type heat pumps
and solar water heaters (Carte Blanche, 2013).

The conventional electrically heated hot water storage vessel, also known as a geyser,
has been shown by several local and international studies to be responsible for the largest
amount of electricity consumed in a residential home. It is therefore the most popular item
to be replaced with a product using less electricity (Winkler et al., 2006:123). This is where
air source heat pump water heaters (HPWHs) can make a big impact in terms of the South
African electricity crisis.

With the first vapour compression cycle already designed, patented and built in 1835
(Perkins, 1835:12), the technology used in an air source HPWH is nothing new and has
been proven over the course of many years. In more recent times the technology of
vapour compression cycles has been improved to a well-designed and highly reliable
system. Computers have significantly aided in the advancement of the vapour

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

compression cycle design, as simulation tools are being developed to accurately predict
the behaviour of these systems in the real world (Zhang et al., 2007). Some of the biggest
advantages being offered by simulation models are that they give a much higher degree of
control as well as a quick and effective way of studying changes made to the system.
Unfortunately there are also some disadvantages to simulation models. In many cases the
complexity of thermal-fluid systems is such that designing a workable simulation model is
already a significant accomplishment, and this model is often based on several
assumptions. Therefore, sensitivity regarding the design is usually neglected as a whole,
as the simulation models are set up to test certain outcomes with regards to specific
changes made to the system design (Niemand, 2003).

Although the technology behind water heating heat pumps is well known, there are many
different variations in the components used, and applications for vapour compression
cycles. The focus of most research conducted on heat pump technology has been on
systems using either the ground or water as a heat source, as the winter air temperatures
in Europe and America are considered to be too low for air source units. The major
technology behind air, water or ground source heat pumps remains exactly the same, but
these systems are very different with regards to components used, performance
influencing factors and installation methods (Zhang et al., 2007:1). Therefore, it is
important to study the performance of every new design and installation method within a
specific climate zone.

The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) has set up a testing standard for new
residential water heating heat pumps entering the market, but unfortunately this standard
only tests the heat pump’s functionality and not the performance requirements (SABS,
2012). Most manufacturers and suppliers did, however, also submit their residential type
heat pump products to the country’s electricity supplier, Eskom, for further testing. Eskom
established a requirement specifying that residential heat pumps must perform 2.8 times
better than a conventional geyser in order to qualify for their energy efficient reward or
rebate (Eskom, 2010b). The method used during these tests was largely based on
variances in ambient conditions. It is still unclear whether these tests gave an accurate
representation of the actual in-field heat pump performance as there was, for instance, no
water drawn from the geyser in the form of tapping profiles during these tests (Eskom,
2010b), as can be found in the British standard BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011). These
tests were, however, discontinued in 2013 (Eskom, 2014) as the rebate given by Eskom
was discontinued. This left the country without any comparative tests for residential type
heat pump water heaters.

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

1.2 Problem statement

The number of residential heat pumps installed in the South African market is constantly
growing. Along with this, questions are being raised with regards to the actual in-field
efficiencies thereof. A thorough literature study revealed that there is currently no local
performance test methodology for evaluating a residential heat pump entering the South
African market. Internationally the British standard BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011) is used
as a laboratory performance testing methodology, but no research was found indicating
whether this test method can be applied or adopted for the South African climate.

1.3 Objectives

The primary objective of the study is to develop a laboratory test methodology from
measured and simulated data that would give an accurate representation of a heat pump’s
seasonal in-field performance.

The secondary objective will be a literature study of the Eskom rebate test methodology
and the British standard BS EN 16147:2011 to determine the advantages of each of these
methodologies. These advantages will then be considered for the laboratory test
methodology being developed as the primary objective.

1.4 Method of investigation

To successfully complete this study the following method will be applied:

Firstly a critical literature study will be conducted. The literature study will serve as a basis
for:
i. understanding what has been done;
ii. identifying limitations within this field of study;
iii. determining if successful studies on this topic were done in other countries;
iv. determining what simulation models have been successfully developed within
other studies; and
v. evaluating how the Eskom rebate methodology compares to the British standard
BS EN 16147:2011.

Secondly, measurement equipment will be used to gather seasonal in-field data as well as
data from within a controlled laboratory test environment. The measurement equipment
will track the heat pump’s performance indicators and major performance influencing
factors, as identified in the literature survey.

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

The heat pump used during the in-field and laboratory tests will thereafter be modelled
within Flownex® SE simulation software (Flownex® SE, 2014) to predict the heat pump’s
performance. The simulation model’s results will be compared to performance data from
the manufacturer before being used as verification and validation for the above-mentioned
test results. All performance influencing factors will then be studied to determine which
factors should be closely monitored in the proposed laboratory test methodology.

Benefits found within the Eskom rebate test and British standard will be considered for the
proposed laboratory testing methodology. Finally all results and conclusions will be used
to develop a proposed laboratory testing methodology for South Africa.

1.5 Limitations of the study

A black box method will be used to simulate the heat pump within the simulation model.
Therefore subcomponent details will be limited to that which are required to predict the
outlet conditions of the major components using the specified inlet conditions.

Even though the performance of a heat pump water heater directly affects its economic
feasibility, this study will exclude any economic analysis. The focus is towards determining
a method for performance testing, rather than determining if heat pump water heaters are
economically a good investment for different users.

The proposed testing methodology as listed in Chapter 7 will be limited to the thermal
performance test of the HPWHs, excluding general requirements, marking requirements
and safety requirements on HPWHs.

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews applicable literature to gain insight into the factors influencing the
performance of a residential heat pump water heater and how it can accurately be
measured, as identified by other studies. The main topics of the literature survey are as
follows:

a. A review of different heat pump technologies.

b. Performance rating of an air source heat pump water heater.
c. Performance influencing factors.
d. The Eskom rebate test methodology.
e. The British standard for testing a residential heat pump.
f. Optimisation of an air source heat pump.
g. Numeric modelling of an air source heat pump.
h. Linear regression of in-field data.

2.2 A review of different heat pump technologies

A heat pump water heater (HPWH) operates on an electrically driven vapour compression
cycle and pumps energy from air in its surroundings to water in a geyser, thus raising the
temperature of the water. This definition was given to HPWHs in a review study completed
by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009). Their study aimed to investigate why residential HPWH
units have been available for more than 20 years, but only had limited success in certain
markets. The study focused on reviewing HPWH systems in terms of energy and exergy
aspects. HPWH technology along with its historical development was considered by the
authors before a comprehensive review was completed on previous studies. HPWHs were
then numerically modelled for performance purposes by using the energy and exergy
analysis methods found in the reviewed studies.

The study by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009) states that heat pumps are heat generating
devices that can be used to heat water or air for either residential or commercial
applications. A HPWH is a promising technology and uses the same mechanical principles
as refrigerators and air conditioners - the only difference being that refrigerators and air
conditioners are primarily used to extract energy and then discharge it into the
surroundings as waste product, while heat pumps extract energy from the surroundings
and use it as the primary product (Harris et al., 2005). A heat pump can also be described

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

as a machine that transfers heat from a heat source to a heat sink by employing a
refrigeration gas cycle. Figure 1 illustrates the workings of a simplified HPWH system. The
major advantage of this technology is its financial attractiveness to consumers as the
technology offers an average of 66% reduction in energy consumed to heat water
compared to heating water with a traditional electrical resistance element (Zhang et al.,
2007).

Figure 1: Schematic of a simplified HPHW system by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009).

The Coefficient of Performance (COP) is a single value summarising the heat pump’s
ability to reduce electrical consumption. This value can be calculated by dividing the
amount of energy required to heat the water by the electrical energy consumed to heat the
water. This COP value is dependent on multiple factors, such as i) the temperature of the
water, ii) the refrigerant used in the vapour compression cycle, iii) the quality and
characteristics of the components used within the gas cycle, and iv) primarily the energy
available within the surroundings (Hepbasli & Kalinci, 2009). Since 1950, research has
been performed on HPWHs in an attempt to increase the COP. The research involved
studying the components within the cycle, thermodynamic properties within the
refrigeration gas cycle and the performance influencing factors. The later studies focused
on how to minimize the losses and optimize the heat transfer capabilities (US Department
of Energy, 2007) .

The air source heat pump simulated in the study of Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009) is a
combination unit. The heat pump is located on top of the water tank with a refrigerant coil

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

(running into the geyser) being used as the condenser. The heat pump and hot water
storage tank is therefore integrated to function as a single unit. This type of heat pump is
highly efficient as there are very little to no pipe losses between the heat pump and the
storage vessel. The study also pointed out, however, that the major disadvantage of this
type of heat pump is that the entire system will need to be replaced if either the heat pump
or water tank should fail.

Figure 2: Heat pump system layout by Hepbasli and Kalinci (2009).

The study ultimately showed that the performance of a heat pump can be summarized
within a single seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) value, but also that there are
multiple factors that can influence the SCOP significantly.

2.3 Performance rating of an air source heat pump water heater

Before one can determine the SCOP of a heat pump, it is important to know how
performance can be measured accurately. An approach suggested by Ito et al. (1999) was
successfully implemented in the study by Morrison et al. (2004), showing that various
primary and secondary influencing factors must be taken into account in order to
accurately determine the in-field SCOP of a HPWH. Similar to solar geysers, heat pumps
are primarily dependent on the energy available from the sun as shown by almost all
studies done with regards to heat pump performance (CSA, 2005). Results within most

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

studies were therefore represented as the COP in relation to the ambient temperature as
can be seen in the study of Zhang et al. (2007).

As mentioned above, the most important contribution made by the study of Ito et al. (1999)
is a method considering not only the primary factor of air temperature influence, but also
secondary influencing factors. The secondary influencing factors taken into account by this
study were relative humidity (RH), water usage patterns and the temperature of municipal
water entering the hot water system. The study pointed out that the secondary factors are
not only far from negligible, but that these factors should be included in future studies as
major influencing factors due to the substantial effect it has on the heat pump
performance.

The study by Morrison et al. (2004) focused on a method of accurately determining the
performance of an air source HPWH during seasonal climate changes. The study aimed to
find a method of taking into account the primary and secondary influencing factors, as it
was found that in-field data showed an unexpected lower COP than experimental
laboratory tests. As in-field tests and testing equipment are very expensive and somewhat
unreliable, the study used a “black box” method for testing the heat pump installation. This
method entails using only inlet and outlet conditions of the heat pump installation to
determine the performance of the system. The advantage of such a method is that less
measuring equipment are required and therefore higher quality equipment can be used.
The accuracy of the installed equipment will therefore be higher and a smaller equipment
measurement error will be applicable to the final COP results. This method also requires
no technical knowledge of the internal components of the heat pump, refrigeration gas
being used or heat losses throughout the system, as all the internal performance
influencing factors are summarized by these inlet and outlet conditions. This method is
therefore very efficient in determining an accurate performance factor, with little effort.

The critical factors to be measured include:

i. the power consumed by the unit;
ii. the geyser temperature;
iii. the amount of water drawn from the geyser to the house;
iv. the ambient temperature;
v. the water temperature entering the geyser; and
vi. the RH of the air.

The disadvantages of the black box method are that minor internal component
inefficiencies or failures could influence the results without the error being picked up. This

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

can be prevented by verifying the results with a simulation model and/or multiple in-field
test sites.

The result obtained by Morrison et al. (2004) primarily features a single graph
summarizing the results obtained at different environmental conditions. The graph is set
up to show the relationship between the COP and the temperature difference between the
tank temperature and the ambient temperature. By plotting the graph of COP against the
temperature difference rather than just the ambient temperature alone, all the major
influencing factors are taken into account. Figure 3 gives the single summarising plot
obtained by Morrison et al. (2004).

Figure 3: Results plot by Morrison et al. (2004).

By taking the secondary influences into consideration, the graph is able to show the
information in a more linear perspective with a smaller standard deviation. The major
secondary influence normally neglected is the water’s ability to absorb energy from the
gas cycle. The water’s ability to absorb energy decreases substantially at higher water
temperatures. Therefore, if small amounts of water are drawn from the tank, the heat
pump will reheat the water at higher inlet water temperatures leading to a low performance
factor, even at high ambient temperatures. Morrison et al. (2004) conclude that the
differences in experimental tests and in-field tests can be contributed to the fact that

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

experimental tests do not consider smaller tapping profiles although this is commonly
found in a residential environment.

To conclude, the Morrison et al. (2004) study described an accurate and efficient method
for testing and interpreting in-field heat pump performance data. It further developed a
graphical method to summarize the results obtained from tests so that it can be easily
interpreted. This method will be used further in this study to represent the results obtained.

2.4 Performance influencing factors

A study conducted by Palmiter et al. (2011) studied the effects of improper refrigeration
charge and air flow. This was done after a study by Mowris et al. (2004) showed a
reduction in the performance of air-conditioners and suggested that a similar problem can
most likely be found within air source heat pump units.

The study conducted by Palmiter et al. (2011) found that the performance of a heat pump
is not only dependent on the ambient conditions but is also influenced by factors such as
an incorrect refrigeration charge or a reduction in air flow through the heat pump. The
object of the study was to measure the effects of improper air flow and refrigeration charge
on the seasonal performance of an air source HPWH. The tests were conducted for three
different refrigerant charges at 75%, 100% and 125% of nominal value, as well as two air
flow rates at 75% and 100% of the rated airflow. In addition, tests were conducted in six
climate zones to estimate the SCOP of the heat pumps running under varying conditions.

The results by Palmiter et al. (2011) showed that a heat pump with a refrigerant charge
varying from 25% below to 25% above nominal value could show a decrease of as much
as 20% or an increase in performance of 5%, depending on ambient conditions. Results
also indicated that heat pumps with an accumulator at the compressor inlet shows
relatively no change in performance. The results of a 25% reduction in air flow through the
heat pump unit showed that there is a 3% decrease in performance for dry surface
conditions, but a decrease of as much as 8% for wet surface conditions. Results further
indicated that the performance is not linearly decreased as air flow is reduced, but rather
that there is a sharp decrease in performance at 20% to 25% reduction in air flow.

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Figure 4: Coefficient of degradation against air flow rate by Palmiter et al. (2011).

It was found that all heat pumps considered for this study have an accumulator before the
compressor, therefore removing the sensitivity to refrigeration charge as was found in the
study of Mowris et al. (2004). Further analysis of the events causing a 20% or more air
flow reduction suggested that it should be noted within a service schedule but not
specifically studied in a method to determine heat pump performance in-field. Therefore it
was decided to ignore these factors within the current study as it is unlikely to have a
major effect on performance.

2.5 The Eskom rebate test methodology

A procedure for testing residential HPWHs was developed by Eskom in consultation with
SABS in 2012 (Eskom, 2012). The following tests and verifications formed part of the
procedure:

 A thermal efficiency test.

 Compliance in terms of Eskom’s rules as set out in 2010 (Eskom, 2010b).
 Acceptability of the installation in accordance with the local South African National
Standard (SANS) regulations.

The Eskom test was not compulsory for heat pump manufacturers and importers.
However, as mentioned in the introduction, only heat pumps that have passed this test
were eligible for the energy efficiency rebate. This is because the test required heat
pumps to have a COP of 2.8, therefore using 66% less electrical energy than a
conventional geyser. Not all the heat pump suppliers in South Africa submitted their heat
pumps for testing, but most of the popular residential heat pump brands did. The tests also
required that a data pack be submitted for evaluation to confirm provisional compliance

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with all requirements. These requirements are stipulated in the Eskom rebate test
methodology (Eskom, 2010b). As part of the evaluation, the heat pump supplier was
responsible for the installation of their heat pump at the SABS test premises.

Before the test was started, the installation was inspected to confirm that the heat pump
unit and the way in which it was installed complied with:

 All aspects of the product specification supplied to SABS.

 Applicable requirements from the Eskom rebate scheme.
 Selected installation requirements as set out by SANS 10252-2: Water supply and
drainage for buildings.

The physical testing phase would follow after this inspection and included the thermal
performance test applicable to this study.

2.5.1 Test room

A test room complying with the specifications as set out by the Eskom rebate test
methodology was used for all tests. The atmospheric dry bulb temperature and RH inside
the test room was controlled so as to produce conditions stable enough for accurate
testing.

2.5.2 Storage tanks

Two variations of tanks were supplied by the testing authority for the test phase, namely a
300 litre or a 500 litre tank, depending on the heat pump’s application in the market.
These tanks were fitted with the ports and connections most commonly found on
commercially available geysers. These tanks were, however, not be fitted with any internal
components such as elements, strainers and anodes.

2.5.3 Tank temperature verification equipment

To verify the water temperature inside the tank, the total volume of water was mixed by
circulating it through an external circulation pump. This circulation loop was isolated during
testing. The split systems equipment were installed according to a specific diagram as
listed within the Eskom rebate test specification.

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2.5.4 Testing conditions and equations

The test procedure were repeated for 5 different ambient dry bulb temperature conditions
namely 5°C, 15°C, 25°C, 35°C and 45°C. During the test, these temperatures were
controlled at an accuracy of ± 3°C while the RH was controlled at 50% ± 7%. The initial
water temperature for each test was 30°C ± 1.5°C. When these conditions were confirmed
to be stable, the measuring phase of the test would start. The initial water tank
temperature was recorded and thereafter the heat pump would be activated to heat the
geyser.

When analysing the test condition accuracy specified above it is evident that it allows for
too much of a variance especially at lower temperatures. With the allowed variance it is
found that for a heat pump tested during the 5°C test, the air temperature is allowed to
vary from 2°C to 8°C as the specification states ± 3°C. The specification further allows for
a 7% variation on RH resulting in a range from 43% to 57%. If the same heat pump unit is
submitted to the test by two different suppliers the test results can vary significantly if one
was tested at 2°C and 43% relative humidity while the other was tested at 8°C and 57%
relative humidity. The test conditions as listed here will be taken into consideration and
updated accordingly in the proposed testing methodology.

During the test the following data were continuously recorded:

1. : Water temperature entering the heat pump [°C].

2. : Water temperature exiting the heat pump [°C].
3. ̇: Water flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s].
4. : Amount of electricity consumed [kWh].

This information was used primarily for calculating the instantaneous COP with the
following equation:

( )
̇ [2.1]

: Instantaneous coefficient of performance [kW/kW].

̇: Water mass flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s].

: Specific heat capacity of water [kJ/kgK].

: Temperature of the water at the outlet [K].

: Temperature of the water at the inlet [K].

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: Electricity used per second [kW].

with taken as a constant of 4.184 [kJ/kg-K].

The heat pump was monitored until it reached the target water temperature of 55°C. Once
the heat pump indicated that the target temperature had been reached, the tank was
mixed again. The temperature of the water tank was then recorded, for the calculation of
the system COP. The following equation is then used to calculate the system COP of the
heat pump being tested.

[( ) ( )]
[2.2]

With:

: System coefficient of performance.

: Volume of test tank [m3].

: Density of water at final tank temperature [kg/m3].

: Density of water at initial tank temperature [kg/m3].

: Internal energy of the water at final tank temperature [kJ/kg.K].

: Internal energy of the water at initial tank temperature [kJ/kg.K].

: Total electrical energy consumed during the heating cycle [Joules].

The values of these two performance indicating factors were recorded for all 5 ambient
test temperatures. After all 10 values had been recorded, the average instantaneous COP
and the average system COP was calculated and checked for compliance to the 2.8 COP
standard, as defined by Eskom to qualify for the rebate programme.

All expenses for the tests conducted were for the suppliers' account. Since the rebate
programme was discontinued, suppliers have no reason for subjecting their heat pumps to
this performance verification test any longer. South African consumers are therefore left
with claims made by suppliers when comparing heat pumps in the South African market,
without any independent proof or verification of the indicated performance. It is therefore
possible for a supplier to select a competitive performance value irrespective of the
product's true energy saving capabilities, thereby misleading the market and the
consumer.

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2.6 The British standard for testing a residential heat pump

The British or European standard listed as BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011) is an example

of the standard currently lacking in South Africa. This standard lists the requirements for
testing and marking of a residential HPWH’s SCOP. This standard states that the
markings on the unit shall consist of at least the information as required by the safety
standard, and if any performance results are given it shall be given according certain
criteria as illustrated in Table 1 below. It further states that only the main results of the
tests as set out in Tables 7 to 11 within the British standard BS EN 16147:2011: Heat
pumps with electrically driven compressors — Testing and requirements for marking of
domestic hot water units (BSI, 2011) may be indicated. An example of such a table can be
found later on in this study in Chapter 7, Table 5.

Table 1: Presentation of main results according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011).

By using the same testing procedure and labels on all the residential heat pumps in the
European market, consumers can quickly and accurately compare the products available
in the market. The testing procedure set out within the British standard consists of multiple
hot water tapping profiles. These water tapping profiles are set up to simulate the average
water consumption of a small to extra-large household over a 24 hour period. These
tapping profiles are at different flow rates and water volumes, and attempts to simulate a
typical tapping profile found in a residential home ranging from washing hands with hot
water to taking a full bath. These tests were specifically set up to determine the energy
consumption and performance of a heat pump during hot water heating in a residential
environment.

The one factor that is not considered within the British standard tests is the varying
seasonal climate that these heat pumps will be running in. These seasonal changes are

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deliberately set as a constant as the test is used to compare one heat pump with another.
It is therefore unnecessary to determine and calculate the exact performance of the heat
pump at different seasonal conditions. The only important factor is that the heat pumps
being tested are tested at the same seasonal conditions with only the heat pump as
variance between tests. The test conditions set out can be found in Table 2 and Table 3
below. This test method represents the heat pump’s performance very well, however, it is
only for one climate condition. Sensitivity to low and high ambient temperatures are
therefore neglected as a whole, even though it can drastically reduce a heat pump’s COP.

Table 2: Test conditions applicable to all systems tested according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011).

Table 3: Test conditions for particular types of systems according to BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011).

The test method used by the British standard BS EN 16147:2011 (BSI, 2011) can be
applied at the different environmental conditions found in a particular country to determine
a linear regression function to be used for calculating an accurate SCOP. This SCOP
function can be used to determine either the performance at a specific climate or the
average performance of a region in a country.

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Currently the performance figures given by the manufacturers in South Africa are not only
measured at different environmental conditions, but also hardly mentioned. It was further
found that the test procedures listed by the manufacturers mainly test for differences in
ambient dry bulb temperatures without considering any other influential factors. It is
therefore suggested that South Africa should adopt the British standard’s method or
implement a similar method, assisting consumers in choosing a product of high quality and
performance. This is commonly found within the European market for other energy
efficient products as well, such as refrigerators and ovens.

2.7 Optimisation of an air source heat pump

Some of the most detailed simulation models on residential HPWHs can be found in
optimisation studies. The simulation models found within these studies can be applied to
a study on seasonal performance rating either directly or with minor changes. This is
because a study on optimisation also focuses on modelling the current performance of a
heat pump system with any sensitivity included, before attempting to optimise the system.

In 2011 Guo et al. set out to conduct an optimisation study on an air source heat pump
installation. As the study aimed to optimise the installation, the heat pump design,
installation methodology, operating strategy and the controlling logic would need to be
incorporated into the model. The investigation methodology consisted of the construction
of an experimental test setup for initial tests on the original heat pump layout, as well as
final tests on the system once it had been optimised. In addition to the experimental test
setup, a simulation model was developed with the help of the initial test results to study
changes made to the system without spending large amounts of money to physically
implement every suggested change.

The experimental setup consisted of the heat pump unit fitted within an environmental test
chamber connected to a water tank located on the outside. The heat pump used in this
test had an expansion valve, evaporator and compressor within the unit while the
condenser formed part of the tank. This setup can be seen in Figure 5 below.

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Figure 5: Experimental heat pump setup (Guo et al., 2011).

The figure also indicates the position of the temperature and pressure measurements
used to monitor the performance of the heat pump. The test chamber had the ability to
simulate ambient conditions between 5°C and 40°C, and these conditions were used to
set up a performance function indicating COP at different ambient conditions. The
measurements to determine the COP involved measuring the total power consumed
during the heating cycle as well as the total energy added to the water in the tank. The
single COP value can then be determined by using the following equation:

( )
[2.3]

: Coefficient of performance [kW/kW].

: Water mass [kg].

: Specific heat capacity of water [kJ/kg-K].

: Temperature of the water at the end of the heating cycle [K].

: Temperature of the water at the start of the heating cycle [K].

: Electricity used in total [kWh].

with taken as a constant of 4.184 [kJ/kg-K].

This method uses the heat pump installation as a black box, thus only recording the major
input and output values. The performance indicators recorded within this method are

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influenced by all the components and losses in the HPWH installation, but the detail
regarding each sub-component of the installation is not required. This method therefore
gives an accurate representation of the COP using relatively basic equations and requiring
little effort. The disadvantage of this method is that the detail with regards to varying
performance due to tank temperature or even unintentional errors or influences is not
captured, displayed or evaluated leaving the final performance COP value vulnerable to
installation or recording errors. As the study by Guo et al. (2011) aimed to use the
experimental data for verification only, this method proves to be an effective and accurate
way of studying the performance of an entire installation compared to other methods.

A basic numerical simulation model was then set up by Guo et al. (2011) to model the
experimental results obtained. The numerical model uses mass, momentum and energy
balance relationships to model the gas cycle, with additional heat transfer equations to
account for the losses to the atmosphere. Compared to other studies, this numerical
model is very basic but was able to generate results within a maximum variation of 9.8%
from experimental results. The study by Guo et al. (2011) therefore showed that some
degree of accuracy is fairly easy to obtain with the advanced thermodynamic relationships
found in literature today, but also that every percentage of accuracy beyond this point is
only gained by exponentially increasing the details within the simulation model, the depth
of research and the total effort.

Experimental results indicated that the average COP ranged from 2.82 to 5.51 under
typical climate conditions (Guo et al., 2011). The study further concluded that the optimal
starting time for the heat pump is between 12:00 and 14:00 with the allowable running
time extending to 22:00, if there is no electrical price difference to take into account. The
assumption is therefore made that the client has sufficient hot water capacity installed to
supply hot water to a house from 22:00 to 12:00 the next day without reheating the water.
The study further looked at set temperatures for different climate zones concluding that
the set water temperature should be 46°C in the summer and 50°C in colder months due
to the decrease in municipal water temperatures. However, there is talk in industry of a
new regulation that is expected to be implemented in the near future. The expected
regulation will require hot water to be stored at 60°C; due to possible bacterial growth at
lower temperatures. The uncertainty regarding this implementation of this regulation
excludes these temperatures from this study.

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2.8 Numeric modelling of an air source heat pump

In all air source heat pump applications, performance of the heat pump is significantly
influenced by instantaneous ambient air temperatures. A study done by Yokoyama et al.
(2005) focused specifically on the influence of ambient conditions on a heat pump’s
performance. The study also indicated that doing in-depth tests in a physical test
environment can be very expensive and time consuming. They therefore used a method of
measuring only key variables in a system with a test setup and then using these measured
values in an in-depth numerical study to calculate the rest of the unknown parameters.
The measured parameters in the study consisted of the water temperature in the geyser,
water temperatures at the heat pump inlet and outlet, air temperatures at the heat pump
inlet and outlet, the temperature of the gas leaving the compressor, the temperature of the
gas entering the evaporator and the duration of the heating cycle. Some of the key
measured values such as heating time were not used within the design of the numeric
model components but were later used for verification of the numeric model results.

The heat pump installation used in their study is very similar to the typical installations
used in South Africa and can be seen in Figure 6.

Figure 6: CO2 heat pump test setup (Yokoyama et al., 2005).

The figure above shows a split type or retrofitted residential heat pump water heater with
the water pipes connecting the heat pump unit to the geyser. The heat pump in the figure
indicates four gas cycle components to be simulated, namely the evaporator, compressor,
gas cooler (also referred to as a condenser) and the electronic expansion valve. These

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gas cycle components where modelled along with the water storage tank to numerically
represent the entire installation.

Numerical models can vary significantly with regards to the detail simulated within each
component. If insufficient details are included, the accuracy of the model will decrease,
thus skewing the results. However, it is also possible to include unnecessary detail that
takes up a lot of time and effort to research and incorporate into the model without a
noticeable increase in accuracy. The study conducted by Yokoyama et al. (2005) is one of
the most detailed numerical studies that were found in the available literature. The study
set out to model each of the heat pump’s components numerically by considering mass,
momentum and energy balance relationships. The outlet conditions from each component
were assumed to be the inlet conditions for the next component in the gas cycle, with the
losses between components considered negligible. The HPWH refrigeration cycle was
then set up to loop while functions controlling the ambient temperature and water
temperature boundary conditions act as external influencing factors.

The numerical model set up by Yokoyama et al. (2005) was then used to keep all
parameters near constant while varying the ambient temperature for each simulated
heating cycle. This ensures that the changes in performance can be contributed to the
change in ambient temperatures. The results obtained in the study showed that the
calculated values are within 8% of experimental results for all the simulated ambient
conditions. Due to the 3°C air temperature variance during the laboratory test conditions,
the accuracy of 8% was deemed adequate to validate the simulation model.

The only disadvantage of the approach taken was that the results were generated with the
tank temperature changing due to a numerically fitted equation rather than with the energy
generated by the heat pump. This is because only the influences of ambient air and water
temperatures on each component in the system were simulated.

Most components in a heat pump can be modelled to various degrees as was seen in the
study of Yokoyama et al. (2005). The detail required within a simulation model is therefore
determined by the accuracy requirements from the simulation model. The model that will
be developed in the current study is required to verify and validate the effects of
influencing factors seen on the measurements obtained in laboratory tests and from in-
field data. The secondary purpose of the simulation model is to determine the error
between the simulation model and laboratory tests, when only major influencing factors
are taken into account.

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McKinley and Alleyne (2008) studied various internal influencing factors to ultimately
model a refrigeration gas cycle more accurately. The study focused mainly on developing
a dynamic evaporator model. The study accurately states that all vapour compression
cycles are essentially heat management devices and that heat exchanger models have
the largest effect on the simulation’s accuracy. The study furthermore states that models
including a loop or cycle such as a residential heat pump must be able to run in real-time.
The study proposed a lumped parameter or moving-boundary heat exchanger model for
accurately simulating primarily the evaporator of a heat pump water heater. The accuracy
of the model was increased further than previous studies by including the finned surfaces,
non-linear air temperature distribution and non-circular passages. The model can
therefore be used for single pass and cross-flow heat exchangers as found within heat
pump evaporators.

The study by McKinley and Alleyne (2008) ultimately used a mathematical model to
simulate the entire refrigeration cycle as found in a residential HPWH with special
emphasis on the evaporator as it dictates the amount of energy entering the refrigeration
cycle. Figure 7 portrays the evaporator from a mathematical viewpoint. The time varying
inputs or boundary conditions are the air mass flow rate, the air inlet temperatures, the air
humidity, the refrigerant inlet and outlet mass flow rates and the inlet enthalpy. As the
evaporator model forms part of a vapour compression simulation, these inputs will
therefore be provided by the boundary conditions from the models of the components
before and after the evaporator, namely the expansion valve and the compressor
respectively.

Figure 7: Mathematical evaporator model (McKinley & Alleyne, 2008).

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To derive the functions needed to solve the model, the heat exchanger is divided into
control volumes or zones that can vary with time and are tracked by the model, hence the
term moving boundary method. Figure 8 shows that the evaporator is divided into three
zones, namely the superheated, two-phase, and sub-cooled regions, therefore
distinguishing on the basis of refrigerant gas phases.

As the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas phase, its ability to absorb energy from
the air changes as well. This study therefore accurately simulated an evaporator capable
of taking into account the phase change of the refrigerant and the effects thereof in a
dynamic real time model.

Figure 8: Evaporator schematic (McKinley & Alleyne, 2008).

This study highlighted the extensive details that can be applied to components within a
basic numerical simulation model as well as the high degree of accuracy that can be
obtained from such a model. The results from Yokoyama et al. (2005) and McKinley and
Alleyne (2008) were evaluated and it was determined that the accuracy of Yokoyama et al.
(2005) would be sufficient for this study, as the increase in accuracy from the study by

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Yokoyama et al. (2005) to that of McKinley and Alleyne (2008) is marginal and that this
increase in accuracy was obtained only with a significant amount of additional research,
effort and simulation model complexity that would be unnecessary for the current study.

2.9 Linear regression of in-field data

A study conducted by Huchtemann and Müller (2012) analysed in-field test data in order
to compare several types of German heat pumps. The tests contained 77 heat pump
systems, but after recording data for two years only 43 test sites yielded usable data. Of
the 43 units that were tested, 21 were air to water heat pumps, 17 were brine to water
heat pumps with horizontal ground source exchangers and five were brine to water heat
pumps with vertical ground source heat exchangers. These systems were evaluated
during 2008 and 2009 in various locations within Germany’s various climate regions. The
study found a mean SCOP of 2.3 for air source heat pumps and 2.9 for ground source
devices with no real difference in performance with regards to vertical or horizontal ground
source heat exchangers. It is important to take into account the differences between the
South African and German climates. Berlin, Germany has an average high ambient
temperature of 13°C compared to Pretoria, South Africa with an average high ambient
temperature of 23°C (Climate data, 2015).

The study compared and evaluated the heat pumps by identifying heating curves
generated from linear ambient air temperature dependent regression functions for each of
the 43 heat pumps used by Huchtemann and Müller (2012). These linear regression
functions were then overlaid on the same plot to quickly and effectively study the
performance. After the performance of the heat pumps were studied on a high level, the
detailed data was analysed to determine what caused the differences in performance. The
use of regression functions to accurately track the performance of an in-field installed heat
pump system showed adequate accuracy and efficiency. The accuracy of this regression
function is, however, influenced by the accuracy of the data recorded and the factors
taken into account within the equations used to generate the performance factor or COP.

The performance factor within the study by Huchtemann and Müller (2012) was defined as
the quotient of the heating energy (Q) supplied by the heat pump per unit of electrical
energy (W) used by the heat pump. The study showed, in conclusion, that one air source
heat pump site had a performance factor of 3 compared to a normal geyser element. This
illustrated the potential of this technology even in cold climate zones such as Germany. In
addition, the difference between the mean and maximum performance factor found
between sites points out the necessity for optimisation with regards to timers being used to

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control the runtime of a heat pump. From the site data it was found that the performance
factor for a site is much higher when timers are set to dictate the allowable running time in
terms of the changing climate within a day.

This is not only applicable to Germany but also to the South African climate. The figure
below (World Weather & Climate Information, 2015) shows an average difference of 20°C
between the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, while the average difference
between winter and summer is only 13°C. Although the figure only shows data for
Bloemfontein, South Africa, the differences remain fairly the same throughout the South
African climate regions.

Figure 9: Bloemfontein average, minimum and maximum temperatures (World Weather & Climate
Information, 2015).

The study by Huchtemann and Müller (2012) further suggests that the use of a buffer tank
will reduce the number of operating intervals and increase performance. This is because
short operational intervals at high storage tank temperatures are ineffective, and can be
avoided by implementing the buffer tank. The practical study showed that the heating
performance of an air source system is not only dependent on the source temperature but
also on the heat sink or water temperature. A buffer tank is therefore used to ensure that a
larger volume of water has to be drawn before both tanks are reheated again. This is
accomplished by the use of two temperature probes to dictate when the heating cycle
starts and stops. The two temperature sensors are installed at the inlet of each tank as
can be seen in the figure below.

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T1 T2
Buffer Tank Supply tank

Heat Pump

Figure 10: The use of a buffer tank.

Temperature sensor T2 is used to start the reheating cycle when cold water starts entering
the supply tank, while T1 is used to stop the reheat cycle indicating that both the tanks
have been heated to the desired storage temperature. This configuration extends the
available hot water, and therefore the time before the heat pump needs to reheat the
water during the coldest part of the day. This is favourable as the HPWH could be set to
only reheat the water during the highest heat source and lowest heat sink temperatures.

2.10 Conclusion

From the literature study the following conclusions can be made which will be applied in
the current study:

1. Two laboratory testing methodologies were considered within the literature study. It
was found that the Eskom rebate test methodology focuses mainly on the performance
of the heat pump by varying the ambient conditions as heat source. Within the British
standard it was found that the focus is more on the heat sink, by varying the inlet water
temperatures within the testing methodology. The literature study also revealed that
the heat source and heat sink are equally important within a laboratory testing
methodology. The current study will therefore use the benefits of both methodologies
described above when developing the proposed testing methodology.

2. A simulation model based upon fundamental theory should be developed for the heat
pump to validate the readings from the in-field measurements and laboratory tests. A
simulation package equipped for this should preferably be used to simulate the heat
pump for this purpose as it is very time consuming to set up a new numerical
simulation model in a mathematical simulation environment.

3. The method described in Section 2.3 from the study conducted by Morrison et al.
(2004) will be used to represent the data in the results chapter of the current study.

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This method of data representation has the ability to summarise the results more
clearly compared to other techniques.

4. The in-field data will be reduced similarly to the method proposed by Huchtemann and
Müller (2012).

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CHAPTER 3 : IN-FIELD MEASUREMENT

METHODOLOGY

In-field data was primarily gathered to determine the actual in-field performance of a
HPWH within the South African climate conditions when used at an occupied residential
home. The in-field performance data will be used to determine if the laboratory tests could
accurately predict the in-field performance. This chapter explains the methodology used to
gather, reduce and present the data obtained from the in-field residential HPWHs. The
results of the in-field measurements will be discussed in Chapter 6.

3.1 Data gathering

The infield data used within this study was measured by Eskom for five residential HPWHs
installed in five different climate regions throughout South Africa. The climate regions
selected were Bloemfontein in the Free State, Potchefstroom in the North West Province,
Pretoria in Gauteng, Tzaneen in Limpopo and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal. Due to the price
of a quality data acquisition system, only one heat pump was installed in each of the five
climate regions. This of course increases the risk of losing an entire climate region’s data,
should there be a malfunction on the acquisition system or the heat pump. It was,
however, deemed a calculated risk as the ambient conditions throughout these climate
zones overlap, allowing verification of the data acquired.

The data acquisition system was set up to record nine performance parameters every
minute for a period of one year. These parameters were then used to determine the
performance changes with temperature within a 24 hour day, and also during the climate
changes of the four seasons.

The nine measuring parameters included in the data acquisition systems can be divided
into two groups. The first set of parameters shall be used to determine the system COP as
was done by the study of Guo et al. (2011), described in Section 2.7. The second set of
parameters will be used to determine the instantaneous COP as was done by Yokoyama
et al. (2005) in Section 2.8. Installing equipment to measure both types of performance
indicators reduces the risk of losing data due to instrumentation failure. Should both
performance indicating values be available, it will be compared with one another for
verification purposes. Although these values should correlate well, it is expected that the
system COP will be as much as 10% lower than the instantaneous COP due to pipe and
tank losses throughout the system.

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The installation of the heat pump units for this study was done according to the schematic
shown in Figure 11. Instrumentation was installed to enable the measurement of the following
influencing factors:

- Ambient dry bulb temperature.

- Ambient RH.
- Municipal water temperature.
- Hot water consumption using a flow meter in the cold water supply.
- Geyser water outlet temperature.
- Heat pump water inlet temperature.
- Heat pump water outlet temperature.
- Water flow rate through the heat pump.
- Electrical energy consumption of the heat pump.

Hot -water supply

Temp_geyser outlet T
to user
Ambient
Temperature and
Humidity
TP Banjo valve
T
Temp_mains water

Geyser
Flow meter

Dip-tube

Backup
element incl.
Diffuser
F T thermostat

Cold-mains supply
Drain valve

Backup element electrical wiring

Temperature signal wire

Heat pump
inlet water
HP flow meter
HP Temp_out

HP Temp_in
Electrical T
energy Isolator
measurement
Heat Pump T F

Heat pump
outlet water

LCD Control (Schematic – Not to scale)

panel

Figure 11: In-field heat pump installation schematic.

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3.2 Data reduction

3.2.1 Initial data reduction

Data was recorded every minute for a period of one year. The data recorded was outlined
in table format with the rows indicating the recorded data at different times. The columns
of the table indicated the different parameters recorded, such as ambient temperature,
relative humidity, power consumption, inlet and outlet water temperatures, etc. as can be
seen in Annexure A, Section A.1.

Initially the data was reduced by software specifically designed for data processing. It was,
however, found that the results obtained were far below the expected values. Further
investigation into what caused the lower values proved to be extremely challenging, due to
the excessive volume of data recorded for each site.

It was then decided to write a Microsoft Excel data reduction engine that makes use of
programmed macros to perform investigative tasks. The tasks performed by these macros
were the following:

 Segregate the datasets into daily 24 hour periods.

 Calculate the following for every 24 hour period:
- Total hot water usage.
- Average system COP.
- Average instantaneous COP.
- Average ambient dry bulb temperature during operations.
- RH during operations.
- The integrity of individual data points with respect to the rest of the data.
- Total electrical energy used for the 24 hour period.
 Transfer the results from the calculations above to tables summarising the results.
 Populate a table that summarises the results in representable plots and charts.
 Colour code the table to indicate outlying data points.

These tables were then used to identify recording errors within the data as well as
instrumentation failures that may have occurred. The tables indicated that the water flow
meters used to determine the system COP failed on three of the five installations due to
hard water and scaling. The flow meters showed a decrease in the flow recorded as time
progressed, and the recorded values degraded until it showed only readings when water
was drawn from the geyser at a high flow rate. The recorded data from the two remaining

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flow meters was deemed untrustworthy as there was no method of verifying the data
recorded. The system COP was therefore excluded from this study. The tables further
indicated that although the loggers did have recording errors in the form of major outliers,
over 90% of the data could be used to accurately calculate the instantaneous COP. The
instantaneous COP results could also be verified against results from other sites during
similar climate conditions. A further investigation revealed that all the columns in a single
recorded row of data will either be correct or outlying. Outliers could therefore be isolated
and deleted by implementing rules to delete rows where the ambient temperature
increased or decreased unnaturally for a row in the data. More details about the initial
macro results for the in-field tests can be found in Annexure A, Section A.2.

3.2.2 Data reduction methodology

A second Microsoft Excel data reduction engine was then developed to calculate the
instantaneous COP for every running cycle of a heat pump during the year. The tasks
performed by the macros in this Excel data reduction engine were the following:

 Remove columns containing recoded values for system COP.

 Delete the outliers according to ambient temperature.
 Sort the data according to power consumption.
 Delete all recorded values where the heat pump was not operational.
 Sort the values according to ambient relative humidity and separate the recordings
into 10% intervals. These intervals were defined as follows:
- 5% ≤ < 15% summarised under 10%.
- 15% ≤ < 25% summarised under 20%.
- 25% ≤ < 35% summarised under 30%.
- 35% ≤ < 45% summarised under 40%.
- 45% ≤ < 55% summarised under 50%.
- 55% ≤ < 65% summarised under 60%.
- 65% ≤ < 75% summarised under 70%.
- 75% ≤ < 85% summarised under 80%.
- 85% ≤ < 95% summarised under 90%.
- The data below 5% and above 95% occurred so rarely that it was deemed
inaccurate and therefore negligible.
 Arrange the summarised ambient RH values according to ambient dry bulb
temperatures.
 Calculate for each of the summarised RH data sets the following:

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- Temperature difference between the water in the geyser and the ambient
air dry bulb temperature.
- Electricity consumption of the heat pump.
- Energy added to the water by the heat pump.
- Instantaneous COP.
 Plot the resulting COP values against the temperature difference as was
suggested by Morrison et al. (2004) in Section 2.3. Draw linear regression lines
through the resulting plots as suggested by Huchtemann and Müller (2012).
 Reduce the resulting linear regression lines to a single performance indication line
for comparison with the other data sets.

More details about the macro programming code for the in-field tests and data reduction
can be found in Annexure A, Section A.3.

3.2.3 Relevant equations

The primary objective of this study, as mentioned in Chapter 1, is to determine the

efficiency of residential HPWHs in various climate zones in order to develop a laboratory
testing methodology for South Africa. The efficiency of a residential HPWH is described by
the coefficient of performance (COP) which is the quotient of the thermal energy added to
the water and the electrical power consumed during this period.

The formula used for the calculation of the temperature difference between the water in
the geyser and the ambient air is given by:

[3.1]

Where:

: Temperature difference [°C].

: Geyser tank temperature [°C].

: Ambient dry bulb temperature [°C].

The measurement equipment used to track the electricity used by the heat pump gives
data at one minute time intervals representing the performance of the heat pump for that
minute. The electrical usage is therefore also recorded as a kilojoule per minute value and
not a kilojoule per second value as is required for the calculation of the COP. The
recorded value is therefore converted to a kilojoule per second value so that it can be

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used to calculate the COP. The formula for the calculation of the electricity used per
second is as follows:

[3.2]

Electricity used per second [kW].

Electricity used per minute [kJ/ minute].

The formula for the calculation of the energy added by the heat pump as water is flowing
through it and heated up is given by:

̇ ( ) [3.3]

Where:

Thermal energy added to the water [kW].

̇ Water mass flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s].

Specific heat capacity of water [kJ/kgK].

Temperature of the water at the outlet [K].

Temperature of the water at the inlet [K].

The instantaneous COP of a HPWH is then given by the quotient of the energy added to
the water and the electrical work required to do so:

[3.4]

Where:

Coefficient of performance [kW/kW]

Thermal energy added to the water [kW].

Electricity used per second [kW].

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3.3 Conclusion

The in-field data was recorded, but errors were found within the data due to
instrumentation failure and logging errors. As a direct effect of these errors the system
COP could no longer be calculated. It was, however, found that the data could be filtered
with a Microsoft Excel macro to the point where the instantaneous COP could be
calculated.

The macro filtered the data allowing only a 1% variance or error. After the data was filtered
it was found that more than 90% of the data in each of the data set was reliable, and could
therefore be used to determine the actual in-field performance of the residential HPWH.

The results of the in-field measurements will be compared to the laboratory test results
and the simulation model results in Chapter 6.

More details about the data processing of the in-field tests and results thereof can be
found in Annexure A, Section A.4.

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CHAPTER 4 : LABORATORY TEST METHODOLOGY

The primary goal of the laboratory tests was to determine if the in-field performance of a
residential heat pump water heater can be predicted with a proper testing methodology.
The methodology used for the laboratory tests within this study will be used as the
baseline for determining which influencing factors are accurately captured and what needs
to be added to the methodology before an accurate representation of the in-field
performance is obtained. The laboratory test results used in this study were generated by
a reputable testing facility within South Africa. As there is currently no methodology for
performance testing of residential HPWHs in South Africa, the method used for the Eskom
rebate test was also applied as a baseline here to test the residential heat pump unit in a
controlled environment. This section explains the methodology used to gather, process
and present the data obtained in the laboratory tests. The results of the laboratory tests
will be discussed in Chapter 6.

4.1 Data gathering

The tests were conducted within a climate controlled environment on a residential heat
pump installation that included the geyser and relevant pipe work. The test recorded the
water inlet temperature, the water outlet temperature, the water flow rate, the electricity
consumption, and the heat pump inlet air dry bulb temperature and relative humidity.
These parameters are required to compare the performance of the heat pump against the
available in-field data.

Five separate tests were conducted, each at a 50% relative humidity and with ambient dry
bulb temperatures ranging from 5°C to 42°C. For each of the tests the water in the geyser
is mixed to a homogeneous temperature and recorded as the starting temperature.
Hereafter the heat pump is activated to heat the water until the heat pump’s logic indicates
that it has reached its set temperature (55°C). For the duration of the heating cycle the
performance indicating factors and the performance influencing factors are measured.
Finally the water in the geyser is again mixed to a homogeneous temperature before the
final water temperature is recorded. The major performance indicating factors that were
measured are as follows:

̇ Water mass flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s].

Temperature of the water at the heat pump outlet [K].

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Temperature of the water at the heat pump inlet [K].

Electricity being used [kW].

More details about the recorded data of the laboratory tests and results thereof can be
found in Annexure B, Section B.1.

These recorded values are used upon completion of the test to calculate the
instantaneous COP.

The major performance influencing factors recorded were as follows:

: Geyser tank temperature [°C].

: Ambient dry bulb temperature [°C].

: Relative Humidity [%].

These values are recorded to measure the effect thereof on the recorded performance.

The results generated by the laboratory tests are expected to result in a performance
indication line that correlates to within 10% of the in-field performance data. It was,
however, noted in the literature that this test will result in a performance indication line
similar to a pump curve. It is therefore important to note that even though it gives the
performance within 10%, the values of tank and ambient temperature will determine where
on this performance line the heat pump is performing. The average performance of the
heat pump on this performance line can be obtained by theoretically adding tapping
profiles after the initial heating cycle, as was found in the British standard (described in
Section 2.6), but it will not be included for these laboratory tests.

The environmental test chamber could only reduce the air temperature to a minimum of
5°C, as the facility struggled to provide a stable test environment at lower temperatures.
The relative humidity could only be kept at 50% due to the limitations of the environmental
test chamber. Finally, the system COP could not be determined due to a limited number of
calibrated temperature sensors available within the laboratory test facility.

The installation was set up similar to the in-field installation and therefore has the exact
same schematic as Figure 11 in Section 3.1.

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4.2 Data reduction

4.2.1 Data reduction methodology

The data reduction methodology used is as follows:

 Use the data gathered during the laboratory tests and determine an instantaneous
COP for each second of the recorded data.
 Plot the instantaneous COP against the water and air temperature difference for each
of the five tests conducted at the different ambient conditions.
 Generate a linear regression line at 50% relative humidity for each one of the five tests
and plot them against one another.
 Reduce the resulting linear regression lines at 50% relative humidity to a single
performance indication line for comparison with the other data sets.

4.2.2 Relevant equations

The relevant equations for the in-field data, laboratory test results and simulation model
are the exact the same. The same data was recorded or generated within each data set.
This reduced the complexity of data processing within the study before the data sets could
be verified and validated against one another. The same equations as explained in
Chapter 3 can therefore be used for the data processing of the laboratory tests.

4.3 Conclusion

The laboratory tests were conducted on certain sample conditions namely 5°C, 15°C,
25°C, 35°C and 42°C, all at 50% humidity, as it was not deemed necessary to test all
temperatures and relative humilities found within the in-field data. The methodology for the
laboratory tests closely resembled the test methodology used for the laboratory tests
conducted by Eskom for the residential heat pump rebate programme. The results of the
laboratory tests will be compared to the in-field data and the simulation model results in
Chapter 6. More details about the data processing of the laboratory tests and results
thereof can be found in Annexure B.

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CHAPTER 5 : FLOWNEX SE SIMULATION MODEL

METHODOLOGY

The primary goal of the simulation model is to verify and validate the in-field data and
laboratory tests against a theoretical simulation model. From the literature study it was
found that the best approach for a performance study is laboratory tests and/or in-field
data compared to a fundamental numerical simulation model based on mass, energy and
momentum conservation laws. These studies also pointed out that such models take a
long time to develop in a mathematically based program. It was therefore decided to build
the model in a simulation environment created for fast and effective construction. As this
simulation model requires specific design specifications from the manufacturer to increase
the accuracy thereof, it cannot be applied to heat pumps in general, but will serve as
confirmation that the data gathered infield and within laboratory tests can be theoretically
confirmed. This chapter will list the methodology used in developing and implementing the
simulation model, but the results will only be shown and discussed in chapter 6.

5.1 Background

The simulation program selected for this study is Flownex® SE (Flownex® SE, 2014).
Flownex was developed to combine a very extensive range of simulation capabilities
within a built-in component library, enabling the user to create complete systems quickly
and effectively. Although Flownex® offers a dynamic simulation option, it was decided to
limit the study to only a steady state solution. The advantage of a steady state solution for
this simulation model is that less components are required leading to a smaller error
margin within the obtained results.

The Flownex® simulation environment also caters for refrigerant cycle design with pre-
constructed components available to build into the simulation. These building blocks are
pre-programmed with the fundamental equations leaving only the characteristics and
boundary conditions of the component as variables to be supplied by the user before the
component block is fully functional. The simulation model is developed to generate the
same results as obtained in the in-field measurements and laboratory test results, allowing
for quick and effective comparison between data sets.

Each component is sized and specified according to the design specifications and
drawings obtained from the component manufacturers. After the model is developed, it will
be improved with test results obtained from the heat pump manufacturer. These test

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results are generated by the heat pump manufacturer independent of this study. The
simulation model results are then compared to the results obtained by the manufacturer at
25°C ambient dry bulb temperature. If it is found that the performance of a certain
component is slightly over- or under predicted compared to the manufacturer’s test results,
the simulation model component can be improved by changing one of the independent
variables. The independent variable to be changed would be any variable influencing only
the component being improved, without affecting the rest of the components in the
refrigeration cycle.

Once the performance results at 25°C ambient dry bulb temperature are deemed accurate
in comparison with the manufacturer’s data, the Flownex® model can be used to generate
simulation results for all the ambient temperature conditions of the laboratory tests listed in
Chapter 4 namely 5°C, 15°C, 25°C, 35°C and 45°C at 50% relative humidity. The
simulation results of each temperature are compared to the laboratory tests, after which
the results are reduced to a single performance line to be compared to both the in-field
results and the laboratory test results.

5.2 Simulation model layout

The components that are simulated within this simulation model are the compressor,
condenser, expansion valve and evaporator. These components can be found directly
within the Flownex® SE simulation library. The expansion valve is simulated using a pipe
reduction component with a variable cross sectional area. Figure 12 shows the graphical
user interface for the Flownex® SE simulation model developed for this study. The outlet
water temperature is the major output value of the simulation model and can be seen
highlighted in yellow within Figure 12.

The simulation inputs required to solve the simulation model are initially as follows:

 : Air dry bulb temperature before the heat pump [°C].

 : Water temperature into the heat pump [°C].
 : Compressor suction temperature [°C].
 : Compressor suction pressure [Pa].
 : Compressor discharge temperature [°C].
 : Compressor discharge pressure [Pa].

Not all of these input values were recorded within the in-field measurements or the
laboratory tests. It was therefore decided to investigate methods of reducing the input
values to values that were recorded within the in-field measurements and laboratory tests,

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allowing for more accurate comparison between the simulation model and the other data
sets. The investigation indicated that the values not recorded could be calculated by
integrating an Engineering Equation Solver (EES) model into the Flownex® SE
environment.

®
Figure 12: Flownex SE simulation model.

5.3 Integrated EES functions

After the manufacturer’s data was studied it was found that the condenser inlet refrigerant
temperature and pressure have a strong correlation to the inlet water temperature. It was
further found that the evaporator outlet refrigerant temperature and pressure have a
strong correlation to the inlet air temperature. After these correlations were studied,
functions were developed to determine the refrigeration temperatures and pressures
required by the Flownex® SE simulation model as input values. The inlet water and air
temperatures are therefore exported from Flownex® SE to the EES model to be used as
input values for the developed functions. The EES model then calculates the refrigeration

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temperatures and pressures before exporting them back to Flownex® SE as input values.
By integrating the EES model into the Flownex® SE model the inputs are reduced to:

 : Air dry bulb temperature before the heat pump [°C].

 : Water temperature into the heat pump [°C].

These values were recorded in the in-field measurements and laboratory tests, and could
be used as input values to compare the results from the simulation model to the in-field
results and laboratory results.

5.4 Component specifications

The following lists the input variables used within each of the component blocks of the
Flownex® SE model.

Compressor
 : Isentropic efficiency [%].
 : Rotations per minute [rpm].
 : Number of stages [ - ].
 : Swept volume [m3] .
 : Dead volume [m3].
 : R410A.

Condenser refrigerant side

 : Heat transfer area [m2].
 : Fluid path length [m].
 : Number of increments [ - ].
 : Wall thickness [m].
 : Surface roughness [µm].
 : Copper.

Condenser water side

 : Hydraulic diameter [m].
 : Secondary heat transfer area [m2].
 : Secondary surface roughness [µm].

Expansion valve
 : Cross sectional area of the restrictor [m2].
 : Discharge coefficient [ - ].

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Evaporator refrigerant side

 : Number of parallel circuits per row [ - ].
 : Number of tube passes [ - ].
 : Total number of tubes [ - ].
 : Tube internal diameter [m].
 : Tube pass length [m].
 : Inside surface roughness [µm].

Evaporator air side

 : Evaporator heat transfer area [m2]
 : Tube wall thickness [m].
 Evaporator characteristics.

More details about the Flownex® input tab can be found in Annexure C, Section C.1.

5.5 Conclusion

A simulation model was developed to verify and validate the data generated within in-field
measurements and laboratory test results. This simulation model was developed within
the Flownex® SE software environment, allowing for fast and effective simulation of the
entire gas cycle.

The disadvantage of using a simulation environment is that it requires manufacturer

details specific to the heat pump. This means that the simulation model cannot be applied
to heat pumps in general within the South African market.

The simulation model was developed using performance values and specifications from
the manufacturers of the heat pump’s sub-components. The simulation model was
developed to generate the same results as obtained in the in-field measurements and
laboratory test results, allowing for quick and effective comparison between data sets.

The results of the simulation model will be compared to the laboratory test results as well
as the in-field measurements in Chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 6 : RESULTS

The results to be discussed in this chapter were generated by following the methodologies
listed in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. The results of the in-field data, laboratory tests and the
simulation model will be discussed separately before being compared to one another.

6.1 In-field measurements results

The data from the different sites were first separated in terms of the relative humidity as
mentioned in Chapter 3. The COP was then calculated per row of data for each one of the
data sheets generated in-field (see Annexure A for an example of a data sheet). Hereafter
the data sheets were sorted according to a temperature difference [ between the
tank temperature (Tt) and the ambient temperature (Ta).

6.1.1 Recorded data for each relative humidity

The table below indicates how many recorded relative humidity values are present within
each predefined range. One recorded value represents one minute of running data.

Table 4: Number of in-field recorded values for each defined RH

RH data range Number of data rows

5% ≤ < 15% 4969
15% ≤ < 25% 16958
25% ≤ < 35% 30264
35% ≤ < 45% 37601
45% ≤ < 55% 37406
55% ≤ < 65% 38215
65% ≤ < 75% 32154
75% ≤ < 85% 50385
85% ≤ < 95% 6783

From Table 4 it can be seen that there are far less data for the two extreme predefined
ranges, namely 10% and 90%. The data in these two ranges mainly comes from a single
in-field test site eliminating the ability of the data to be verified against other sites. As
these data sets cannot be sufficiently verified, it is deemed unreliable. The low number of
recordings within these conditions does, however, indicate that they are not frequently
found within South Africa, thus lowering the need for testing within these conditions. The

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10% and 90% lines are therefore removed within the results comparison for the in-field
data as well as for the remainder of the study.

6.1.2 Results summary for in-field measurements

In Figure 13 the in-field data is shown for the different predefined relative humidity ranges.
The figure shows the coefficient of performance (COP) for the difference between the
current tank temperature (Tt) and the ambient dry bulb temperature (Ta). The temperature
difference decreases to a negative value, when the water in the geyser drops below the
ambient dry bulb temperature. The temperature difference increases to above zero as the
water temperature in the geyser rises above the ambient conditions. The conditions for
operation are therefore favourable at a low temperature difference, with the conditions
becoming less favourable as the temperature difference increases.

Figure 13: In-field measurement results.

Further observations that can be made from the in-field results:

 The 10% and the 90% relative humidity performance lines will not be taken into
account during the data reduction process to follow, due to the reasons mentioned
before.

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 The remaining performance lines show an increase in performance as the relative

humidity increases. The influence of relative humidity is not as significant as the
influence of the water tank temperature and the ambient dry bulb temperature, but
if it is not considered, the standard deviation of the performance line is increased to
the point where detection of outliers and errors in the data becomes impossible.
 The 50% relative humidity line is close to an average performance line, with a 0.4
COP deviation to each side. It is therefore suggested that it is not required to do
multiple relative humidity tests within a laboratory test environment. However, it is
required to specify the humidity for the test at the average value of 50% knowing
the performance can increase or decrease slightly from this point with a change in
relative humidity.
 The maximum COP difference recorded between the 80% and 20% relative
humidity performance lines is 0.9. The minimum COP difference recorded between
the 80% and 20% relative humidity performance lines was 0.36.

In Figure 14, a linear regression line is fitted through the data. As mentioned in Chapter 3
the performance lines need to be reduced to a single performance line summarising the
in-field performance of the HPWH that was tested, for comparison with the laboratory and
simulation results. This line can now be used to quickly and effectively compare this in-
field data set to the linear regression line drawn up for the laboratory tests as well as the
simulation model results, to be shown later in this chapter.

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Figure 14: In-field measurements performance regression line.

6.2 Laboratory test results

As mentioned in Chapter 4, the laboratory test results were generated with a methodology
closely resembling the Eskom rebate methodology as given in Section 2.5.

The laboratory test recorded data for every second for the duration of the heating cycle.
This data was then summarised in a table with the time steps represented as rows and the
different recorded values as columns. The instantaneous COP was calculated per row of
data for each one of the five test conditions. The resulting tables were then sorted
according to the temperature difference [ between the tank temperature (Tt) and
the ambient dry bulb temperature (Ta).

6.2.1 Results summary for laboratory measurements

In Figure 15 below the laboratory results obtained can be seen before it was reduced to a
single performance line. The figure indicates the results obtained for the tests conducted
at 5°C, 15°C, 25°C, 35°C and 42°C, all at 50% relative humidity. The figure shows
remarkable similarities for all test conditions when compared to Figure 17 generated by
the Flownex® SE simulation model, to be discussed in Section 6.3. From the in-field data it

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was observed that the highest dry bulb air temperature recorded was 36°C. This means
that the 42°C performance line in the laboratory tests and simulation model will skew the
final linear regression performance line in each of the data sets respectively. For both the
laboratory tests and simulation model, the 42°C performance lines will therefore be
removed before the final performance linear regression lines are drawn.

Figure 15: Laboratory test results.

In Figure 16 below, a linear regression line is fitted through the laboratory test results. As
mentioned in Chapter 4, the resulting performance lines shall be used for summarizing the
performance of the HPWH tested in the laboratory. This line can now be used to quickly
and effectively compare this data set to the linear regression line drawn up for the in-field
measurements as well as the simulation model results, to be discussed later in this
chapter.

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Figure 16: Laboratory test data regression line.

6.3 Simulation model results

The results discussed here were generated with the simulation test methodology as
described in Chapter 5. The simulation model was used to generate results for each of the
laboratory test conditions, namely 5°C, 15°C, 25°C, 35°C and 42°C, all at 50% relative
humidity. The simulation results were then tabulated with the rows progressing as the
water temperature is increased. The COP was then calculated per row of generated data
before being sorted according to the temperature difference [Tt – Ta] between the tank
temperature (Tt) and the ambient dry bulb temperature (Ta).

6.3.1 Summary of simulation results

The results shown in Figure 17 closely resembles that obtained within the laboratory tests
shown in Figure 15. The 5°C performance line within the Flownex® SE results is, however,
much higher than for the laboratory test results. This can be contributed to the increase in
inefficiencies found within some of the sub-components at low temperatures that was not
incorporated into the Flownex® SE model. As mentioned in Section 6.2, the 42°C
performance line will be removed before the final performance linear regression line is

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drawn, as it was found that the highest ambient conditions recorded in-field was 36°C dry
bulb. The 42°C performance line will therefore skew the final resulting performance line
being used for comparison to the in-field data and laboratory test results.

®
Figure 17: Flownex simulation model results.

In Figure 18 below, a linear regression line is fitted through the generated simulation
model results. As mentioned in Chapter 5, the resulting performance lines shall be used
for summarizing the performance of the HPWH simulated in Flownex® SE. As mentioned
before, this line can now be used to quickly and effectively compare this data set to the
linear regression line drawn up for the in-field measurements as well as the laboratory test
results.

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Figure 18: Simulation model data regression line.

6.4 Results comparison

Figure 19 below compares the final performance linear regression lines for the in-field
measurements, laboratory tests and generated simulation results. This figure also includes
a line indicating the performance specifications as supplied by the manufacturer of the
HPWH. These results supplied by the manufacturer were reduced to this performance line
based on the methodology listed in Chapter 4. The manufacturer’s results are listed at
different ambient conditions similar to this study, however the performance line was
generated at a constant inlet water temperature of 30°C. This performance line based on
the manufacturer’s tests indicates a higher efficiency compared to the results generated
within this study. The higher efficiency indicated by the manufacturer can be contributed
mostly to the constant water temperature used within the manufacturer’s specification. It is
further suspected that the manufacturer’s specifications were generated at a relative
humidity higher than 70% due to the location of the factory being in a very humid area.

The constant inlet water temperature as currently specified is unrealistically low compared
to inlet water temperatures found on average in-field. When other manufacturer
specifications were studied in more detail, it was found that the test conditions were either
not given, or that the specification indicated conditions far more favourable to the heat

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pump performance than the conditions found within a South African residential
environment. The difference between this line and the performance lines generated within
the study highlights the necessity for a performance standard in South Africa.

Figure 19: Performance line comparison.

Figure 19 above gives the performance lines for the tested heat pump considering the
three major performance influencing factors, namely water temperature, dry bulb air
temperature and relative humidity. For the three performance lines generated in this study
the coefficient of variance between the lines is 8.4% on average while the average
standard deviation for the data is 0.6. The performance line generated for the laboratory
results has a coefficient of variance of 7.8% on average when compared to the Flownex®
simulation model results and an average standard deviation of 0.5. The laboratory test
results generated to represent the in-field data have a 3% average coefficient of variance
when compared to the in-field data, with an average standard deviation of 0.2. This
variance is very small and can be contributed to measurement accuracy and potential
fouling on the heat pumps installed in-field. The heat pumps in-field were running for more
than 1 year before data was recorded while the heat pump used in the laboratory tests
was still brand new and only functionally tested before being used. It was further found
that the lagging used on the heat pumps installed in-field had a lower R rating and
thickness compared to the laboratory test installation. With all factors taken into account a

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3% difference is considered to be small enough therefore proving that the laboratory test
can give an accurate representation of the in-field performance of a heat pump water
heater.

It is, however, important to note that even though this performance line gives an accurate
representation of the performance at a certain condition, the British standard indicates that
it is not only important to consider the performance line but also the position on this
performance line that is most frequently found in-field. The next section will expand on this
requirement.

6.5 The influence on performance considering the climate conditions

The effects included in the British standard can be theoretically applied to this study by
studying the water temperatures and climate conditions during the in-field operations.

The charts to be discussed below indicate firstly the dry bulb air temperatures and
secondly the relative humidity during the heat pumps' operation in-field. The data used to
formulate the charts excludes all the data when the heat pump was not operational. These
charts were formulated to verify that all relative humidity and temperature ranges are in
fact represented within the in-field data. The charts will also be used as basis to formulate
the final test methodology, by indicating the relative humidity and dry bulb temperatures
most commonly found within the different regions of South Africa.

6.5.1 Climate in Bloemfontein during heat pump operation

From Figure 20 it can be seen that the relative humidity levels for the Bloemfontein site in
the Free State falls in the average to low category with the largest concentration of data
found around 30% relative humidity. The average relative humidity recorded for
Bloemfontein was 46.4% and it can be seen that the relative humidity is rarely within the
two extremes namely 10% and 90%. The ambient dry bulb temperatures recorded for
Bloemfontein are lower than the national average dry bulb temperature of 16°C even
though the minimum recorded dry bulb temperature was only 0.3°C. The temperatures in
Bloemfontein are known to drop below 0°C but the heat pump did not run during these
conditions. The maximum recorded dry bulb temperature for Bloemfontein was 36.2°C
with the average recorded dry bulb temperature for Bloemfontein at 13.4°C. The figure
below summarises the recorded climate in Bloemfontein.

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Ambient 4% 2% 4% 2%
dry bulb Relative
Temperature 14% 10% Humidity
11% 90%
T_a < 5 13%
9% 80%
5 > T_a < 10
70%
10 < T_a < 15 60%
21% 19%
15 < T_a < 20 13% 50%
20< T_a < 25 26% 40%
25< T_a < 30 30%
18% 14% 20%
30 < T_a
20% 10%

Minimum Temperature: 0.3°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 5.9%

Average Temperature: 13.4°C Average Relative Humidity: 46.4%
Maximum Temperature: 36.2°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 91.3%

Figure 20: Climate during heat pump operation in Bloemfontein.

6.5.2 Climate in Potchefstroom during heat pump operation

The relative humidity levels at the Potchefstroom test site in the North-West province are
very similar to the conditions found in Bloemfontein. The relative humidity is, however,
consistently slightly higher than the relative humidity in Bloemfontein. The largest
concentration of data was recorded around 40% relative humidity while the average
relative humidity recorded for Potchefstroom was 47.2%. The Potchefstroom site also
recorded the highest and lowest relative humidity, and dry bulb temperatures in the study.
The minimum recorded dry bulb temperature for Potchefstroom was -2.1°C, while the
maximum recorded dry bulb temperature for Potchefstroom was 36.7°C. The average dry
bulb temperature recorded for Potchefstroom during operation was 15.6°C. The figure
below summarises the recorded climate in Potchefstroom.

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4%
Ambient Relative
5% 7% 4%
dry bulb 7% Humidity
12% 10%
Temperature 90%
18% 8% 80%
T_a < 5
17% 70%
5 > T_a < 10
16% 60%
10 < T_a < 15 13% 50%
15 < T_a < 20
40%
20< T_a < 25
20% 30%
25< T_a < 30
26% 19% 14% 20%
30 < T_a
10%

Minimum Temperature: -2.1°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 1.9%

Average Temperature: 15.6°C Average Relative Humidity: 47.2%
Maximum Temperature: 36.7°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 93.6%

Figure 21: Climate during heat pump operation in Potchefstroom.

6.5.3 Climate in Centurion during heat pump operation

The relative humidity levels at the Centurion site in Pretoria, Gauteng, showed a large
concentration of data around the 50% relative humidity average, with the number of
recorded values decreasing towards the extremes of 10% and 90%. The calculated
relative humidity is slightly higher than 50% at 52.7%. The recorded dry bulb temperature
for Centurion showed very little data below 5°C during heat pump operation. This can be
due to the test site’s water consumption patterns, reducing the running time in the colder
early morning hours. The minimum recorded dry bulb temperature for Centurion was
3.6°C, while the maximum recorded dry bulb temperature was 35.9°C. The average dry
bulb temperature recorded during operation was 18.2°C. Figure 22 summarises the
recorded climate in Centurion.

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2% 0%
1% 2%
Ambient 7%
dry bulb 8% 6% Relative
Temperature 13% Humidity
12% 90%
T_a < 5 23% 80%
5 > T_a < 10 70%
10 < T_a < 15 28% 13%
60%
15 < T_a < 20 17% 50%
20< T_a < 25 40%
25< T_a < 30 30%
30 < T_a 17% 20%
32% 10%
19%

Minimum Temperature: 3.6°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 4.1%

Average Temperature: 18.2°C Average Relative Humidity: 52.7%
Maximum Temperature: 35.9°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 91.1%

Figure 22: Climate during heat pump operation in Centurion.

6.5.4 Climate in Tzaneen during heat pump operation

Tzaneen in the Limpopo province was selected to represent a slightly higher relative
humidity than Centurion, but it was found that the relative humidity in the specific area
where the heat pump was installed was much higher than expected. 41% of all the data
recorded measures within the 75% relative humidity to 85% relative humidity range. The
average relative humidity for Tzaneen was 68.3%. The dry bulb temperatures for Tzaneen
at these high relative humidity values are average to low. The minimum recorded dry bulb
temperature for Tzaneen was 2.3°C, while the maximum recorded dry bulb for Tzaneen
was 33.3°C. The average dry bulb temperature during operation was 13.0°C. The figure
below summarises the recorded climate for the Tzaneen site.
2%
3% 1% 1%
4% Relative
Ambient
dry bulb 10%
Humidity
8% 11%
6% 90%
Temperature
80%
T_a < 5 9%
5 > T_a < 10 70%
22% 60%
10 < T_a < 15
15 < T_a < 20 29% 50%
12% 40%
20< T_a < 25
25< T_a < 30 41% 30%
30 < T_a 20%
14% 10%
27%

Minimum Temperature: 2.3°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 6.6%

Average Temperature: 13°C Average Relative Humidity: 68.3%
Maximum Temperature: 33.3°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 93.2%

Figure 23: Climate during heat pump operation in Tzaneen.

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6.5.5 Climate in Durban during heat pump operation

Durban in KwaZulu-Natal was included in the study due to its average to high
temperatures and relative humidity. No relative humidity values were recorded below 10%,
with very little recordings lower than 30%. 57% of all the data was recorded between 75%
and 85% relative humidity, while the average relative humidity of the site is 70.5%. The dry
bulb temperatures for Durban are also very high with no recorded values below 7°C. The
dry bulb temperatures for the Durban site are mostly around the high average of 19.3°C,
with the minimum recorded dry bulb temperature at 7.9°C. The maximum recorded dry
bulb temperature for Durban was 36.2°C, but these high temperatures were not frequently
found in the recorded data. The figure below summarises the recorded climate for Durban.

2% 1% 0% 0%
1% 0% 2%
Ambient 4%
Relative
dry bulb Humidity
11% 12%
Temperature 14% 90%
10%
T_a < 5 80%
5 > T_a < 10 70%
10 < T_a < 15 60%
14% 50%
15 < T_a < 20
20< T_a < 25 40%
25< T_a < 30 37% 30%
35%
30 < T_a 20%
57% 10%

Minimum Temperature: 7.9°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 10.7%

Average Temperature: 19.3°C Average Relative Humidity: 70.3%
Maximum Temperature: 36.2°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 93.3%

Figure 24: Climate during heat pump operation in Durban.

6.6 Results comparison for different regions considering climate data

The data from all the sites were combined to determine if the climate conditions typically
found in South Africa were adequately covered in the study. The relative humidity data in
Figure 25 shows that the data from Tzaneen and Durban had a substantial effect on the
average relative humidity. The higher relative humidity on the Tzaneen site increased the
average relative humidity from 50% to 55.8%. With this increase considered it can still be
seen that adequate data was captured for the relative humidity ranges frequently found
within the South African climate.

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The summarised dry bulb temperatures in Figure 25 show that adequate data was
captured to represent the climate in South Africa. From the data it became evident that a
42°C test condition within the simulation model and laboratory tests are not required as
this will be rarely found in South Africa.

2% 2%
Ambient Relative
6% 6% 5%
dry bulb 7% Humidity
Temperature
14% 11% 90%
T_a < 5 23% 80%
5 > T_a < 10 20% 70%
10 < T_a < 15 60%
15 < T_a < 20 14%
50%
20< T_a < 25 40%
22%
25< T_a < 30 12% 30%
30 < T_a
13% 20%
29% 10%
14%

Minimum Temperature: -2.1°C Minimum Relative Humidity: 1.9%

Average Temperature: 15.9°C Average Relative Humidity: 55.8%
Maximum Temperature: 36.7°C Maximum Relative Humidity: 93.6%

Figure 25: Average climate during heat pump operation on all sites.

If the climate data summarised above is theoretically applied to the performance lines
according to the British standard, we find that the middle part of the performance line is
not a good indication of the average performance of the HPWH. Within the in-field
measurements it was also found that the water temperatures in the tank is rarely drawn to
a temperature lower than 45°C, before the water is reheated back to 55°C. This is
because water drawn from a tap within a residential home is on average relatively small
compared to the total water volume stored within the geyser at 55°C. The water
temperature ( ) used within the x-axis of Figure 19 therefore rarely drops below 45°C;
limiting the maximum COP realistically obtainable in-field. Furthermore, if an average dry
bulb temperature is considered as portrayed in Figure 25, we find that the average
performance of the heat pump installed in-field is limited by the temperature difference
( ) to a very specific part of the heat pump performance line.

For an average in-field heating cycle the heat pump would therefore be operating between
29°C and 39° temperature difference (( ) as indicated in Figure 26 below. The
average in-field COP for the heat pump used in this study is therefore 2.4 if the British
standard is considered and 3.1 if only the Eskom rebate methodology is followed. The
importance of incorporating the British standard's test methodology can therefore be seen

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as the difference between a 3.1 COP value and a 2.4 COP value is far from negligible.
The heat pump used within this study passed the Eskom rebate test specifications stating
that the heat pump must have a COP of at least 2.8. If the British standard test
methodology was incorporated with the Eskom rebate test methodology, the heat pump
would have given a COP value lower than 2.8. However, if the British standard was
considered, the required COP value would have most likely been lower. The required COP
value will therefore be recalculated for the recommended testing methodology described
in Chapter 7.

Figure 26: Results comparison with climate consideration.

It is therefore critical that the methodology used within the British standard must be
incorporated into the laboratory test methodology to ensure the average performance of a
heat pump is accurately determined in-field.

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CHAPTER 7 : PROPOSED TEST METHODOLOGY

This test methodology will apply to residential heat pump water heaters, used with storage
vessels that falls within the scope of the local standard SANS 151: Fixed electric storage
water heaters. As mentioned in Section 1.5, this chapter will be limited to the thermal
performance test of the heat pump water heater, therefore excluding general
requirements, marking requirements and safety requirements on HPWHs.

With all results of this study considered, the proposed test methodology for a thermal
performance test on a residential HPWH is a combination of the Eskom rebate test
methodology and the British standard. It was further established that the test facility must
be able to maintain environmental conditions within a lower variance than the variances
suggested in the Eskom rebate test methodology. As mentioned before, the Eskom rebate
methodology could result in a COP difference of 0.5 or 33% at low ambient conditions,
without taking into account the accuracy of the testing equipment.

7.1 Test procedure and requirements

The proposed methodology consists of three tests. All three tests will be completed
consecutively, without the installation being altered in any way between tests. The test
process as listed in Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 below will be completed at three
specified ambient test conditions. The test room temperature may not vary with more than
± 1°C for the duration of the test. The actual ambient conditions within the test room must
be recorded for the duration of the tests. The specified ambient conditions during the three
tests are as follows:

 Low temperature test at 3°C dry bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity.
 Average temperature test at 18°C dry bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity.
 High temperature test at 37°C dry bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity.

For each of these tests the following shall be completed:

Phase 1: System COP

During the first phase, water in the storage vessel will be heated from an initial
temperature of 30°C up to the heat pump set water temperature of at least 55°C.

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Phase 2: Tapping profile

During this phase the performance of the heat pump is monitored while a residential
tapping profile is being simulated. This is achieved by drawing water from the top of the
storage vessel at different flow rates and volumes, at different times during the test. The
water drawn from the storage vessel is checked for compliancy against the local SANS
151: Fixed electric storage water heaters regulation stating that the water temperature
must remain above 50°C.

Phase 3: Instantaneous COP

During this phase the average COP based on the results of phase 2 is calculated.

The heat pump shall adhere to all requirements as listed in Phases 1, 2 and 3 at all times
in order to successfully pass the performance test. Only heat pump installations
conforming to all requirements are allowed to provide their performance results to
customers. Only the performance results as listed in Section 7.3 may be listed.

7.1.1 Phase 1 (System COP)

For phase 1, the following methodology is proposed to determine the system COP of a
heat pump installation. The heat pump must be installed as per the supplier’s installation
requirements. After the water and electrical connections are completed, the test storage
vessel temperature will be increased or decreased to 30°C ± 0.5°C. The water in the tank
will be mixed while increasing or decreasing the tank temperature to ensure the water in
the tank is at a constant temperature. Care shall be taken to ensure that the water
temperature is as close to 30°C as possible, as a variance in temperature has a significant
effect on a heat pump’s performance. At the same time the test room's dry bulb
temperature and relative humidity will be adjusted to the set point of the appropriate
ambient test condition.

Once all the conditions have been met, the measurement equipment will be activated to
record all parameters as set out in Section 7.2.3. The heat pump will then be switched on
and allowed to heat the water until the set water temperature of 55°C or higher has been
reached. The point in time when the heat pump switches off will be indicated in the
recorded data by a drop in the electrical current drawn by the unit for an extended period
of time. The duration of the heating cycle will then be recorded, where after the power
supply to the heat pump will be switched off to avoid any reheating taking place. The

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water in the testing storage vessel will then be mixed until a constant temperature is
reached, before the tank temperature is recorded.

The final mixed water temperature of the storage tank shall be within ±2°C of the heat
pump set water temperature for all test conditions. If this requirement is not met, the unit
has failed the test requirements. If the water temperature complies with the requirement,
the system COP will be calculated with equation 7.1 as applied in the Eskom rebate
methodology.

[( ) ( )]
[7.1]

With:

: Volume of test tank [m3].

: Density of water at final tank temperature [kg/m3].

: Density of water at initial tank temperature [kg/m3].

: Internal energy of the water at final tank temperature [kJ/kg.K].

: Internal energy of the water at initial tank temperature [kJ/kg.K].

: Total electrical energy consumed during the heating cycle [Joules].

The calculated system COP will then be compared with the applicable requirements as
listed below:

 The system COP may not be less than 0.8 at 3°C dry bulb temperature and 50%
relative humidity.
 The system COP may not be less than 2.0 at 18°C dry bulb temperature and 50%
relative humidity.
 The heat pump shall remain operational without the activation of a safety alarm for
all testing conditions.

Phase 2 shall directly follow after phase 1 with no interruptions.

7.1.2 Phase 2 (Tapping Profile)

With the power to the heat pump switched off, the measurement equipment recording the
parameters will be reactivated. The system will be allowed to remain undisturbed for 20
minutes, before the electrical supply to the heat pump will be reactivated, followed by

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allowing the system to remain undisturbed for a further 10 minutes. Should the heat pump
enter a heating cycle within this time; the heat pump shall be allowed to reheat the water
to the set temperature before the tapping profile is started. The heat pump performance
from the start of phase 2 including all reheating cycles will be taken into account for the
average water temperature difference and average instantaneous COP. The tapping
profile as set out in Table 5 shall then follow. Water will be drawn from the test vessel at
the time intervals as set out in Column 1 of Table 5. The volume of water drawn from the
test vessel for each time interval should comply with the value listed in Column 3, while
being drawn at the flow rate listed in Column 4. Column 2 of Table 5 indicates the
description of the tapping profile being simulated. The time intervals are calculated by
adding the minutes to the start time as listed in Column 1 of Table 5.

Table 5: Example of a tapping profile.

Tapping
Start time Volume Flow rate
profile
(litre) (l/min)
description

Start Basin 2 6

+ 20 min Basin 2 6

+ 40 min Shower 45 10

+ 65 min Shower 35 10

+ 120 min Scullery 6 10

+ 650 min Shower 35 10

+ 680 min Scullery 6 10

+ 720 min Bath 50 20

+ 735 min Bath top up 15 20

+ 780 min Basin 2 6

+ 1440 min Full draw down Total vessel volume 20

The tapping profile is set up to simulate the typical water usage of a residential home. This
tapping profile includes periods of time that the heat pump will be required to heat
standing losses, as well as a full draw down of the tank volume after 24 hours.

Phase 2 shall conform to the following requirements at all times:

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 The temperature of the water drawn from the storage vessel may not drop below
50°C except for the final full capacity draw down test.
 At least 70% of the storage vessel’s volume must be drawn at a temperature
above 45°C during the full draw down test.
 The heat pump shall remain operational without the activation of a safety alarm for
the entire test phase.
 The heat pump shall be allowed to reheat the water at any time during the tapping
profile test.

7.1.3 Phase 3 (Instantaneous COP)

Due to differences found within installations in the South African market, the tank
temperature as described in Chapter 6 of this this study is not necessarily the temperature
of the water entering the heat pump. The water inlet temperature will therefore be used as
( ) within the proposed phase 3 testing methodology.

To accurately determine the instantaneous COP the volume of recorded data for phase 2
needs to be reduced. All the data where the heat pump was not operational in the
recorded data for phase 2 must be deleted, as well as data recoded during the heat pump
start-up sequence. For each recorded time interval the temperature difference of the heat
pump inlet water temperature ( ) and the ambient dry bulb temperature ( ) must be
calculated using equation 7.2.

[7.2]

Where:

: Temperature difference [°C].

: Heat pump inlet water temperature [°C].

: Ambient dry bulb temperature [°C].

After the temperature difference has been calculated, the instantaneous COP for each of
the recorded time intervals is calculated using equation 7.3 and 7.4. Equation 7.3 is used
to determine the total heat energy supplied to the water.

̇ ( ) [7.3]

Where:

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Thermal energy added to the water [kW].

̇ Water mass flow rate through the heat pump [kg/s].

Specific heat capacity of the water [kJ/kgK].

Temperature of the water at the outlet [K].

Temperature of the water at the inlet [K].

The value for the specific heat capacity of the water is calculated per time interval from
the inlet water temperature .

Equation 7.4 can then be used to determine the instantaneous COP of the HPWH.

[7.4]

Instantaneous coefficient of performance [kW/kW].

Thermal energy added to the water [kW].

Electricity used [kW].

The average instantaneous COP is calculated across all recorded time steps. The
calculated instantaneous COP will then be compared with the applicable requirements
listed below:

 The average instantaneous COP may not be less than 1 at 3°C dry bulb
temperature and 50% relative humidity.
 The average instantaneous COP may not be less than 2.2 at 18°C dry bulb
temperature and 50% relative humidity.

7.2 Testing equipment

7.2.1 Test room specifications

The test room must be able to accommodate an entire heat pump and installation in
height and width without affecting the heat pump’s air flow. The test room must be able to
maintain a mean dry bulb temperature to an accuracy of ±0.5°C, while maintaining a mean
relative humidity within ±5%. The test room must be capable of supplying water from an
external vessel to the heat pump installation during the tests. The supply water
temperature will be maintained at 16°C ± 1°C as this is the average municipal water

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temperature. The test room shall be equipped with a waterproof floor and drain point for
condensation due to the nature of the tests being conducted.

7.2.2 Test storage vessel

The test storage vessel shall conform to the local requirements as set out in SANS 151:
Fixed electric storage water heaters. The storage vessel shall be 150 litres, 250 litres or
450 litres depending on the heating capacity and application of the HPWH being tested.
The volume of the tank must be verified to an accuracy of ±0.5 litres as it will be used for
the calculation of the system COP.

7.2.3 Measuring equipment

The measurement equipment will be used to record the following:

Temperatures:

 Ambient dry bulb air temperature inside the test chamber, measured in front of the
heat pump evaporator inlet.
 Heat pump inlet water temperature.
 Heat pump outlet water temperature.
 Geyser inlet water temperature.
 Geyser outlet water temperature.
 Geyser tank temperature at the thermostat pocket of the geyser.

Relative humidity:

 Ambient relative humidity inside the test chamber.

Water flow rate:

 Supply water volume flow rate for use during phase 2, measured in the main cold
water supply line to the installation.
 Water volume flow rate through the heat pump, measured on the inlet to the heat
pump.

Electrical consumption:

 Instantaneous electrical supply voltage to the heat pump.

 Instantaneous electrical current drawn by the heat pump.

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The measurement equipment shall be installed on the test installation as depicted in

Figure 27 below:

Figure 27: Measurement equipment positions on installation.

All measuring equipment must be capable of recording the respective values within the
following accuracies:

 Temperature measuring equipment shall be capable of measuring to an accuracy

of ±0.5°C.
 Relative humidity measuring equipment shall be capable of measuring to an
accuracy of ±3%.
 Flow measurement equipment shall be capable of measuring to an accuracy of
±0.3 l/min.
 Electrical energy measuring equipment shall be capable of measuring to an
accuracy of 5%.

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7.3 Performance rating of the heat pump

The final part of the methodology is to plot the instantaneous COP as calculated per
recorded time step in equation 7.4 (on the y-axis), against the temperature difference as
calculated per recorded time step in equation 7.2 (on the x-axis) for all tests, on the same
graph. A linear regression line, similar to what was done in Chapter 6, is then drawn
through the performance indication lines of the three tests. This line shall be used as the
heat pump’s performance line to predict the unit performance under different ambient
conditions and water temperatures.

The average of the temperature difference ( ) for the results obtained during the
18°C dry bulb temperature test in phase 2 is calculated and the COP value at the average
of the temperature difference ( ) from the performance line is determined. This COP
value shall then be used as the heat pump's rated COP at 18°C and 50% relative
humidity.

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CHAPTER 8 : CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 Conclusions

The number of heat pumps installed in the South African market is constantly growing.
Subsequently, questions are being raised with regards to the actual seasonal in-field
efficiencies thereof. The aim of this study was to show that a laboratory test methodology
can be developed and used to accurately predict a heat pump’s seasonal in-field
performance.

The literature study indicated that the three critical performance influencing factors to take
into account when testing a heat pump’s efficiency is the dry bulb air temperature, the
temperature of the water entering the heat pump and the relative humidity. The influence
of these factors on the heat pump’s performance was then studied within in-field
measurements, a laboratory test and a Flownex® SE simulation model. The results
obtained from the recorded measurements and generated results were then compared for
verification and validation.

The results indicated that a laboratory test methodology developed by combining the
Eskom rebate test and British standard could accurately represent the seasonal in-field
performance within 3%. With all the results from this study and the literature considered, a
proposed laboratory testing methodology was then developed to accurately represent a
heat pump’s in-field performance.

8.2 Recommendations for future studies

The following recommendations should be considered for future studies within this field.

The system COP could not be calculated within this study due to instrumentation failure.
Literature suggests that the benefit of calculating the system COP is that it gives a more
accurate representation of a HPWHs performance. However, literature also indicates that
this method has a disadvantage as it is only a summarising value. The benefits and
disadvantages of tracing performance using instantaneous COP and system COP must be
carefully studied to determine which calculation method should be used in laboratory tests.

Future in-field studies should consider installing a new type of water flow meter that only
became available on the market close to the end of this study. These flow meters have

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been designed for hot water billing purposes and are therefore built specifically for the
environment it will be used in. These flow meters are available with two temperature
probes and electrical consumption meters built into it, to be able to measure COP directly.
The recorded values can be downloaded individually or as a calculated COP value. These
meters will therefore combine most of the water side measuring equipment used in this
study reducing the price of the recording system dramatically. Future studies tracing in-
field performance should also include residential homes of different sizes to ensure
tapping profiles are generated for small, medium and large residential homes within South
Africa.

It is also recommended that the laboratory test methodology as proposed within this study
is included and further studied in future studies on this subject. The proposed method can
benefit from system COPs being recorded as well as actual tapping profiles found within
South Africa.

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Bibliography

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Carte Blanche. 2012. M-Tech Industrial on Carte Blanche with Enerflow heat pumps.
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Yokoyama, R., Shimizu, T., Koichi, I. & Takemura, K. 2005. Influence of ambient temperature on
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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Annexure A: In-field data

Annexure A is used to provide supporting tables, figures and detail with regards to the in-field
data measurements and results.

A.1 Example of raw recorded data

Table A.1 below shows a sample of the in-field recorded data.

Table A1: Example of in-field recorded data

Energy Used Am bient Tem p 2553 RH Am bient Tank Tem p HP OUT Tem p HP Water Flow
Date / Tim e
(kJ/Minute) [ °C ] (%) [ °C ] [ °C ] [l/m in]
2013/06/03 17:45 0.02 8.15 38.38 38.5 41.26 13.6
2013/06/03 17:46 0.021 8.15 38.13 38.65 41.42 13.6
2013/06/03 17:47 0.021 8.23 38.56 38.97 41.66 13.6
2013/06/03 17:48 0.022 8.07 38.38 39.21 41.98 13.6
2013/06/03 17:49 0.021 7.99 38.38 39.44 42.21 13.6
2013/06/03 17:50 0.021 7.99 38.38 39.68 42.45 13.6
2013/06/03 17:51 0.021 7.99 38.13 40 42.69 13.6
2013/06/03 17:52 0.022 7.91 37.94 40.24 42.92 13.6
2013/06/03 17:53 0.021 7.76 37.94 40.39 43.08 13.6
2013/06/03 17:54 0.022 7.76 38.13 40.71 43.4 13.6
2013/06/03 17:55 0.021 7.68 37.97 41.02 43.71 13.6
2013/06/03 17:56 0.022 7.76 37.94 41.26 43.87 13.6
2013/06/03 17:57 0.022 7.68 38.13 41.58 44.19 13.6
2013/06/03 17:58 0.022 7.68 38.38 41.74 44.35 13.6
2013/06/03 17:59 0.022 7.68 38.56 41.9 44.5 13.6
2013/06/03 18:00 0.022 7.68 38.38 42.13 44.74 13.6
2013/06/03 18:01 0.022 7.6 38.38 42.37 44.9 13.6
2013/06/03 18:02 0.022 7.6 38.5 42.61 45.06 13.6
2013/06/03 18:03 0.021 7.6 38.38 36.61 38.74 13.6
2013/06/03 18:04 0.017 7.52 38.38 30.61 32.42 13.6
2013/06/03 18:05 0.02 7.28 38.13 35.26 37.63 13.6
2013/06/03 18:06 0.021 7.13 38.38 37.79 40.31 13.6
2013/06/03 18:07 0.021 7.13 38.38 39.44 41.9 13.6
2013/06/03 18:08 0.021 7.05 38.56 40.55 43 13.6
2013/06/03 18:09 0.022 7.13 38.53 41.18 43.63 13.6
2013/06/03 18:10 0.021 7.13 38.75 41.66 44.11 13.6
2013/06/03 18:11 0.022 7.13 39.16 42.13 44.58 13.6
2013/06/03 18:12 0.022 7.05 38.75 42.37 44.82 13.6
2013/06/03 18:13 0.023 7.13 38.53 42.61 45.13 13.6
2013/06/03 18:14 0.022 7.05 38.38 42.84 45.29 13.6
2013/06/03 18:15 0.022 7.05 38.53 43.08 45.53 13.6
2013/06/03 18:16 0.023 7.05 38.53 43.32 45.77 13.6
2013/06/03 18:17 0.022 7.05 38.38 43.56 46.01 13.6
2013/06/03 18:18 0.022 7.05 38.38 43.79 46.17 13.6
2013/06/03 18:19 0.023 7.05 38.13 44.11 46.48 13.6
2013/06/03 18:20 0.023 6.97 38.13 44.27 46.64 13.6
2013/06/03 18:21 0.022 6.97 38.13 44.5 46.88 13.6
2013/06/03 18:22 0.023 6.97 38.38 44.74 47.04 13.6
2013/06/03 18:23 0.022 6.89 38.56 44.98 47.35 13.6
2013/06/03 18:24 0.023 6.97 38.38 45.13 47.51 13.6
2013/06/03 18:25 0.023 6.97 38.13 45.29 47.67 13.6
2013/06/03 18:26 0.023 6.97 38.38 45.45 47.75 13.6
2013/06/03 18:27 0.023 6.97 38.13 45.77 48.14 13.6
2013/06/03 18:28 0.024 6.97 37.75 46.01 48.3 13.6
2013/06/03 18:29 0.023 6.97 37.94 46.25 48.54 13.6

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A.2 Initial Excel macro results

The following tables and figures give an example to the tables and figures generated for
initial data reduction and data error identification.

Table A2: Summary of single month’s results.

Table A3: Summary of all the monthly results.

Day: Hot Water Usage COP Instant COP Ambient Temp Humidity % Untrusted data Energy used 7AM - 10AM 6PM - 8PM Off peak
June 3907.5 8.87775618 1.185226316 6.91709905 47.11931 0.05% 259.62 54.03 19.59 186.00
July 3680.5 1.45859952 1.400905996 8.833694189 47.93414 0.43% 255.41 47.93 23.44 184.04
August 4705 1.50024462 1.41855368 9.526622212 44.955 0.29% 267.45 56.56 18.56 192.32
September 5413.5 1.82488586 1.729214741 13.02415037 30.41307 0.31% 200.80 54.43 11.08 135.29
October 4598.5 1.93712185 1.747429294 16.58521549 44.13013 0.92% 172.69 36.84 13.69 122.16
November 4697.5 2.17630367 1.993209029 19.01907192 44.87237 0.25% 150.08 33.02 12.47 104.60
Desember 2367 2.11146626 1.924722329 21.35303589 50.94803 0.14% 111.74 15.99 10.62 85.13
January 2376 2.2372765 1.908791778 23.19843583 47.95502 0.97% 103.13 16.77 7.42 78.94
February 3454.5 2.3590269 2.073796462 20.73321031 68.36491 0.22% 105.57 22.82 7.34 75.42
March 5040.5 2.29697879 1.89482844 18.7049995 64.03961 0.99% 146.69 35.00 15.60 96.09
April 2245 2.1573221 1.531975303 15.05606501 54.47164 0.00% 77.14 19.34 7.78 50.02
Sum : 42485.5 1850.32 392.72 147.58 1310.02
Average: 2.63063475 1.709877579 15.72287271 49.56393 0.004157774

Figure A1: Initial performance regression line without the consideration of RH or tank temperature.

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A.3 Excel VBA for final data reduction

This section gives the programming code used to reduce the in-field recorded
measurements to the performance lines used within the study.

Button 1:

Sub Macro3()

Application.ScreenUpdating = False

'Macro3 Macro

'Sort Data by Energy Consumption

Dim LastRow As Long, sht As Worksheet, rng As Range, v As Variant, i As Long

Set sht = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Data")

LastRow = sht.Cells(sht.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("A4:K4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Clear

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Add Key:=Range("H5:H" &

LastRow _

), SortOn:=xlSortOnValues, Order:=xlDescending, DataOption:=xlSortNormal

With ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort

.SetRange Range("A4:K" & LastRow)

.Header = xlYes

.MatchCase = False

.Orientation = xlTopToBottom

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.SortMethod = xlPinYin

.Apply

End With

'Delete all data with lower than start-up current

Dim ELowRow As Excel.Range

v = 0.012

Set ELowRow = sht.Range("H:H").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Delete

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

'Locate pre start-up conditions by checking water temp in and out

'Calculate temp differance

Dim NewlastRow As Long

NewlastRow = sht.Cells(sht.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-6]-RC[-7]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & NewlastRow)

Range("L4:L" & NewlastRow).Select

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'Sort table according to temp difference

Range("A4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Clear

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Add Key:=Range("L5:L" &

NewlastRow) _

, SortOn:=xlSortOnValues, Order:=xlDescending, DataOption:=xlSortNormal

With ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort

.SetRange Range("A4:L" & NewlastRow)

.Header = xlYes

.MatchCase = False

.Orientation = xlTopToBottom

.SortMethod = xlPinYin

.Apply

End With

'Change formula to readable value

Range("L4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

'Delete all value lower than 0.5degC

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Range("L4:L" & NewlastRow).Select

Dim n As Long

Dim TLowRow As Excel.Range

Dim DTemp As Variant

DTemp = 1.8

Set TLowRow = sht.Range("L:L").Find(what:=DTemp, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not TLowRow Is Nothing Then

n = TLowRow.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(n & ":" & .Rows.Count).Delete

End With

Else

MsgBox (DTemp & "Not Found")

End If

Selection.Delete

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

End Sub

Button 2:

Sub Macro1()

' Macro1 Macro

Range("A1").Select

Application.ScreenUpdating = False

'Sort values according to water flow

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Dim LastRow As Long, sht As Worksheet, F As Variant

Set sht = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Data")

LastRow = sht.Cells(sht.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("A4:K4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Clear

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Add Key:=Range("J5:J" &

LastRow _

), SortOn:=xlSortOnValues, Order:=xlDescending, DataOption:=xlSortNormal

With ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort

.SetRange Range("A4:K" & LastRow)

.Header = xlYes

.MatchCase = False

.Orientation = xlTopToBottom

.SortMethod = xlPinYin

.Apply

End With

'Check if the flow was recorded correctly

Range("M12").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=AVERAGE(R[-8]C[-3]:R[" & LastRow & "]C[-3])"

F = Range("M12").Value

If F < 13.3 Then

F = 13.3075

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End If

Range("J4").Value = F

Range("M12").Clear

'Set all the flow to the average flow as there are double recordings

'that recorded double and some that recorded only half

Range("J4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("J4:J" & LastRow)

'change the formating back to normal

Range("J4:J" & LastRow).Select

Selection.Borders(xlDiagonalDown).LineStyle = xlNone

Selection.Borders(xlDiagonalUp).LineStyle = xlNone

With Selection.Borders(xlEdgeLeft)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

End With

With Selection.Borders(xlEdgeTop)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

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End With

With Selection.Borders(xlEdgeBottom)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

End With

With Selection.Borders(xlEdgeRight)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

End With

With Selection.Borders(xlInsideVertical)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

End With

With Selection.Borders(xlInsideHorizontal)

.LineStyle = xlContinuous

.ColorIndex = 0

.TintAndShade = 0

.Weight = xlThin

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End With

'Remove all element cycles

Range("A4:K4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Clear

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Add Key:=Range("H5:H" &

LastRow) _

, SortOn:=xlSortOnValues, Order:=xlAscending, DataOption:=xlSortNormal

With ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort

.SetRange Range("A4:K" & LastRow)

.Header = xlYes

.MatchCase = False

.Orientation = xlTopToBottom

.SortMethod = xlPinYin

.Apply

End With

'Delete all element values

Dim ELowRow As Excel.Range

Dim i As Long

v = 0.028

Set ELowRow = sht.Range("H:H").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow.Row

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With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Delete

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

Range("A1").Select

End Sub

Button 3:

Sub Macro4()

// Confidential

Button 4:

Sub Macro2()

' Macro2 Macro

'Sort according to humidity

Application.ScreenUpdating = False

Dim LastRow As Long, sht As Worksheet, F As Variant

Set sht = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Data")

LastRow = sht.Cells(sht.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("A4:K13").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

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ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Clear

ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort.SortFields.Add Key:=Range("B5:B" &

LastRow) _

, SortOn:=xlSortOnValues, Order:=xlAscending, DataOption:=xlSortNormal

With ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets("Data").Sort

.SetRange Range("A4:K" & LastRow)

.Header = xlYes

.MatchCase = False

.Orientation = xlTopToBottom

.SortMethod = xlPinYin

.Apply

End With

'Cut data for 90% humidity

Dim ELowRow As Excel.Range

v = 85

Set ELowRow = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

End If

Sheets("90%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 80% humidity

Dim ELowRow80 As Excel.Range

v = 75

Set ELowRow80 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow80 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow80.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("80%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Sheets("Data").Select

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Range("A1").Select

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

End Sub

Button 5:

Sub Macro5()

' Macro5 Macro

Application.ScreenUpdating = False

Dim LastRow As Long, sht As Worksheet, F As Variant

Set sht = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("Data")

LastRow = sht.Cells(sht.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

'Cut data for 70% humidity

Dim ELowRow70 As Excel.Range

v = 65

Set ELowRow70 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow70 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow70.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("70%").Select

Range("A4").Select

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ActiveSheet.Paste

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 60% humidity

Dim ELowRow60 As Excel.Range

v = 55

Set ELowRow60 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow60 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow60.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("60%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

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Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 50% humidity

Dim ELowRow50 As Excel.Range

v = 45

Set ELowRow50 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow50 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow50.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("50%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 40% humidity

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Dim ELowRow40 As Excel.Range

v = 35

Set ELowRow40 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow40 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow40.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("40%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 30% humidity

Dim ELowRow30 As Excel.Range

v = 25

Set ELowRow30 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow30 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow30.Row

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With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("30%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 20% humidity

Dim ELowRow20 As Excel.Range

v = 15

Set ELowRow20 = sht.Range("B:B").Find(what:=v, lookat:=xlWhole)

If Not ELowRow20 Is Nothing Then

i = ELowRow20.Row

With Sheets("Data")

.Rows(i & ":" & .Rows.Count).Cut

Sheets("20%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

End With

Else

MsgBox (v & "Not Found")

End If

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1").Select

'Cut data for 10% humidity

Range("A4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Cut

Sheets("10%").Select

Range("A4").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Sheets("Data").Select

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

End Sub

Button 6:

Sub Macro6()

' Macro6 Macro

Application.ScreenUpdating = False

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

'Calculate Data For 90%

Dim LastRow90 As Long, sht90 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("90%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht90 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("90%")

LastRow90 = sht90.Cells(sht90.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow90)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow90).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow90)

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Range("N4:N" & LastRow90).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow90)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow90).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow90)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow90).Select

'Move 90% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("A4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "90%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 80%

Page 93
 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Dim LastRow80 As Long, sht80 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("80%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht80 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("80%")

LastRow80 = sht80.Cells(sht80.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow80)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow80).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow80)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow80).Select

Range("M4").Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow80)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow80).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow80)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow80).Select

'Move 80% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("C5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("C4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "80%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 70%

Dim LastRow70 As Long, sht70 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("70%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht70 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("70%")

LastRow70 = sht70.Cells(sht70.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow70)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow70).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow70)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow70).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow70)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow70).Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow70)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow70).Select

'Move 70% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("E5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("E4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "70%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 60%

Dim LastRow60 As Long, sht60 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Sheets("60%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht60 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("60%")

LastRow60 = sht60.Cells(sht60.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow60)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow60).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow60)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow60).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow60)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow60).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow60)

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Range("L4:L" & LastRow60).Select

'Move 60% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("G5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("G4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "60%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 50%

Dim LastRow50 As Long, sht50 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("50%").Select

Range("A1").Select

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ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht50 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("50%")

LastRow50 = sht50.Cells(sht50.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow50)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow50).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow50)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow50).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow50)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow50).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow50)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow50).Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

'Move 50% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("I5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("I4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "50%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 40%

Dim LastRow40 As Long, sht40 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("40%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht40 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("40%")

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

LastRow40 = sht40.Cells(sht40.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow40)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow40).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow40)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow40).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow40)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow40).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow40)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow40).Select

'Move 40% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("K5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("K4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "40%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 30%

Dim LastRow30 As Long, sht30 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("30%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht30 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("30%")

LastRow30 = sht30.Cells(sht30.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

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Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow30)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow30).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow30)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow30).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow30)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow30).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow30)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow30).Select

'Move 30% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("M5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("M4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "30%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 20%

Dim LastRow20 As Long, sht20 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("20%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht20 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("20%")

LastRow20 = sht20.Cells(sht20.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Range("M4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow20)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow20).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow20)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow20).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow20)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow20).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow20)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow20).Select

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

'Move 20% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("O5").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("O4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "20%"

Range("A1").Select

'Calculate Data For 10%

Dim LastRow10 As Long, sht10 As Worksheet

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("A1:K3").Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("10%").Select

Range("A1").Select

ActiveSheet.Paste

Set sht10 = ThisWorkbook.Worksheets("10%")

LastRow10 = sht10.Cells(sht10.Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row

Range("L4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-4]*60"

Range("M4").Select

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=(RC[-3]/60)*4.184*(RC[-7]-RC[-8])"

Range("N4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-9]-RC[-7]"

Range("O4").Select

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "=RC[-2]/RC[-3]"

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("O4:O" & LastRow10)

Range("O4:O" & LastRow10).Select

Range("N4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("N4:N" & LastRow10)

Range("N4:N" & LastRow10).Select

Range("M4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("M4:M" & LastRow10)

Range("M4:M" & LastRow10).Select

Range("L4").Select

Selection.AutoFill Destination:=Range("L4:L" & LastRow10)

Range("L4:L" & LastRow10).Select

'Move 10% data to Data Page

Range("N4").Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlToRight)).Select

Range(Selection, Selection.End(xlDown)).Select

Selection.Copy

Sheets("Data").Select

Range("Q5").Select

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

ActiveSheet.Paste

Selection.PasteSpecial Paste:=xlPasteValues, Operation:=xlNone, SkipBlanks _

:=False, Transpose:=False

Range("Q4").Select

Application.CutCopyMode = False

ActiveCell.FormulaR1C1 = "10%"

Range("A1").Select

Sheets("Data").Select

Application.ScreenUpdating = True

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

A.4 VBA macro results

The following figures gives the figures used to generate the linear regression lines at each
of the relative humidity values as defined within the study.

Figure A2: 10% Performance regression line

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Figure A3: 20% Performance regression line

Figure A4: 30% Performance regression line

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Figure A5: 40% Performance regression line

Figure A6: 50% Performance regression line

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Figure A7: 60% Performance regression line

Figure A8: 70% Performance regression line

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Figure A9: 80% Performance regression line

Figure A10: Performance regression line

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Annexure B: Laboratory test

B.1 Example of raw data

Table B1 below shows a section of the laboratory test’s recorded data.

Table B1: Laboratory test results example

HP OUT TEMP Tank Temp HP Flow Power usage Ambient

Time °C °C l/min W °C
10:25:00 AM 26.9 26.0 0.080313 34.8646 42
10:25:01 AM 27.0 26.1 0.057843 34.8646 42
10:25:02 AM 27.0 26.1 -0.00586 34.8646 42
10:25:03 AM 27.1 26.1 2.73819 105.588 42
10:25:04 AM 26.9 26.0 11.8491 105.588 42
10:25:05 AM 26.4 25.5 12.2202 105.588 42
10:25:06 AM 25.9 25.3 12.2453 71.9999 42
10:25:07 AM 25.6 25.3 12.3035 62.9844 42
10:25:08 AM 25.5 25.4 12.367 62.9844 42
10:25:09 AM 25.5 25.5 12.3759 62.9844 42
10:25:10 AM 25.6 25.6 12.4159 92.1276 42
10:25:11 AM 25.6 25.6 12.4231 92.1276 42
10:25:12 AM 25.6 25.5 12.4143 93.3432 42
10:25:13 AM 25.6 25.5 12.384 93.3432 42
10:25:14 AM 25.6 25.4 12.3876 93.3432 42
10:25:15 AM 25.5 25.4 12.41 93.6136 42
10:25:16 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4225 93.6136 42
10:25:17 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4341 93.6136 42
10:25:18 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4401 93.8835 42
10:25:19 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4205 93.8835 42
10:25:20 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4242 93.8835 42
10:25:21 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4286 93.9629 42
10:25:22 AM 25.5 25.4 12.407 93.9629 42
10:25:23 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4152 93.9629 42
10:25:24 AM 25.5 25.4 12.4193 94.054 42
10:25:25 AM 25.6 25.4 12.4184 94.054 42
10:25:26 AM 26.0 25.4 12.405 94.054 42
10:25:27 AM 26.6 25.4 12.4056 94.0864 42
10:25:28 AM 27.2 25.4 12.4205 94.0864 42
10:25:29 AM 27.8 25.4 12.4275 94.0864 42
10:25:30 AM 28.3 25.4 12.42 93.9717 42

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

B.2 Laboratory test results

The following figures gives the figures used to generate the linear regression lines at each
of the temperatures recorded within the laboratory tests.

Figure B1: 5°C Laboratory test result

Figure B2: 15°C Laboratory test result

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Figure B3: 25°C Laboratory test result

Figure B4: 35°C Laboratory test result

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A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Figure B5: 42°C Laboratory test result

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 A method for the seasonal performance rating of a residential water heating heat pump.

Annexure C: Simulation model

C.1 Example of component input tab

The following figure gives an example of the input tab found for each component listed
within Flownex® SE’s component library. This input tab requires all specifications to fully
define the component.

®
Figure C1: Component input tab for Flownex SE

Page 119