CE8702 Rcet Notes - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.
net
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

this Materials, Students & Graduates if You Find the Same Materials with
EasyEngineering.net Watermarks or Logo, Kindly report us to
[email protected]
Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net
ww
w.E
UNIT 1a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
1. 1 PERMANENT WAY:
The permanent way is the elements of railway lines: generally the pairs
of rails typically laid on the sleepers or ties embedded in ballast, intended to carry the
ordinary trains of a railway. It is described as permanent way because in the earlier days
of railway construction, contractors often laid a temporary track to transport spoil and
materials about the site; when this work was substantially completed, the temporary
track was taken up and the permanent way installed.
The Main Components of Permanent Way are as Follows:

 Rails

ww
Sleepers (or Ties)


Fasteners
w.E
Ballast (or Slab Track)
 Subgrade asy
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY: En
gin
Following are the basic requirements of a permanent way:
(i) The guage should be uniform and correct. eer

(ii)
i
Both the rails should be at the same level in a straight track.
ng.
(iii)
(iv)
On curves proper super elevation should be provided to the outer rail.
net
The permanent way should be properly designed so that the load of the train is
uniformly distributed over the two rails.
(v) The track should have enough lateral strength.
(vi) The radii and super elevation, provided on curves, should be properly
designed.
(vii) The track must have certain amount of elasticity.
(viii) All joints, points and crossings should be properly designed.
(ix) Drainage system of permanent way should be perfect.
(x) All the components of permanent way should satisfy the design requirements.
(xi) It should have adequate provision for easy renewals and repairs

CE8702 RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS, DOCKS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
TYPES OF RAILS
The rails used in the construction of railway track are of following types:
1. Double headed rails(D.H. Rails)

2. Bull headed rails(B.H.Rails)
3. Flat footed rails(F.F.Rails)
DOUBLE HEADED RAILS
The rail sections, whose foot and head are of same dimensions, are called Double
headed or Dumb-bell rails. In the beginning, these rails were widely used in the railway
ww
track. The idea behind using these rails was that when the head had worn out due to
rubbing action of wheels, the rails could be inverted and reused. But by experience it
w.E
was found that their foot could not be used as running surface because it also got
asy
corrugated under the impact of wheel loads. This type of rail is not in use in Indian
Railways now-a days.
BULL HEADED RAILS En

gin
The rail section whose head dimensions are more than that of their foot are called
eer
bull headed rails. In this type of rail the head is made little thicker and stronger than the
i ng.
lower part by adding more metal to it. These rails also require chairs for holding them
in position. Bull headed rails are especially used for making points and crossings.
FLAT FOOTED RAILS

net
The rail sections having their foot rolled to flat are called flat footed or vignole`s
rails. This type of rail was invented by Charles Vignole in 1836. It was initially thought
that the flat footed rails could by fixed directly to wooden sleepers and would eliminate
chairs and keys required for the B.H. rails. But later on, it was observed that heavy train
loads caused the foot of the rail to sink into the sleepers and making the spikes loose.
To remove this defect, steel bearing plates were used in between flat footed rails and the
wooden sleeper.

SLEEPERS
Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed belos the rails to support and
fix them in position.
FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS
Sleepers serve the following functions:
(i) To hold the rails to proper gauge.

(ii) To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
(iii) To support and fix the rails in proper position.
ww (iv) To keep the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper super
elevation on curves.
(v) w.E
To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
(vi)
asy
To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.
TYPES OF SLEEPERS
En
Sleepers are of the following types:
gin
1. Wooden sleepers.
eer
2. Steel sleepers.
3. Cast iron sleepers. i ng.
4. R.C.C. sleepers.
5. Priestesses concrete sleepers.
net
BALLAST
Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone or any other suitable
material which is spread on the top of railway formation and around the sleepers.
FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST
Ballast in railway track performs the following functions.
(i) To hold the sleepers in position and preventing the lateral and
longitudinal movement.

(ii) To distribute the axle load uniform from sleepers to a large area of
formation.
(iii) To provide elasticity to the track. It acts as an elastic mat between
subgrade and sleepers.
(iv) To provide easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two rails
in a track.
(v) To drain rain water from the track.
(vi) To prevent the growth of weeds inside the track..
TYPES OF BALLAST
ww In India, the following materials are used as ballast.
(i)
(ii)
w.E
Broken stone.
Gravel
(iii) Sand asy
(iv) Ashes or cinders
En
(v) Kankar
gin
(vi) Moorum
(vii) Blast furnace slag eer
(viii) Brick ballast i ng.
(ix) Selected earth
FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS

net
Fixtures and fastenings are fittings requires for joining of rails end to end and
also for fixing the rails to sleepers in a track.
FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS
Rail fixtures and fastenings have the following functions:
(i) To join the rails end to end to form full length of track.
(ii) To fix the rails to sleepers.
(iii) To maintain the correct alignment of the track.
(iv) To provide proper expansion gap between rails.
(v) To maintain the required tilt of rails.

(vi) To set the points and crossings in proper position.
TYPES OF FIXTURES AND FASTENING
Fixtures and fastenings commonly used in a permanent way are of following

types:
1. Fish plates
2. Bearing plates
3. Spikes
ww 4. Chairs
w.E
5. Bolts
6. Keys
asy
7. Anticreepers
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

1.2 SELECTION OF GAUGES
The gauge of a railway track is defined as the clear minimum perpendicular

distance between the inner faces of the two rails.
The different gauges can broadly be divided into the following four categories:
1. Broad Gauge: width 1676 mm to 1524 mm or 5’6” to 5’0”
2. Standard Gauge: width 1435 mm and 1451 mm or 4’-8⅟2”
3. Metre Gauge: width 1067 mm, 1000 mm and 915 mm or 3’-6”, 3’-33/8” and
3’-0”
ww4. Narrow Gauge: width 762 mm and 610 mm or 2’-6” and 2’-0”.
w.E
Following are the factors affecting the choice of a gauge:
1. Traffic condition:
asy
If the intensity of traffic on the track is likely to be more, a gauge wider than the
standard gauge is suitable.
En
2. Development of poor areas:
gin
eer
The narrow gauges are laid in certain parts of the world to develop a poor area
and thus link the poor area with the outside developed world.
3. Cost of track: i ng.
a. The cost of track is directly proportional to the width of its gauge.
net
b. If the fund available is not sufficient to construct a standard gauge, a metre
gauge or a narrow gauge is preferred rather than to have no railways at all.
4. Speed of movement:
a. The speed of a train is a function of the diameter of wheel which in turn is
limited by the gauge.
b. The wheel diameter is usually about 0.75 times the gauge width and thus,
the speed of a train is almost proportional to the gauge.
c. If higher speeds are to be attained, the broad gauge track is preferred to the
metre gauge or narrow gauge track.

5. Nature of Country:
a. In mountainous country, it is advisable to have a narrow gauge of the track
since it is more flexible and can be laid to a smaller radius on the curves.
b. This is the main reason why some important railways, covering thousands
of kilometers, are laid with a gauge as narrow as 610 mm.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

1.3 TRACK STRESS

Stresses on the track due to the various kinds of forces applied on it are discussed
in the following sections.
Lateral forces:
The lateral force applied to the rail head produces a lateral deflection and twist in
the rail. Lateral force causes the rail to bend horizontally and the resultant torque causes
a huge twist in the rail as well as the bending of the head and foot of the rail. Lateral
deflection of the rail
is resisted by the friction between the rail and the sleeper, the resistance offered by the
rubber pad and fastenings, as well as the ballast coming in contact with the rail.
ww
Longitudinal forces:
w.E
Due to the tractive effort of the locomotive and its braking force, longitudinal
asy
stresses are developed in the rail. Temperature variations, particularly in welded rails,
En
result in thermal forces, which also lead to the development of stresses. The exact
magnitude of longitudinal forces depends on many variable factors.
gin
Contact stresses between rail and wheel:
eer
i
Hertz formulated a theory to determine the area of contact and the pressure
ng.
distribution at the surface of contact between the rail and the wheel. As per this theory,
the rail and wheel contact is similar to that of two cylinders with their axes at right
angles to each other.
net
Stresses on a sleeper:
The sleepers are subjected to a large number of forces such as dead and live
loads, dynamic components of track such as rails and sleeper fastenings, maintenance
standards, and other such allied factors.
Stresses on ballast:
The load passed onto the sleeper from the rail is in turn transferred to the ballast.
The efficacy of this load transmission depends not only on the elasticity of the sleeper

but also on the size, shape, and depth of the ballast as well as the degree of compaction
under the sleeper.
Pressure on formation or subgrade
The live as well as dead loads exerted by the trains and the superstructure are
finally carried by the subgrade. The pressure on the subgrade depends not only on the
total quantum of the load but also on the manner in which it is transferred to the
subgrade. The spacing between the sleepers; the size, depth, as well as compaction of
the ballast under the sleeper; and the type of subgrade play an important role in the
distribution of pressure on the subgrade.
ww
CONING OF WHEELS
w.E
The Surface of wheels are made in cone shape at an inclination of 1 in 20, and
asy
the same slope is provided in the rails (see fig), this is known as coning of wheels. The
diameter of wheel is different at different cross section of the wheel, when the train
En
running on the straight track try to move in any direction, the diameter of the wheel
gin
increases over one rail and the wheel assembly is automatically forced to move back in
eer
its original central position due to difference of distances moved over two rails.
Purpose:
i ng.
1. To keep the train its central position of the rails, coning does not allow any
sidewise movement on a straight track. net
2. To allow the wheels to move different distances on a curved track and thereby
reduce wear and tear.

1.4 CREEP
Creep in rail is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rails in the track in
the direction of motion of locomotives. Creep is common to all railways and its value
varies from almost nothing to about 6 inches or 16cm.
Causes of Creep
1. Creep may be developed due to forces that come into operation when the train
is starting or stopping by application of brakes. Increase of starting the wheels pushes
the rail backward and hence the direction of creep is in backward direction.
ww
When brakes are applied then the wheels of the vehicles push the rails in forward
direction and hence the creep is in forward direction.
w.E
2. Creep is also developed due to wave motions. When the wheels of the vehicles
asy
strikes the crests, creep is developed.
En
3. Another reason creep develops because of unequal expansion and contraction
owing to change in temperature.
gin
Some of the minor causes of creep in rail are below:
eer
1. Rails not properly fixed to sleepers
2. Bad drainage of ballast
i ng.
3. Bad quality of sleepers used
4. Improper consolidation of formation bed
net
5. Gauge fixed too tight or too slack
6. Rails fixed too tight to carry the traffic
7. Incorrect adjustment of super elevation on outer rails at curves
8. Incorrect allowance for rails expansion
9. Rail joints maintained in bad condition
Magnitude and Direction of Creep
Creep is not constant over a given period, it is not continue in one direction or at
uniform rate. Both the rails of the track may creep in same direction, perhaps both the
rails reverse the direction of creep or one rail creep in opposite direction to that of
other.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

1.5 DEFECTS IN RAILS
Rail wear and the battering of rail ends are the two major defects in rails.
However, some other types of defects may also develop in a rail and necessitate its
removal in extreme cases. These are described below.
Hogging of rails
Rail ends get hogged due to poor maintenance of the rail joint, yielding
formation, loose and faulty fastenings, and other such reasons. Hogging of rails causes
the quality of the track to deteriorate. This defect can be remedied by measured shovel
packing.
ww
Scabbing of rails
w.E
The scabbing of rails occurs due to the falling of patches or chunks of metal from
asy
the rail table. Scabbing is generally seen in the shape of an elliptical depression, whose
En
surface reveals a progressive fracture with numerous cracks around it.
Wheel burns
gin
eer
Wheel burns are caused by the slipping of the driving wheel of locomotives on
i
the rail surface. As a consequence, extra heat is generated and the surface of the rail
ng.
gets affected, resulting in a depression on the rail table. Wheel burns are generally
noticed on steep gradients or where there are heavy incidences or near water columns.
Shelling and black spots

net
Shelling is the progressive horizontal separation of metal that occurs on the
gauge side, generally at the upper gauge corner. It is primarily caused by heavy bearing
pressure on a small area of contact, which produces heavy internal shear stresses.
Corrugation of rails
Corrugation consists of minute depressions on the surface of rails, varying in

shape and size and occurring at irregular intervals. The exact cause of corrugation is not
yet known, though many theories have been put forward.

1.6 ROUTE ALIGNMENT SURVEY:
Prior to survey the available maps of proposed area are studied. This helps in
fixing suitable alignment facilitate various surveys work. The various engineering
surveys which are carried out for the choice of route of a new railway line survey can
broadly be divided in to three categories.
Reconnaissance Survey
Preliminary Survey
Location Survey
ww
Reconnaissance survey
w.E
A reconnaissance survey is the first engineering survey which is carried out in
territory which has not been previously surveyed for the purpose of laying a new
asy
railway line. The main objects of reconnaissance survey are as follows:
En
 To obtain a general knowledge of the whole territory and
gin
 To obtain information regarding the salient feature of the territory.
Importance of reconnaissance survey eer

i ng.
By reconnaissance survey, a number of possible alternative routes between two
points can be worked out. This information becomes useful at a later stage in the
selection of best possible route between two points. The successful conduct of the net
reconnaissance survey entirely depends on the personal qualities and engineers such as
training and experience, capacity of observation and interpretation of the features of the
territory etc.
Reconnaissance Survey and Information Gathered
The information are generally gathered in the following two categories
a. Traffic Reconnaissance Survey

b. Engineering Reconnaissance Survey

Traffic Reconnaissance Survey
This consists of collection of the information regarding the following:
1. General character of the country and extent of cultivation

2. Local industries and religious festivals
3. The general conditions such as prosperity of people in the locality and density of
population and its distribution
4. The probable amount of traffic to be served by a new railway line
5. The probable new traffic lines to be opened up to join large trade centers
6. Nature and volume of exports and their destination and origin
ww
7. The amount of imports and centers of their distribution
w.E
8. Possibilities of development of new industries and irrigation schemes as a result
of new railway lines
asy
Engineering Reconnaissance Survey
En
Engineering Reconnaissance Survey, the following information is collected
1. Physical features of a country gin

2. The surface formation of the ground eer
3. Nature of soil
i ng.
4. Streams and rivers in the area especially those likely to be crossed by the track,
their direction of flow, approximate width and depth
5. Positions of hills and lakes
net
Instruments used in Reconnaisance survey
a. Aneroid barometer
b. Prismatic compass
c. Binocular telescope
d. pedometer
2. Preliminary Survey
The object of preliminary survey is

a. To conduct the survey work along the alternative routes (found out by
reconnaissance survey) with the help of theodolite and leveling instruments
b. To determine the greater accuracy the cost of railway line along these alternative
routes involving cost of removing obstruction, construction of bridges etc
c. To decide the most economical and efficient route
Importance of Preliminary Survey
The preliminary surveys decide the final route and recommend only one
particular route in preference to other alternative routes. Thus, the preliminary survey
should be carried out with greater precision as the alignment of final route depends on
it. ww
w.E
Works of Preliminary Survey
asy
The x-sections of all representative points along the route and feature of the
country are marked. The cross sections are taken at 500ft interval normally. Similarly
En
where the route crosses a river, the river is surveyed in detail for about one mile on
gin
either the upstream and downstream sides. The detail maps are prepared and the cost of
eer
different alternatives is calculated accurately to select the most economic routes.
Instrument Used in Preliminary Survey

i ng.
Dumpy level
Prismatic compass
net
Tachometer
Plane table
Appropriate helping instruments
Work of Location Survey

The location survey is carried out in two stages
 Paper Location
 Field Location

Paper location
The final route selected is put up on paper and details such as gradient, curves,
contours etc are worked out. The long sections and formation levels are sorted out and
working drawings are prepared for all small and large structures.
Field Location
The field location transfers the paper location to the ground to have a good
profile as in paper location. It also gives the requirements of the construction engineer
such as benchmarks, levels, measurements etc. The centre line pegs are driven at every
ww
1000 ft or 300 m along the centre line of the track. Every change in direction, the
beginning and end of a curve and the intersection of tangents are clearly marked.
w.E
Sufficient benchmarks are established at a distance not more than ½ miles along the
asy
alignment to which levels can be referred and gradients can be transferred. The centre
line and other pegs are surrounded by stone masonry or concrete pillars on which the
En
changes and levels are marked. The centre lines of culverts, bridges, tunnels, stations
gin
buildings, yards, signal cabins etc should also be fixed. The construction work should
also be possible after completion of location survey.
eer
Instruments Used in Location Survey
i ng.
1. Theodolite
2. Precise Level net
3. Steel Tape

1.7 GRADIENT
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall of the track. It is expressed as the ratio of
vertical distance to horizontal distance or as percentage of rise or fall. If any track rises
1 m in 100 m horizontal length, its gradient is expressed as 1 in 100 or 1 percent. If
another track falls by 1 m in 50 m length, its gradient is 1 in 50 or 2 percent.
Gradients are provided to the formation of rail track to serve the following purpose:
(i) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

(ii) To provide uniform rate or fall as far as practicable.
(iii) To reach the stations situated at different elevations.
ww
(iv) To drain off rain water.
w.E
Factors which affect the selection of gradient are the following:
(i)
asy
Nature of the ground
(ii) Safety required
En
(iii)
(iv)
Drainage required
Total height to be covered gin
(v) Hauling capacity of railway engines.
eer
Types of gradient i ng.
(i)
(ii)
Ruling gradient
Momentum gradient
net
(iii) Pusher gradient
(iv) Station yard gradient
Ruling Gradient:
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient to which the track may be laid in a
particular section. It depends on the load of the train and additional power of the
locomotive.

Momentum Gradient :
Gradient which is steeper than ruling gradient and where the advantage of
momentum is utilized, is known as momentum gradient. A train gets momentum when
moving in down gradient and this momentum can be utilized for up gradient. A train
while coming down a gradient gains sufficient momentum. This momentum gives
additional kinetic energy to the moving train which would help the train to rise a steeper
gradient than the ruling gradient for a certain length of the track. This rising gradient is
called momentum gradient. In such gradients no signals are provided to stop the train.
Pusher Gradient:
ww Pusher gradient is the gradient where extra engine is required to push the train.
w.E
These are steeper gradient than ruling gradient and are provided at certain places of
mountains to avoid heavy cutting or to reduce the length of track. A pusher gradient of
asy
1 in 37 on western Ghats with B.G.track is provided. On Darjeeling Railway with N.G.
En
track, a ruling gradient of 1 in 25 is provided.
Station Yard Gradient:

gin
eer
Station yard gradient is the minimum gradient provided in station yard for easy
i ng.
draining of rain water. Gradients are avoided as far as possible in station yard due to
following reasons
(a) In station yard, Bogies standing on gradients may start moving due to heavy wind net
and may cause accident.
(b) The locomotives will require extra force of pull the train on gradients at the time of
starting the trains.

1.8 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAY
GRADE COMPENSATION OF CURVES
Grade compensation on curves is the reduction in gradient on curved portion of a

track. On curves extra pull is required to pull the train due to more tractive resistance.
Therefore, if gradients are to be provided on curves some compensation should be given
in ruling gradients to overcome the increased tractive resistance to a certain limit and to
pull the trains with same speed. It is expressed as percentage per degree of curve.
The grade compensation provided on Indian Railways is as follows:
ww (i)
(ii)
On B.G. curves – 0.04 percent / degree
On M.G. curves – 0.03 percent / degree
(iii) w.E
On N.G. curves – 0.02 percent / degree
asy
SUPERELEVATION
En
gin
Super elevation is the raised elevation of the outer rail above the inner rail at a
horizontal curve. It is denoted by ‘e’. When a vehicle moves on curve it is subjected to
eer
a centrifugal force. The centrifugal force exerts a horizontal force on the outer rail and
i ng.
the weight on the outer rail increases. This horizontal force and uneven load on rails
will cause derailment. This centrifugal force can be counteracted by introducing the
net
centripetal force by raising the outer rail with respect to inner rail. This raising of outer
rail with respect to inner rail is known as ‘superelevation’ or ‘canting’.
Objects of Providing Superelevation
The following are the objects of providing superelevation:
(i) To introduce centripetal force to counteract the centrifugal force to

avoid derailment and reduce the side wear of rails.
(ii) To distribute the wheel loads equally on the two rails. This reduces the
top wear of rails and results in saving of maintenance cost.
(iii) To ensure comfortable ride to passengers and safe movements of goods.

CANT DEFICIENCY
Cant deficiency is the difference between the actual cant provided and
equilibrium cant necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve. Cant
deficiency should be as low as possible and is limited due to following reasons:
(a) Higher discomfort to passengers due to higher cant deficiency
(b) Higher cant deficiency results in higher unbalanced centrifugal force and
hence extra pressure and lateral thrust on the outer rails, requiring strong track and more
fastening for stability.
ww (c) Side wear and creep of outer rails of the track are more due to higher cant
deficiency.
NEGATIVE CANT w.E

asy
On curves branch line meets the main line at certain places. The outer rail of
En
main line on curves meet the inner rail of branch line. As the superelevation is provided
gin
on the main line, the outer rail of main line is at higher level than the inner rail. The
inner rail of branch line will have to be kept at higher level than the outer rail. For
eer
superelevation at curve the outer kept rail remains at higher level than inner rail. But
i ng.
here as the outer rail in branch line is at lower level than inner rail, the superelevation is
known as ‘Negative superelevation’ or ‘Negative cant’.
net

1.9 CROSSING
Crossing is a device provided at the intersection of two running rails to permit the
wheel flanges, moving along one to pass across the other.
Component Parts of a Crossing
(i) A vee piece

(ii) A point rail
(iii) A splice rail
(iv) Two check rails
(v) Two wing rails
ww (vi) Heel blocks at throat, nose and heel of crossing
w.E
(vii) Chairs at crossing, at toe and at heel.
REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL CROSSING

asy
En
Crossing assembly should be rigid enough to withstand severe vibrations.
gin
Wing rails and nose of crossing should be able to resist heavy wear due to
eer
movement of wheels, hence should be manufactured of special steel (alloy steel).
the crossing. i
The nose of crossing should have adequate thickness to take all stresses acting on
ng.
TYPES OF CROSSINGS net
Crossings can be classified as follows:
1. On the basis of shape of crossing
(a) Square crossing
(b) Acute angle or V-crossing or Frog
(c) Obtuse angle or Diamond crossing
2. On the basis of assembly of crossing
(a) Ramped crossing

(b) Spring or movable crossing.
Square Crossing
Square crossing is formed when two straight tracks of same or different gauge,
cross each other at right angles. This type of crossing should be avoided on main lines
because of heavy wear of rails.
Acute Angle Crossing
Acute angle crossing is formed when left hand rail of one track crosses right hand
rail of another track at an acute angle or vice versa. This type of crossing consists of a
ww
pair of wing rails, a pair of check rails, a point rail and a splice rail. This crossing is
widely used. This is also called V-crossing or frog.
w.E
Obtuse Angle Crossing
asy
Obtuse angle crossing is formed when left hand rail of one track crosses right
En
hand rail of another track at an obtuse angle or vice versa. This type of crossing consists
gin
mainly of two acute angle and two obtuse angle angle crossings. This is also called
Diamond crossing.
eer
i ng.
net

ww
w.E
UNIT 2a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

2.1 EARTHWORK:
Embankments – a construction that allows railway lines to pass at an acceptable level

and gradient over low lying ground.
Soil cuttings – an excavation that allows railway lines to pass at an acceptable level and
gradient through the surrounding ground that is composed entirely or predominantly of
soil.
Rock cuttings – an excavation that allows railway lines to pass at an acceptable level
and gradient through the surrounding ground that is composed entirely or
predominantly of rock.
ww
Usual forms of cross-sections:
w.E
1. The Naturally occurring soil is known as subgrade and when it is prepared to
asy
receive the ballast and track , it is called ‘Formation’.
En
2. When a formation is raised on bank of earth , it is called an embankment. When
it is made after cutting the ground , it is called ‘cutting’. In case of cutting the
gin
track is laid below ground level thus required portion to be excavated.
eer
3. Normally a railway line will be constructed on a flat ground or on embankment
or cutting or in a combined section.
i ng.
Features of Rail Track bed level:
When the formation is to be made on embankment or cutting , various features should

net
be carefully considered.
1. Width of formation : With normally depends on number of tracks , gauge of

tracks centre to centre distance between the tracks , width of ballast layer , width
of trenches if needed.
2. Slopes of sides: Stability of the earthwork depends mainly on two factors namely
‘cohesion’ and ‘friction’. For temporary stability , cohesion is useful and reliable
but permanent stability is achieved only by friction which keeps the natural angle
of repose of the material. Sloped to be provided to the sides of the formation

should be slightly flatter than angle of repose of the material. The slopes in
cutting vary from 1.5 to 1 or steeper.
3. Drains: The accumulation of water reduces the friction in all sort of soils. In case
of embankments , the rain water is easily drained off but in cutting, drains to be
provided. The side drains are constructed along the track at a depth of aprox.
1200mm from the rail level.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.2 STABILISATION OF TRACK ON POOR SOIL
Sometimes it becomes unavoidable to lay tracks on a very poor (or undesirable)

soil. In such cases it becomes necessary to improve and strengthen the nature of soil by
some suitable methods. Under such circumstances, the following methods are used.
1. Layer of Moorum
2. Cement Grouting
3. Sand Piles
ww4. Use of Chemicals

Layer of moorum:
w.E
asy
This method is widely used and is adopted if a poor quality soil comes across a
track such as black cotton soil which is a fine black loomy soil. This soil has the
En
tendency of expanding (or swelling) when moist and of caking and cracking heavily
when dry.
gin
eer
Tracks laid on formation of maintain. In rainy season, the soil fills up ballast
i ng.
interest less, the track in the worst places gets sodden and spongy track is reduced. In
net
hot weather, the cracks are formed and the ballast is lost in filling up these cracks. Thus,
the alignment as well as level is disturbed and with mud filling the interstices, the track
loses. Its resiliency, therefore, for these very reasons, a layer of moorum varying in
thickness from 300mm to 600mm is laid under the ballast. This layer distributes the
pressure of the load and prevents the ballast from being lost in the cracks of the soil.
Instead of moorum, other materials such as ashes, concrete, slabs, rubber,

unserviceable sleepers etc are also used and are found quite satisfactorily

Cement Grouting
In this method, steel tubes of 30mm in diameter and 1.5m long are driven into the
formation at every alternate sleeper and near their ends as shown in figure. The tubes
are driven into the foundation at an angle such that the end of tube is nearly under the
rail. The cement grout is forced under a pressure of 0,7 N/mm2 through these tubes.
The proportion of cement grout depends on the type and condition of formation. The
concert grout spreads through the poor soil and consolidates it. The steel tubes are then
gradually taken out.
ww
Sand piles
w.E
This method of strengthening the track laid on poor is most widely used in
asy
development countries like America. In this method, a vertical bore about 300mm
diameter is made in the ground by driving a wooden pile. The wooden pile is then
En
withdrawn and the space is filled with sand and is well rammed. The sand piles are
driven in the pattern as shown. gin
eer
It is also arranged that cross sectional area of the sand piles is about 20% of the
i ng.
formation area. Thus, the top section of the formation is covered with sand which
makes the track stable on poor soil.
net
Use of chemicals
In this method, chemicals are used in place of cement grout to consolidate the
soil. For example, silicate of soda followed by calcium chloride is effective for sandy
soils.

2.3 TRACK DRAINAGE
Sources of Moisture in a Railway Track
Various sources of moisture affecting a railway track are the following :
1. Surface water due to train, dew or snow.

2. Moisture sucked up by capillary action resulting in increase of moisture in the
subgrade or embankment.
3. Seepage-water from adjacent area.
4. Hydroscopic water or held-water.
ww
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRACK DRAINAGE
w.E
The bearing power (or strength) and stability of soil (i.e., resistance to shear of
soils) are greatly reduced due to presence of excess moisture. The variation in bearing
asy
power and stability depends upon the percentage of moisture, soil type and mode of
stress-application.
En
REQUIREMENTS OF TRACK DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
gin
eer
1. The surface and underground waters should be well away from a track;
the banks and cuttings; over or through which they run.
i ng.
2. The surface water from adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
track-formation.
3. The side drains should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry
net
away all the possible surface water.
4. Flow of surface water across the track and along the slopes should not cause
erosion of the banks and slopes of embankment.
5. Sub-surface water should be efficiently drained off by the sub-surface drainage
system.
6. The highest level of ground water table should be well below the level of the
subgrade.

7. The track alignment should be made to rest on pervious; naturally drained and
suitable soils. Coarse-textured soils are more permeable; retain less capillary
moisture and respond more readily to drainage system.
8. In water-logged areas; special precautions should be taken especially if
detrimental salts are present or if floods are common in the area.
Special measures should be taken in the following cases :
a. Existence of an underground water pocket due to hollow basin over thick

impervious layer.
b. Existence of an underground water pocket over a thin impervious stratum
ww which lies on fissured strata (i.e. good pervious soil).

c.
w.E
Presence of water bearing strata on side with long-cuttings and banks i.e.;
seepage flow.
asy
In case of black-cotton soils; or expansive soils.
En
In case of track-drainage problems where either
i.wet earth gets into the ballast gin

ii.ballast sinks into the wet earth. eer
i ng.
The drains or pipes should be kept at closer spacing to keep the water table well
below the formation to prevent capillary rise of water.
1.Surface Drainage :
net
Due to rain; dew and snowfalls; the moisture moves into the embankment under
the action of gravity. This movement of water is resisted by the permeability of soils.
So it is desirable that good soils should be used for bank and formation. The best soil
would be a well-graded material of high-internal friction having high-cohesion without
any characteristic of detrimental shrinkage i.e.; when it dries without any expansive
tendencies; when it gets damp with small capillarity; should possess good elasticity and
even with fairly large water content not of too much plasticity. When compacted; such
an ideal material must remain stable both when wet and dry i.e.; under all weather

conditions. However; such soils satisfying such characteristics are very rarely available
in actual practice.
2. Sub-surface Drainage :
Changes in moisture content of subgrade or formation in embankment or in

cutting are caused; mainly due to fluctuations in movement of capillary water; seepage
water from adjacent area; ground water table and percolation of rain water. The object
of sub-surface drainage is to keep these fluctuations of moisture as minimum as
possible.
TRACK DRAINAGE UNDER SPECIAL CASES

ww
Special situations may arise in any one of the following cases:
w.E
1. Existence of an underground water-pocket due to hollow basin over thick-
impervious layer.
asy
En
2. Existence of an underground water-pocket over a thin impervious stratum which
lies over a fissured strata (i.e.; good pervious soil).
gin
3. Presence of water bearing strata on side-long cuttings and banks i.e.; seepage
flow.
eer
4. In case of black-cotton soils or expansive soils.
i ng.
3.Cross-drainage
Whenever streams or water courses have to cross the track; facility for cross-
net
drainage has to be provided. The water from the side-drains is taken across by these
cross drains in order to divert the water away from the track. Generally, the cross-
drainage structures consist of drain pipes, culverts or the bridges.
The choice of the type of a bridge will depend upon several factors like span,
loads, etc. However; the cross-drainage system can be designed and used depending
upon the requirements and economic considerations. R.C.C. and steel bridges are very
common these days.

TRACK DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
The bad drainage results in either of the following two problems :
1. wet earth clogs (or gets into) the ballast

2. ballast sinks into the wet earth
TRACK DRAINAGE REMEDIAL MEASURES
1. Use of pervious cess
2. Use of perforated pipes and trench drains
ww 3. Use of inverted filter blanket
4. Cement grouting
w.E
5. Combination of pervious cess and inverted filter
6. Use of sand piles asy

7. Use of counterfort drains En
8. Use of Capillary break gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.4 CALCULATION OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR TRACK LAYING
Requirement of Track Material for BG Track
Rails
The standard length of the rails is 13 m for BG and 12 m for MG lines.
No. of rails per km for BG lines = 1000 / 2 X13
154 Wt of 52-kg rails per km = 52 X 154 = 8008 kg
ww
Number of sleepers
w.E
The number of sleepers to be used depends upon the sleeper density. Assume
sleeper density to be M + 7, where M is the length of the rail in metres.
asy
Number of sleepers per rail = 13 + 7 = 20 Number of sleepers per km = 77 X 20
= 1540
En
Fittings and fastenings
gin
a. No. of fish plates per km = 2 X number of rails per km
eer
= 2 X 154 = 308
b. No. of fish bolts = 4X number of rails per km
i ng.
= 4 X 154 = 616
c. No. of bearing plates = number of sleepers X 2
net
= 1540 X 2 = 3080
d. Number of dog spikes = number of sleepers X 4
= 1540 X 4 = 6160
The requirement of track materials for MG lines can also be calculated in the same
manner.

2.5 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAY TRACK
The construction of railway lines is a complicated, challenging and interesting

activity of civil engineering. Most of the present railway lines were built by the British
during the latter half of the 19b century. After independence, the Indian Railways have
taken up some challenging tasks, which involved large bridges, tunnels and laying of
tracks in hilly terrain. Recently, the Indian Railways have accomplished the
construction of the konkan Railway over a length of 700 km, which involved many
tunnels, bridges, and massive earthwork. The conversion of the metre gauge to broad
gauge is yet another challenging task undertaken by the railways now. The doubling of
ww
many trunk routes is also a commendable achievement.
w.E
The construction of a railway line covers the following major activities:
1. Earthwork
2. Drainage asy
3. Bridges
En
4. Tunnels
5. Track laying gin
eer
Earthwork
i ng.
Laying a railway line involves a considerable amount of earthwork. Earthwork
involves cutting and formation of embankment. These operations are preceded by
clearing and grubbing, which, involves removal of shrubs and cutting of trees from
net
within the designated areas. Roots and stumps are also removed to a nominal depth
below the existing ground.
Drainage
Water is one of the most unwanted commodity in a railway track and must be
drained off and efficiently as possible. Water comes as surface run-off from rains.
Water from seepage in cut sections and by capillary action from below.
The capillary rise of water can be arrested by having a blanket of sand or coarse
material below the ballast layer. Water cannot rise in a medium having such coarse
fraction. In a soil having predominantly clayey fractions, capillary rise can be a serious
problem. An example of such a soil is the black cotton soil found in many parts of the
country.
Bridges
Bridges have many unique features. Since they are exclusively meant for railway
movement there is no need for pedestrians to be accommodated. For providing safety to
gangmen and maintenance staff, a safe refuge may be given at convenient intervals.
When steel bridges are used the sleepers are laid on the girders and fastened to them,
dispensing with the ballast. When RCC, prestressed concrete or masonry arch bridges
ww
are adopted, ballast is provided under the sleepers.
Tunnels
w.E
asy
Tunnels are needed for negotiating hills, which fall in the alignment and where
detours are costly or not feasible. When the excavations become deep and
En
uneconomical, it is economical to opt for a tunnel. The Mumbai-Pune railway line and
gin
the recently commissioned Konkan Railway have numerous tunnels.
eer
The alignment of a tunnel should be preferably straight, but many tunnels exist
i ng.
which are on curves. The gradients of the track should be gentle. Even though site
conditions do not require a grade, a gentle grade facilitates quick drainage. Tunnels in
hard rock do not normally need any lining. But tunnels in soft strata always need a
lining. A concrete lining is the standard practice.
net
Laying of Track
The work of laying a railway track on a prepared formation is known as plate

laying. It is, the normal practice to initially lay the sleepers and the rails directly on the
formation without placing the ballast. This is done so that the track can settle in the
initial stages when the embankment is still in a loose state. Ballast is packed
subsequently.
The point, up to which the track has been laid, is known as the railhead. The
point from which the track is started is known as the base.
There are three common methods of plate laying:
1) Side method (also known as tram line method)
2) Telescopic method
3) American Method
The side method is followed when there is a track already by the side of the new
track to be laid. This is the case when a track is to be doubled. The track materials are
carried in special material trains and dumped on the new formation. The track is then
assembled. Sleepers are laid out and the rails are fastened. If a track does not exist, the
ww
materials are carried by road or over a temporary rail line.
w.E
The telescopic method uses the track already laid to transport the material. The
fresh material is then assembled in front of the track already laid and connected to it.
asy
Fresh material is brought by wagons on the newly laid track. The works proceed in
En
short stretches, forming sub-depots as the work proceeds. The work may be carried out
by specialised gang of labour, grouped as :
gin
1) Material gang for unloading and carrying of track materials;
eer
2) Linking gangs for fixing sleepers, rails and fastening; and
i ng.
3) Packing gangs for packing the earth underneath the sleepers and bringing the
track to proper profile and alignment. net
The American method involves assembling the sleepers and rails in units at a
central workshop, moving the assemblies to site and linking. The work is highly
mechanised using equipment for loading and unloading and transporting.
RAILWAY MAINTENANCE
Importance of Maintenance
The need for and the importance of railway maintenance arise out of the
following considerations:

1) The track rests on a yielding foundation of ballast. As a result the track settles
over a period of use and it needs to be restored to design level constantly.
2) The track is subjected to severe dynamic loads, which set up vibrations in the
track and cause it to lose its geometry. Restoraticn of track parameters becomes a
continuous requirement.
3) The various track elements are subjected to wear due to traffic. For example,
the fishplates and fastenings undergo considerable wear and tear. When these get worn
out, the track loses its rigidity, gauge, profile and alignment. The ballast stones get
abraded and crushed. The sleepers get worn out.
ww 4) Environmental factors add to the wear of track and damages to the permanent
w.E
way. The influence of wind, rain, floods and temperature variation on track elements is
also damaging.
asy
5) The maintenance of an accurate gauge is the key to safety of rail movement.
Accidents can be disastrous. En
gin
6) A well maintained track gives comfortable ride.
7) Energy consumption on a well-maintained track is low. eer

Maintenance of Formation i ng.
As the wheel loads have tended to increase over the years since the railway lines
were built more than a century ago, the formation is being subjected to heavy stresses.
net
Intrusion of soil into the ballast is common. The situation can be remedied by providing
a blanketing layer of sand below the ballast.
Maintenance of Drains
Pre-monsoon clearance of siltation and vegetation growth in drains is of great

importance. The performance of drains during the monsoons must be watched and
rectification of defects after cessation of rains must be done.

Bridges and Culverts
Pre-monsoon inspection and close vigilance during rains of bridges and culverts
is part of good maintenance. The performance of bearings, the condition of protective
works (guide bunds, flooring and curtain walls), evidence of scour and cracks in the
structural components - these are some of the items that deserve close inspection.
Maintenance of Fastenings
Screws, spikes and keys must be tightened and secured periodically. Worn out
components should be replaced. Base plates wear out due to constant rubbing of rail.
They must be inspected and defective ones replaced.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.6 RAILWAY STATION
Classification of Railway Stations
Railway stations can broadly be sorted into various classes on the basis of two
main considerations.
Operational considerations
As per the general and subsidiary rules of Indian Railways stations are classified
as block stations and non-block stations. Block stations are further classified as A class,
ww
B class, and C class stations. Non-block stations are classified as D class or flag
stations.
w.E
Functional considerations
asy
Stations are classified based on the functions they are required to perform. Under
En
this category, stations are classified as halt stations, flag stations, crossing stations or
gin
wayside stations, junction stations, and terminal stations.
eer
The following factors are taken into consideration when classifying a railway
station.
i ng.
(a) Least expenditure with regard to the provision of the least number of signals
(b) Flexibility in shunting operations

net
(c) Increasing the line capacity
(d) Faster movement of trains
1 Block Stations
A block station is a station at which the driver has to obtain an 'authority to

proceed' in order to enter the next block section. In a railway system that is inclusive of
block stations, the entire railway line is divided into convenient block sections of 5 to
10 km and a block station is provided at the end of each block. This system ensures that

a suitable 'space interval' is provided between running trains so that there are no
collisions and accidents. There are three types of block stations
A class station
A class stations are normally provided on double-line sections. At such stations a

'line clear' signal cannot be granted at the rear of a station unless the line on which a
train is to be received is clear and the facing points set and locked. No shunting can be
done after line clear has been granted.
A class stations are suitable for sections where traffic passes rapidly. It is
essential for the driver of the train to have an advance knowledge of the layout of the
ww
block station.
B class station w.E

asy
This is the most common type of station and is provided on single-line as well as
En
double-line sections. At a B class station , the line has to be clear up to an adequate
distance beyond the outer signal before 'permission to approach' can be given to a train.
gin
C class station
eer
i
The C class station is only a block hut where no booking of passengers is done. It
ng.
is basically provided to split a long block section so that the interval between successive
trains is reduced. No train normally stops at these stations.
2 Non-block Stations or D Class Stations

net
D class or non-block stations are located between two block stations and do not
form the boundary of any block section. No signals are provided at D class stations.
A D class station that serves an outlying siding is called a DK station. At such a

station, the siding takes off through a crossover, which can be operated only with the
help of a key, which in turn is released with the help of a ball token. A D class station
that serves no siding is called a flag station.

3 Functional Classification of Stations
The layout of stations varies in size and importance according to the type and volume
of traffic handled and according to their locations with respect to cities or industrial
areas. Broadly speaking, the layouts required for passenger stations and their yards can
be divided into the following categories for the purpose of study.
(a) Halts
(b) Flag stations
(c) Roadside or crossing stations
ww
(d) Junction stations
w.E
(e) Terminal stations
Halt
asy
En
A halt is the simplest station where trains can stop on a railway line. A halt
usually has only a rail level platform with a name board at either end. Sometimes a
gin
small waiting shed is also provided, which also serves as a booking office. There is no
eer
yard or station building or staff provided for such types of stations. Some selected trains
i ng.
are allotted a stoppage line of a minute or two at such stations to enable passengers to
entrain or detrain. The booking of passengers is done by travelling ticket examiners or
booking clerks. net
Flag station
A flag station is more important as a stop-over for trains than a halt and is
provided with a station building and staff. On controlled sections, a flag station is
equipped with either a Morse telegraph or a control phone, which is connected to one of
the stations on either side to facilitate easy communication. A flag station is usually
provided with a small waiting hall and booking office, platforms and benches, and
arrangements for drinking water. Sometimes a flag station is also provided with a siding
for stabling wagons booked for that station.

Wayside or crossing station
After a flag station comes the wayside or crossing station. While a flag station
has arrangements for dealing with traffic but none for controlling the movement of the
trains, a crossing station has arrangements for controlling the movement of trains on
block sections. The idea of a crossing station was initially conceived for single-line
sections, to facilitate the crossing of trains going in opposite directions so that there
may be a more rapid movement of trains.
Junction stations
A junction station is the meeting point of three or more lines emerging from
ww
different directions. Normally at junctions, trains arrive on branch lines and return to
w.E
the same station from where they started or proceed to other stations from where they
again return to their originating stations.
asy
(a) There are two platforms-one is the main line platform and the other is an
En
island platform. In case the timings of two trains match, both the trains can be received
gin
and made to wait on either side of the island platform. This helps in the easy trans-
eer
shipment of passengers and luggage. Also, main line as well as branch line trains can be
received on the main platform.
i ng.
(b) A foot over bridge is provided for passengers to move between the station
platform and the island platform. net
(c) It is provided with a small goods siding and a goods platform to deal with
goods traffic.
(d) A turntable is provided for reversing the direction of an engine, if required.
(e) The emergency crossover on provided either side of the station helps in
switching to a single-line set-up in the case of an emergency.
Terminal station
The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates is known as
a terminal station or a terminal junction (Fig. 26.11). The reception line terminates in a

dead end and there is provision for the engine of an incoming train to turn around and
move from the front to the rear of the train at such a station. In addition, a terminal
station may need to be equipped with facilities for watering, cleaning, coaling, fuelling,
and stabling the engines; storing, inspecting, washing and charging the carriages; and
such other works.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.7 YARDS
A rail yard, railway yard, or railroad yard is a complex series of railroad

tracks for storing, sorting, or loading and unloading railroad cars and locomotives.
Railroad yards have many tracks in parallel for keeping rolling stock or unused
locomotives stored off the mainline, so that they do not obstruct the flow of traffic.
Railroad cars are moved around by specially designed yard switchers, a type of
locomotive. Cars in a railroad yard may be sorted by numerous categories,
including railway company, loaded or unloaded, destination, car type, or whether they
need repairs. Railroad yards are normally built where there is a need to store cars while
ww
they are not being loaded or unloaded, or are waiting to be assembled into trains. Large
yards may have a tower to control operations.
w.E
TYPES OF RAILWAY YARDS
asy
The system of tracks laid usually on a fairly level ground for receiving, storing,
En
sorting, making up trains and dispatch of vehicles, is known as railway yards.
The railway yards are broadly classified as under

gin
1. Passenger yards
eer
2. Goods yards
3. Marshalling yards
i ng.
4. Locomotive yards net
1. PASSENGER YARDS
The main function of passenger yards is to provide facilities for the safe
movement of passengers and passenger bogies. Passenger platforms are used as
passenger yards. At the terminal stations and station junctions, separate sidings
are provided to accommodate passenger trains during their idle period and also
for washing, cleaning and storing the vehicles.

2. GOODS YARDS
The yards which are provided for receiving, loading and unloading the goods
and for the movement of goods vehicles, are called goods yards. Goods platforms
are treated as goods yards. Separate goods siding are generally provided for
storing and delivery of goods at important stations. Goods sidings are so located
and designed that goods trains can be placed and wagons attached from up and
down directions with equal facility.
3. MARSHALLING YARDS
ww The arrangement made with an elaborate set of sidings for sorting of wagons
at important stations according to traffic requirements, is called marshalling yard.
w.E
Goods tarins are marshaled so that wagons are placed in the order of the stations
asy
at which these are to be detached. Marshalling yards are provided only at
important junction stations which act as distributing centre for various
En
destinations. The functions of a marshalling yard can be compared with those of
gin
the heart in a human body. The important functions of a marshalling yard are:
reception, sorting and departure.
eer
considered. i
For efficient working of a marshalling yard, the following points must be
ng.
1. The marshalling yard should be so located that shunting operations do not disturb
the time table of the regular trains.
net
2. The design of marshalling yards should be such that maximum number of
wagons, may be sorted and dispatched in given period.
3. While designing a marshalling yards, its future extension for increased goods
traffic, should be kept in mind.
4. The marshalling yards should be so designed that wagons move in one direction
only to avoid uneconomic and delay.
5. The marshalling yards should preferably kept parallel to the running lines.
6. Marshalling yards should be properly lighted.

7. Transship platforms for the exchange of goods, should be provided on one or

more siding of the marshalling yards.
4. LOCOMOTIVE YARDS
The yards in which locomotives are housed for servivng and alos for coaling,
watering, reoairing, oiling, cleaning etc are called locomotive yards. Loco yards are
generally constructed on the same sides as the marshalling yard.
The essential requirements of an ideal loco yard are:
1. The line from traffic yard to turn table should be clear.
ww
2. An extra emergency entrance from the traffic yard should be provided for
emergency cases.
w.E
3. The turn table should be located at one of its remotest corner so that it does not
obstruct the movement of engines from the yard.
asy
4. Sufficient number of sidings should be provided to accommodate the maximum
number of engines at the same time.
En
gin
5. An easy access to sick siding should be provided from the loco yard.
6. The overhead tank should be near the loco yard.
eer
7. Sufficient space required for the yard for further expansion, should be provided if
need arises. i ng.
net

2.8 PASSENGER AMENITIES
As stations and their environs are the first point of contact between Railways and
their customers, special importance is required to be given to the facilities provided to
passengers in regard to their adequacy, quality and maintenance.
While planning for provision/ augmentation of stations, due consideration needs to be

given to the importance of the station from point of view of passenger traffic.
1. BOOKING OFFICES
ww(a) The. Booking Windows may be distributed function wise or destination wise
by the Commercial Department.
w.E
(b) The Booking Windows should be so located that the circulation at the
asy
entrance or exit from the station or the waiting hall is not affected by the queues
En
in front of the Booking Endows. The length of the queue can be estimated at the
gin
rate of half a meter per person waiting in the queue.
eer
(c) A standardised layout for the Booking Windows may be formulated on the
basis of the following design parameters:
i ng.
(i) Size of a cubicle: 1.8m x 1.5m
(ii) Counters : Width 0.6m., Height above floor level 1 m

net
(iii) Ticket Tubes: On both sides of the counters.
(iv) Furniture: Chairs with caned seats, revolving type with short back and
facility for seat adjustment
(d) Partitions between Passenger -Booking Clerk : Toughened sheet glass or clear
acrylic sheet with a hole for intercommunication at suitable height above the
counter top and a suitable gap between the partition and the counter for collection

of fare and issue of tickets, the partition being protected on the passenger side
with steel grill.
(e) The Enquiry and Booking offices should be specially brightened up at all the
stations.
2. Waiting Halls
(a) Waiting Halls should not be built detached from the main buildings. At small
stations where some shelter is available for the passengers near the Booking
Office, the net Waiting Hall area in the form of covered area on the Platforms
ww may be provided. The above mentioned net area should be worked out after
w.E
deducting the waiting area in front of the Booking Windows from the gross
Waiting Hall area.
asy
(b) Waiting Halls are meant for the paid passengers and hence should have entry
from the platform side only. En
gin
(c) At suburban stations, extensions of platform shelter in lieu of construction of
Waiting Hall may be done. eer
3. Platforms i ng.
a) Length of Platforms :The length should be adequate to accommodate the net
longest train received at the station.
b) Width of Platforms:
i) The width should be determined on the basis of the clearance specified

in the Schedule of Dimensions. The platform widths should be adequate to permit
a free unhampered movement of passengers.
ii) The capacity of station platforms in discharging passengers per metre

width of un-obstructed passage for movement in both directions can be taken as :

Suburban Passengers : 60 per minute.
Non-Suburban Passengers : 40 per minute.
d) Platform Surfaces:
(i) The platform surfaces should be of such material that it is dust free in
dry weather and mud free in rains. At important stations, surface of main
platforms should be paved with Kota stone or interlocking pavers. To keep
platform surface smooth and clean, all trollies plying at the station be provided
with rubber tyred wheels.
ww (ii) In the case of single face platforms, the platform surface should have a
w.E
slope of 1 in 60 away from the coping upto the edge of the berm, with the berm
asy
and the slope of the platform filling being protected by turfing or pitching as
considered adequate.
En
gin
(iii) In the case of two face (island) platforms the platform surface should
have a slope of 1 in 60 away from the centre of the platform upto the coping on
either side. eer
i ng.
(iv) The ends of the platforms should be provided with ramps at a slope not
steeper than 1 in 6.
net
(v) A demarcation line should be drawn 1.8 m from the edge of platform.
In the area so demarcated, trolleys shall not be allowed to enable free movement
of passengers in that area.
e) Platform Fencing :
All single face platforms should be provided with a suitable fencing or

hedging of a height of 1.8m with a berm of at least 600 mm beyond the fencing
ort he hedging.

f) Whenever Platforms are extended, washable aprons, if already existing, shall

also be extended simultaneously.
4. Shady Trees on Platforms
a) The planting, protection and upkeep of the trees will be the responsibility of
the Engineering Department. Traffic Department should associate in watering of
plants at wayside stations wherever feasible.
b) The species and spacing of the trees should be properly decided.
ww c) The trees should be so planted that they do not obstruct the visibility of signals
or infringe Schedule of Dimensions or infringe the overhead electric wires
w.E
(Traction or General Service) or obscure the platform lights or signs.
asy
d) If the trees are already in existence, the positioning of the new equipment
En
should be so adjusted as to avoid cutting of trees as distinct from trimming their
branches.
gin
eer
e) It would be advantageous to provide suitable raised masonry platforms around
i
the fully grown trees as an additional seating accommodation for the passengers.
ng.
5. Lighting
a) Where electric supply is available all the lighting arrangements with the
net
associated equipment including the lamp posts with their fixtures for the
platforms, sign-boards, buildings etc. will be provided and maintained by the
Electrical Department.
b) Where electric supply is not available, the provision, repairs and maintenance
of the lamp posts will be the responsibility of the Engineering Department. The
provision, maintenance and repairs of the oil lamps and their lighting will be the
responsibility of the Operating Department.

c) Lamp posts should ordinarily be placed along the centre line of platforms
where width of platform is 18 metres and above. The lamp posts should not be
less than 4.5 metres clear from platform face and not less than 3 metres clear of
the face of the station building. Where the station building is less than 7.5m from
the platform face, the lamps should be supported on wall brackets. Such lamp
brackets can be used upto a distance of 9 m from the platform face.
d) The heights and spacing of the lamps should be determined by the level of
illumination required, the area to be illuminated, etc. apart from the obligatory
locations over the station name boards, water taps and other passenger facilities
ww required to be illuminated.
w.E
6. Drinking Water Supply
asy
a) Where piped water supply is possible, potable drinking water should be
En
supplied on platform by provision of taps at the rate of one tap for two coaches.
gin
On island platforms if the trains are expected to be received on both sides at the
same time, number of taps should be doubled.
eer
i
b) At small stations, as determined by the Commercial Department, where
ng.
provision of piped water supply is technically and economically not feasible,
tube-wells with hand pumps should be provided. The size, numbers and locations
of such tube wells should be determined by the Engineering Department,- based
net
on the quantum of passenger traffic at the station.
c) In addition, potable drinking water should be supplied through mobile or

stationary water containers. The number, size, type and deployment of such
mobile containers should be determined by the Commercial Department who
shall also procure & maintain them.
7. Latrines, Urinals and Dustbins
(a) Latrines and Urinals shall be provided as per scale laid down in Annexure 4.4

(b) Out of total no. of Latrines and Urinals as determined in manner indicated
above, one third may be reserved for Ladies.
(c) All toilets should be gradually converted into Pay & Use system.
(d) The urinals may be suitably distributed on platforms and waiting halls.
(e) Toilet should be provided near Station Master's office for easy maintenance at
D&E category stations.
(f) All latrines and urinals should be sanitised. Water-borne sanitation shall be
ww provided as far as practicable.
w.E
(g) An adequate no. of dustbins be provided at the suitable locations on the
platforms.
8. Platform Covers
asy
En
gin
a) Depending on the climatic conditions, number of passengers and nature of
traffic, Platform Covers should be provided as per scale.
eer
b) Large-scale covering of platforms should be confined to
i ng.
(i) Junction stations
(ii) Stations at Civil District Headquarters

net
(iii) Stations at cities and towns with a population of more than 1 lakh
(iv) Stations in heavy rainfall areas
(v) Suburban stations
c) At important and suburban stations, the whole platform should be covered.

d) The Platform Covers should be provided in terms of standard bays and the
area under the Platform Covers may therefore marginally exceed the area
required to be provided.
e) Platform shelters should be extended upto the landings of the foot-over

bridges. At small stations, platform shelters should be provided in front of the
station building as far as possible. At locations where there is an uncovered space
of platform between the shelter and the foot-over-bridge, as far as possible, a
covered pathway should be provided to the foot-over-bridge.
ww
9. Foot-Over-Bridges or Sub-ways
w.E
a) Foot-over-bridges or sub-ways as convenient and techno-economically
feasible should be provided keeping in view the following factors:
asy
(i) Interconnection between high level or low level platforms;
En
gin
(ii) The total number of passengers dealt with at the station;
(iii) Frequency of train services;

eer
i
(iv) Blocking of the lines between platforms by freight trains.
ng.
Stations with high level platforms should normally be provided with foot-
over-bridges on a programmed basis.
net
b) The design and location of the foot-over-bridges and the sub-ways should be
guided by the criterion of a rapid dispersal of the passengers through the
identified exit points and keeping in view the future expansion of station
building.
c) The width of the foot-over-bridge or the sub-way should be adequate to permit

a free unhampered movement .of the passengers.

d) The design for the foot-over-bridge should provide for covering which should
preferably be provided at the initial stage itself.
e) At stations where there is more than one platform without any foot-over-bridge
or sub-way connecting them, a pathway for passengers should be provided
connecting the ends of the platforms. The pathways should have a minimum
width of 2 m and should ensure that it is clear of all obstructions such as
signalling equipment, etc. which should be suitably bridged. Notices in the
prescribed languages should be prominently displayed near such pathway
crossings, to warn the users to look out for trains before using the pathways.
ww f) For foot-over-bridges, sub-ways and pathways, the lowest overhead clearance
w.E
for the movement should be of 2.75m.
asy
g) At important suburban stations, the design for the stairways should be such as
En
to facilitate installation of escalators in future for which the standard slope
gin
required is 30°. At major important stations, provision of escalators should be
considered for speedy dispersal of commuters.
eer
10. Waiting Rooms
i ng.
a) Waiting Rooms need not be provided at suburban stations i.e. Category 'C
Stations. net
b) At non-suburban stations other than junctions and terminal stations, Waiting
Rooms should be considered only if the number of upper class passengers dealt
with daily is 25 or more. If however, the bulk of the traffic is booked or received
by night the provision of the Waiting Rooms could be considered even with
fewer passengers.
c) At non-suburban junctions and terminal stations, the facility should be based

on the volume of traffic changing over and the time the passengers have to wait
as determined by the Commercial Department.

d) If the area to be provided for the Waiting Rooms is sufficiently large, the
Commercial Department may provide separate Waiting Rooms for the general
and female passengers and passengers of different classes.
11. Signages
(a) Standard signages shall be provided at the stations.
(b) For Location of signages, a plan should be made for each station.
12. Vending Trollies/Stalls
ww (a) Modular stalls shall be provided to save space on platforms.
w.E
(b) Efforts should be made to make the stations cooking free and reduce the
number of trolleys.
asy
En
(c) Minimum trolleys and catering stalls under the covered shed should be
allowed.
gin
eer
(d) Automatic vending machines should be encouraged to replace existing
vending stalls.
i ng.
13. Retiring Rooms
a) Retiring Rooms should be provided only where a minimum of 60% occupation

net
is expected by the Commercial Department.
b) Size and location of the Retiring Rooms may be decided taking into account
the climatic conditions, the importance of the stations, availability of space etc.
As dormitory type of Retiring Rooms offer accommodation at cheap rates to the
passengers, keeping in view the demand from different types of clientele, local
conditions of the place, availability of comparable type of accommodation in the
vicinity and any other factor considered relevant by the Commercial Department,
preference may be given for provision of dormitory type of Retiring Rooms.
2.9 SIGNALLING
Railway signalling is a complex and fascinating subject. This site has a number
of pages explaining the signalling and train control systems in use around the world
ranging from old semaphore signals still used in the UK and elsewhere to modern
electronic high capacity systems used by metros. We also provide links to other railway
signalling sites around the world that describe local system.
Signalling is one of the most important components of the many which make up
a railway system. Train movement safety depends on it and the control and
management of trains depends on them. Over the years many signalling and train
ww
control systems have been evolved so that today a highly technical and complex
w.E
industry has developed. Here is an attempt to explain, in simple terms, how railway
signalling developed and how it really works, based on the UK standards.
Pioneer Signalling asy

En
Back in the 1830s and 40s (in the very early days of railways) there was no fixed
gin
signalling - no system for informing the driver of the state of the line ahead. Trains
eer
were driven "on sight". Drivers had to keep their eyes open for any sign of a train in
i
front so they could stop before hitting it. Very soon though, practical experience proved
ng.
that this didn’t work and there needed to be a way of preventing trains running into each
other. Several unpleasant accidents had shown that there was much difficulty in
stopping a train within the driver's sighting distance. The problems were, partly,
net
inexperience and poor brakes but the real problem was (and still is) the rather tenuous
contact which exists on the railway between steel wheel and steel rail for traction and
braking. The adhesion levels are much lower and vehicle weights much higher on
railways than on roads and therefore trains need a much greater distance in which to
stop than, say, an automobile travelling at the same speed. Even under the best
conditions, it was (and is even more so nowadays with high speeds) often impossible to
stop a train within the sighting distance of its driver.

The Time Interval System
In the early days of railways, it was thought that the easiest way to increase the
train driver's stopping distance was to impose time intervals between trains. Most
railways chose something like 10 minutes as a time interval. They only allowed a train
to run at full speed 10 minutes after the previous one had left. They ran their trains at a
10 minute "headway" as it is called.
Red, yellow and green flags were used by "policemen" to show drivers how to
proceed. A red flag was shown for the first five minutes after a train had departed. If a
train arrived after 5 minutes, a yellow caution signal was shown to the driver. The full-
ww
speed green signal was only shown after the full 10 minutes had elapsed.
w.E
The "time interval system", in trying to use a headway to protect trains, actually
created some serious problems of its own. The most serious was that it was still
asy
inherently dangerous. Trains in those days were considerably less reliable than they are
En
today and often broke down between stations. It also could not be guaranteed that the
gin
speed of the first train would be sufficient to prevent the second catching it up. The
result was a series of nasty rear-end collisions caused, in each case, because the driver
eer
believed he had a 10 minute gap ahead of him and had little or no warning if there was
i ng.
an erosion of that 10 minutes. Even if the time was reduced so much that he could see
the train in front, he often did not have enough braking capacity to avoid a collision.
Line Capacity
net
Another serious problem, from the railways' point of view, was line capacity.
Even if they could rely on their trains not to make unscheduled stops and all to travel at
the same speed, the 10 minute time interval restricted the number of trains which could
run per hour (in this case 6) over a given line. As they found they needed to run more
trains, they gradually began to reduce the time between trains. As they reduced the
time, or "headway", the number of trains per hour increased. At the same time too, the
number of accidents increased. Eventually, they realised they had to do something. The
answer was fixed signalling.

Fixed Signalling
Even with the old time interval system, the basic rule was to divide the track into
sections and ensure that only one train was allowed in one section at one time. This rule
is still good today. Each section (or block as it is often called) is protected by a fixed
signal placed at its entrance for display to the driver of an approaching train. If the
section is clear, e.g. there is no train in it, the signal will show a "Proceed" indication.
For many years in Britain it was usually a raised or lowered semaphore arm. There are a
few of these left around the country but nowadays it is usually a green light or "aspect",
as the railways call it. If, however, the section is occupied by a train, the signal will
ww
show a "Stop" indication, usually a red aspect. The next train will be made to wait until
the train in front has cleared the section. This is the basis upon which all signalling
w.E
systems are designed and operated.
asy
Mechanical signals first appeared in the UK in 1841 and a signal box with levers
En
controlling remote signals and points in 1860. Originally, the passage of each train
through a section was tracked visually by the signalman. When the train had cleared his
gin
section, the signalman told the signal box on the approach side that his section was now
eer
clear and that he could, if required, "accept" another train. The messages between
i ng.
signal boxes were transmitted by a system of bell codes using the electric telegraph.
Compulsory use of the electric "block telegraph" to pass messages, and signal
interlocking, where points and signals were mechanically prevented from allowing net
conflicting movements to be set up, were introduced in the UK following the
Regulation of Railways Act of 1889.
Distant Signals
The basic stop/go signal used to protect each section of the line was OK as long
as the driver of an approaching train was able to see the signal in time to stop. This was
rarely the case, so a system of "distant" signals was provided in many locations.
Distant signals were placed in such a position that the driver could stop in time if
the next stop signal was at danger. Positioning depended on the visibility, curvature,
maximum permitted line speed and a calculation of the train's ability to stop. In the UK,
freight trains with reduced braking capacity (unfitted or partially fitted freights) were
only allowed to run at restricted top speeds to allow for signal braking distances.
Originally, distant signals were semaphores, like the stop signals mentioned
above. They showed a green light at night if their related stop signal was also green (or
clear) and yellow if the stop signal was at red. The red-yellow-green pattern was
adopted for colour light signals and eventually used to provide a more spohisticated
form of train control.
Interlocking
Another safety feature introduced in the mid-19th Century was mechanical

ww
interlocking of points and signals. The purpose was to prevent the route for a train being
w.E
set up and its protecting signal cleared if there was already another, conflicting route set
up and the protecting signal for that route cleared. The interlocking was performed by a
asy
series of mechanically interacting rods connected to the signal operating levers in the
En
signal box. The arrangement of the rods physically prevented conflicting moves being
gin
set up. As the systems developed, some larger signal cabins at complex junctions had
huge frames of interlocking levers, which gave the name "lever frame" to the row of
operating levers in a signal box. eer
i ng.
Eventually, by the time signal levers were being replaced by small (miniature)
levers or push buttons, mechanical interlocking frames were superseded by relay
interlockings. Electro-magnetic relays were used in series to ensure the safety of route
net
setting at junctions. Complex "control tables" were drawn up to design the way in
which these relays would interact and to ensure safety and integrity. Now, most of this
is computerised.
Blocks
Railways are provided with signalling primarily to ensure that there is always
enough space between trains to allow a following train to stop before it hits the one in
front. This is achieved by dividing each track into sections or "blocks". Each block is
protected by a signal placed at its entrance. If the block is occupied by a train, the signal

will display a red "aspect" as we call it, to tell the train to stop. If the section is clear,
the signal can show a green or "proceed" aspect.
The simplified diagram shows the basic principle of the block. The block
occupied by Train 1 is protected by the red signal behind it at the entrance to the block.
The block behind (“in rear”, as it is known) is clear of trains and a green signal will
allow Train 2 to enter this block. This enforces the basic rule or railway signalling that
says only one train is allowed onto one block at any one time.
The Track Circuit
Nowadays for signalling purposes, trains are monitored automatically by means

ww
of "track circuits". Track circuits were first tried in the US in the 1890s and soon
w.E
afterwards appeared in Britain. London Underground was the first large-scale user of
them when they introduced them in 1904-6 as part of their electrification programme.
asy
Low voltage currents applied to the rails cause the signal, via a series of relays
En
(originally) or electronics (more recently) to show a "proceed" aspect. The current flow
gin
will be interrupted by the presence of the wheels of a train. Such interruption will cause
eer
the signal protecting that section to show a "stop" command. Any other cause of current
i
interruption will also cause a "stop" signal to show. Such a system means that a failure
ng.
gives a red aspect - a stop signal. The system is sometimes referred to as "fail safe" or
"vital". A "proceed" signal will only be displayed if the current does flow. Most
European main lines with moderate or heavy traffic flows are equipped with colour
net
light signals operated automatically or semi-automatically using track circuit train
detection.
A Safe Braking Distance
The foregoing description of signalling has so far only looked at the concept of
warning or enforcement of restrictive signal indications. It has not yet taken into
account braking distance or headway. First, there is the problem of braking distances.
As we have already seen, a train cannot stop dead. An Inter City train travelling at 100
mph (160 km/hr) will take more than a mile to stop. Even for a signalling system with
enforcement (ATP) like the London Underground, as described so far there is a risk that
a train could pass a stop signal, then be stopped by the ATP enforcement system and
still hit the train in front. This situation could occur if the train in front was standing
just ahead of the signal protecting it. The problem has long been recognised and can be
overcome by the provision of a space for the train to stop in, an "overlap".
The Overlap
In its simplest form, the overlap is a distance allowed for the train to stop in
should it pass a signal showing a stop aspect. It is provided by positioning the signal
some way before the entrance to the section it is protecting.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

ww
w.E
UNIT 3a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.1 AIR TRANSPORT CHARACTERISTICS
Air transport has the following characteristics:
1. Unbroken Journey:
Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the fastest and
quickest means of transport.
2. Rapidity:
Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
ww
3. Expensive:
w.E
Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge investment
in purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
4. Special Preparations: asy

En
Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links, meteorological
stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.
gin
eer
Fastest Mode of Transport:
i ng.
Advantages:
1. High Speed:
net
The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode of
transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.
2. Comfortable and Quick Services:
It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient and quick service.
3. No investment in Construction of Track:
It does not require huge capital investment in the construction and maintenance
of surface track.
4. No physical barriers:
It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests do not come
in the way of air transport.
5. Easy Access:
Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are not
accessible by other means of transport.
6. Emergency services:
It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be operated due to
ww
the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode of
w.E
transport which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential
commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: asy

En
In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with and thus it
avoids delay in obtaining clearance. gin
8. Most suitable for carrying Light goods of high value: eer
i ng.
It is most suitable for carrying goods of perishable nature which require quick
delivery and light goods of high value such as diamonds, bullion etc. over long
distances.
net
9. National Defence:
Air transport plays a very important role in the defence of a country. Modern
wars have been fought mainly by aeroplanes. It has upper hand in destroying the
enemy in a very short period of time. It also supports over wings of defence of a
country.
10. Space Exploration:
Ai r transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.

Disadvantages:
In spite of many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:
1. Very costly:
It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high that it
is beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small carrying capacity:
Its carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable to carry cheap and
bulky goods.
ww
3. Uncertain and Unreliable:
w.E
Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a great extent by
asy
weather conditions. Unfavourable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain etc, may
En
cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents:

gin
eer
The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as compared to other modes
of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.
5. Large Investment:
i ng.
It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and net
maintenance of aeroplanes. Further, very trained and skilled persons are required for
operating air service.
6. Specialised Skill:
Air transport requires a specialised skill and high degree of training for its
operation.
7. Unsuitable for cheap and bulky goods:
Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap, bulky and heavy goods because of
its limited capacity and high cost.
8. Legal Restrictions:
There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the interest of
their own national unity and peace.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AN AIRPORT
AIRPORT
An airport is a location where aircraft such as airplanes take off and land. It is a
facility where passengers connect from ground transportation to air transportation.
Aircraft may also be stored or maintained at an airport. An airport should have runway
for takeoffs and landings, buildings such as hangars and terminal buildings.
AIRPORTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO DIFFERENT TYPES
1) Based on Take-off & Landing.
ww2) Based on Aircraft approach speed.
w.E
3) Based on Function.
asy
4) Based on Geometric Design.
En
5) Based on aircraft wheel characteristics.
BASED ON TAKE-OFF & LANDING

gin
eer
Aircraft can have different ways to take off and land. Conventional airplanes
i
accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for takeoff, and reverse the
ng.
process to land. Some airplanes can take off at low speed, this being a short takeoff.
a. Conventional Take-Off and Landing Airport (CTOL)

• Runway Length > 1500 m
net
b. Reduced Take-Off and Landing Airport (RTOL)
• Runway Length 1000 to 1500 m
c. Short Take-Off and Landing Airport (STOL)
• Runway Length 500 to 1000 m
d. Vertical Take-Off and Landing Airport (VTOL)
• Operational area 25 to 50 sq m.

BASED ON AIRCRAFT APPROACH SPEED.
An aircraft approach category is a grouping differentiating aircraft based on the

speed at which the aircraft approaches a runway for a landing.
Approach Category A- < 91
Approach Category B - 91– 120
Approach Category C - 120 – 140
Approach Category D - 141 – 165
Approach Category E - >165

ww
BASED ON FUNCTION.
w.E
a. Civil Aviation
asy
It is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military
aviation, both private and commercial.
En
• Domestic
gin
eer
A domestic airport is an airport that handles only flights within the same
• International
i
country. Domestic airports do not have customs and immigration facilities.
ng.
An international airport is an airport with customs and border control net
facilities enabling passengers to travel between countries.
b. Military Aviation
Military aviation is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines
for the purposes of conducting or enabling aerial warfare, including national
airlift capacity to provide logistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or
along a front.

ICAO Airspace 101
Current ICAO airspace designations where adopted in 1990, with the U.S.
adopting the same classifications, though used differently in 1993. In case you didn't
know, the U.S. had 20 different types of airspace designations prior to 1993. Basically
under ICAO, there is controlled airspace and uncontrolled airspace.
Controlled Airspace
Controlled Airspace is defined as airspace of defined dimensions within which

air traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance
with the airspace classification. Under ICAO, controlled airspace is defined as:
ww
Class A:
w.E
IFR flights only are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control
asy
service and are separated from each other.
Class B:
En
gin
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control
service and are separated from each other.
eer
Class C:
i ng.
net
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control
service and IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and from VFR flights. VFR
flights are separated from IFR flights and receive traffic information in respect of other
VFR flights.
Class D:
IFR and VFR flights are permitted and all flights are provided with air traffic
control service, IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and receive traffic
information in respect of VFR flights, VFR flights receive traffic information in respect
of all other flights.

Class E:
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, IFR flights are provided with air traffic
control service and are separated from other IFR flights. All flights receive traffic
information as far as is practical. Class E shall not be used for control zones.
Uncontrolled Airspace
Generally under ICAO, uncontrolled airspace is as follows:
Class F:
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all participating IFR flights receive an air
ww
traffic advisory service and all flights receive flight information service if requested.
Class G:
w.E
asy
IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service if
requested.
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

3.3 ICAO
ICAO is funded and directed by 193 national governments to support their

diplomacy and cooperation in air transport as signatory states to the Chicago
Convention (1944).
Its core function is to maintain an administrative and expert bureaucracy
(the ICAO Secretariat) supporting these diplomatic interactions, and to research new air
transport policy and standardization innovations as directed and endorsed by
governments through the ICAO Assembly, or by the ICAO Council which the assembly
elects.
ww Industry and civil society groups, and other concerned regional and international
organizations, also participate in the exploration and development of new standards at
w.E
ICAO in their capacity as ‘Invited Organizations’.
asy
As new priorities are identified by these stakeholders, the ICAO secretariat
convenes panels, task forces, conferences and seminars to explore their technical,
En
political, socio-economic and other aspects. It then provides governments with the best
gin
results and advice possible as they collectively and diplomatically establish new
eer
international standards and recommended practices for civil aviation internationally.
Strategic Objectives
i ng.
net
In its ongoing mission to support and enable a global air transport network that
meets or surpasses the social and economic development and broader connectivity
needs of global businesses and passengers, and acknowledging the clear need to
anticipate and manage the projected doubling of global air transport capacity by 2030
without unnecessary adverse impacts on system safety, efficiency, convenience or
environmental performance, ICAO has established five comprehensive Strategic
Objectives:

Safety:
Enhance global civil aviation safety. This Strategic Objective is focused primarily
on the State's regulatory oversight capabilities. The Global Aviation Safety Plan
(GASP) outlines the key activities for the triennium.
Air Navigation Capacity and Efficiency:
Increase the capacity and improve the efficiency of the global civil aviation
system. Although functionally and organizationally interdependent with Safety, this
Strategic Objective is focused primarily on upgrading the air navigation and aerodrome
infrastructure and developing new procedures to optimize aviation system performance.
ww
The Global Air Navigation Capacity and Efficiency Plan (Global Plan) outlines the key
activities for the triennium.
w.E
Security & Facilitation:
Enhance global civil aviation security and facilitation. This Strategic Objective
asy
reflects the need for ICAO's leadership in aviation security, facilitation and related
border security matters.
En
Economic Development of Air Transport:
gin
eer
Foster the development of a sound and economically-viable civil aviation system.
This Strategic Objective reflects the need for ICAO's leadership in harmonizing the air
i
transport framework focused on economic policies and supporting activities.
ng.
Environmental Protection:
Minimize the adverse environmental effects of civil aviation activities. This net
Strategic Objective fosters ICAO's leadership in all aviation-related environmental
activities and is consistent with the ICAO and UN system environmental protection
policies and practices.
ICAO Standards
The establishment and maintenance of international Standards and

Recommended Practices (SARPs), as well as Procedures for Air Navigation (PANS),
are fundamental tenets of the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago
Convention) and a core aspect of ICAO’s mission and role.
SARPs and PANS are critical to ICAO Member States and other stakeholders,
given that they provide the fundamental basis for harmonized global aviation safety and
efficiency in the air and on the ground, the worldwide standardization of functional and
performance requirements of air navigation facilities and services, and the orderly
development of air transport.
Today, ICAO manages over 12,000 SARPs across the 19 Annexes and five
PANS to the Convention, many of which are constantly evolving in concert with latest
developments and innovations.
The development of SARPs and PANS follows a structured, transparent and
multi-staged process – often known as the ICAO “amendment process” or “standards-
ww
making process” – involving a number of technical and non-technical bodies which are
w.E
either within the Organization or closely associated with ICAO.
Typically, it takes approximately two years for an initial proposal for a new or
asy
improved Standard, Recommended Practice or procedure to be formally adopted or
En
approved for inclusion in an Annex or a PANS. Occasionally, this timescale can be
gin
expanded or compressed depending on the nature and priority of the proposal under
consideration.
eer
i ng.
net

3.4 AIRPORT PLANNING
Airport planning is a systematic process used to establish guidelines for the

efficient development of airports that is consistent with local, state and national goals.
A key objective of airport planning is to assure the effective use of airport resources in
order to satisfy aviation demand in a financially feasible manner. Airport planning may
be as broad based as the national system plan or more centrally focused as an airport
master plan for a specific airport.
The primary types of airport planning may basically be classified as follows:
National System Planning (NPIAS)

ww State Airport System Planning (SASP)
w.E
Metropolitan Airport System Planning
Airport Master Planning asy

Master Plan En
gin
For an individual airport, owners more closely identify with the airport master
eer
plan for their airport. An airport master plan represents the airport’s blueprint for long-
term development. A few of the goals of a master plan are:
i ng.
To provide a graphic representation of existing airport features, future airport
development and anticipated land use. net
To establish a realistic schedule for implementation of the proposed development
To identify a realistic financial plan to support the development
To validate the plan technically and procedurally through investigation of

concepts and alternatives on technical, economic and environmental grounds.
To prepare and present a plan to the public that adequately addresses all relevant
issues and satisfies local, state and federal regulations.
To establish a framework for a continuous planning process.

Limitations of FAA Actions
Sponsors must not construe the acceptance of an airport master plan by the FAA
as an approval of the entire master plan document. The FAA only approves components
of a master plan, not the entire document. The key elements that the FAA reviews and
formally approves are:
Forecasts
Selection of critical aircraft
Airport layout plan (ALP)
ww It is from these elements that the FAA makes a determination regarding
w.E
eligibility of AIP funding for proposed development. It is critical that airport owners
and their consultant coordinate early and often with the appropriate FAA planner to
asy
identify significant planning issues and to determine the type and magnitude of effort
required to address such issues.
En
National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS)
gin
eer
Before the FAA can consider an airport eligible to receive Federal funds, the
i
airport must be included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS).
ng.
The NPIAS identifies nearly 3,400 existing and proposed airports that are significant to
net
national air transportation and thus eligible to receive Federal grants under AIP. It also
includes estimates of the amount of AIP money needed to fund infrastructure
development projects that will bring these airports up to current design standards and
add capacity to congested airports. The FAA is required to provide Congress with a five
year estimate of AIP eligible projects and associated costs every two years.
The NPIAS provides an inventory of airport development for the FAA’s Airport
Capital Improvement Plan (ACIP). The FAA formulates the ACIP based on the airport
development needs identified by the NPIAS. The ACIP is essentially a subset of the
NPIAS, highlighting airport needs over a 3-year funding cycle.

FAA Policy
FAA Order 5090.5, Formulation of the National Plan of Integrated Airport

Systems (NPIAS) and the Airports Capital Improvement Plan (ACIP), establishes the
criteria for inclusion into the NPIAS. The NPIAS includes airport development
recommended in FAA accepted airport master and system plans; or as shown on FAA
approved airport layout plans. It may also include airport development identified from
FAA airport site visits and contained in airport owners’ capital improvement programs.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

3.5 AIRPORT SITE SELECTION
The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport
under consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest
facility are considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and
economical.
The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport
installation:
1.Regional plan
ww 2.Airport use
w.E
3.Proximity to other airport
4.Ground accessibility
5.Topography asy
6.Obstructions En
7.Visibility gin
eer
8.Wind
9.Noise nuisance
i ng.
10.Grading , drainage and soil characteristics net
11.Future development
12.Availability of utilities from town
13.Economic consideration
Regional plan:
The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of the national network of airport.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

[email protected]
Airport use:
The selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or
for military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over
by the defense. There fore the airport site selected should be such that it provides
natural protection to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance
for the airfields to be located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport:
The site should be selected at a considerable distance from the existing airports
so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the movement of
ww
aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly depends
w.E
upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility:
asy
En
The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline
passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time in air
gin
travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially
for short haul operations.
eer
Topography: i ng.
This includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
net
Obstructions:
When aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on
either side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain
or loose altitude.

Visibility:
Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind:
Runway is so oriented that landing and take off is done by heading into the wind
should be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance:
ww The extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type of
w.E
engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute
with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and
asy
take off paths of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or
industrial developments.
En
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics:
gin
eer
Grading and drainage play an important role in the construction and maintenance
i
of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The original ground profile of a
ng.
site together with any grading operations determines the shape of an airport area and the
general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the valley sites
should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly subsoil
net
drainage should be avoided.
Future development:
Considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future more
member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

3.6 AIRPORT LAYOUT
The presents and the prevailing ultimate airport layout is explained in detail in
Airport Layout Drawing. The main components of the Airport plan drawing contain
wind data formulation, Place of airfield services, the physical features of the airport and
prevailing general aviation growth.
Airport Layout drawings also present the runway protection locations, airport
boundary property, and income funding zones. The descriptive plan designed for
computers provides a detailed information on the future and prevailing features about
several structures of understanding that allows the user to analyze and study any section
ww
in the airport zone clearly. The .plan can be used for the primary information and
w.E
understand the design of the airport and it can also update easily in the future in
accordance to the new growth of the airport and more elaborated conditions of
asy
prevailing airport conditions that are made by airport design surveys.
En
As eminent in the Circular 150/5070-6B recommended by FAA and Airport
Master Plans, the ALP has five prime purposes:
gin
eer
1. To create a design for the airport development by portraying planned facility
growth.
i ng.
2. The instruction by the ALP through which the airport promoter can ensure
that growth upholds safety requirements and airport design standards, and is
fully reliable with airport and community land use plans.
net
3. It acts as a manuscript for public use that aids as aeronautical record
necessities and as a place of community reference discussions on budget
resource planning and land use proposals.
4. It serves to enable the airport sponsor and the FAA to plan for ability
developments at the airport. It also allows the FAA to forestall financial and
technical needs. It also allows the FAA to prevent the airspace needed for
approach procedure improvements or facility.
5. It acts as an efficient tool for the airport supporter, particularly its
maintenance staff and growth.

It acts as a major requirement for the airport sponsor to get financial support from
the FAA
The airport layout plan is a comprehensive illustration of the scaled version of

prevailing and planned airport features. It indicates the position of the port and relevant
authorization and geometric info that is needed to show compliance with pertinent
principles.
The Airport Layout Plan portrays the suggested place of the capacities which are
estimated to provide accommodations for the 30-year requirement. The airport layout
plan shows growth of needed capacities in stages, constant with estimate request.
ww
Summary of the plan aids as a guide to the methodical and balanced developments of
w.E
the airport that is done progressively.
Major Role of the airport
asy
The Airport that is designed in this literature is chosen to be general aviation
En
airport that is used only for general purposes like transportation of cargos, military
gin
operations, corporate use, emergency purposes, and for medical and agricultural uses,
eer
etc. As suggested, the forthcoming part played by an airport is to endure this general
i
purpose until the municipal decides to follow commercial roles. Using existing Federal
ng.
aviation authority guidelines, the Airport suggested can be listed in the Wasatch Front
Regional Council’s apprise to the Metropolitan Airports System Plan (MASP) and
National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS) as a general aviation facility,
net
accepting group C aircraft.
An airport is mainly divided into two areas −
 Airside Area
 Landside Area
Airside Area
It is the area beyond landside area inside the airport. It includes runways, taxiways,
and ramps.

 Runway − An area where aircraft takes off and lands. It is made of soft grass,
asphalt, or concrete. It has white markings, which help the pilot during take-off
and landing. It also has lamps on the sides to guide the pilot during night. The
vehicles other than the aircrafts are strictly prohibited to enter this area of the
airport.
 Ramp − Also called Apron, this area is used for parking the aircrafts. It can be
accessed for boarding and alighting the aircraft. The airline staff or ground duty
staff can access this area.
 Taxiway − It is a path on the airport that connects the ramp to the runway.
ww
Landside Area
w.E
It is the area in the airport terminal and the area towards city. It has access to the
city roads and it contains parking area as well as public transport area.

asy
Terminal − It is a part of airport building that where travelers come to board
En
their flight or arrive from a flight. There are security checking, baggage
gin
checking, amenities, and waiting areas at the terminal.

eer
Car Parking − This area is outside but adjacent to the terminal where vehicles
can be parked on chargeable basis.
i ng.
Most of the airports around the world are owned by local, regional, or national
government bodies. According to the Aircraft Rules, 1937, the airports other than net
government airports are permitted to be owned by Indian citizens, or Indian companies
or corporations registered and having their principal place of business as India. In
India, some airports are owned by the state governments, private companies, or even
individual citizens.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

3.7 AIRCRAFT PARKING
Aircraft Parking Area, also known as airport apron, is the area of an airport
where the aircrafts are parked, loaded, unloaded, refueled or boarded. It is a restricted
area where access is controlled, there are 6 types of apron namely Simple, Linear,
Curvilinear, Open, Pier and Satellite.
LINEAR
ww
w.E
Advantages: asy
En
gin
1. Offers ease of access and short walking distances for passengers from the transit
area to the aircraft contact gates
eer
2. Terminal can be expanded further by extending the current terminal linearly or
developing another linear terminal with connectors
i ng.
CURVILINEAR
net

Advantages:
1. Simple organisational principles

2. Allows future expansion of terminal
3. Allow more aircraft to park "nose-in" to the terminal building while maintaining
short walking distances from the airport entrance to the aircraft gate
The apron and gate system
The apron and gates are the locations at which aircraft park to allow the
loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, as well as for aircraft servicing and
ww
preflight preparation prior to entering the airfield and airspace.
The size of aircraft, particularly their lengths and wingspans, is

w.E
perhaps the single greates t dete rmina nt o f the area re q uired for
asy
ind ivid ua l gates a nd apro n parking spaces. In fact, the grand size of airport
terminals is a direct result of large numbers of gates designed to accommodate
En
aircraft of wingspans reaching 200 feet in le ngth.
gin
The size of any given aircraft parking area is also determined b y
eer
the orientation in which the aircraft will park, known as the aircraft parking type.
i
Aircraft may be positioned at various angles with respect to the terminal
ng.
building, may be attached to loading bridges or Jet-ways, or may be freestanding and
adjoined with airstairs for passenger boarding and deplaning. Some aircraft
parking types require aircraft to be maneuvered either in or out of their parking
net
spaces by the use of aircraft tugs, whereas other parking types allow the movement
of aircraft in and out under their own power.
The five major aircraft parking types are nose-in parking, angled nose-in,
angled nose-out, parallel parking, and remote parking. Most large jet aircraft at
commercial service airports park nose-in to gates at the terminal and connect directly
to the terminal building by loading bridges.
Aircraft are able to enter nose-in parking spaces under their own power,
and tend to be pushed out by an aircraft tug and oriented so that they may
move forward on the apron without coming into contact with any other
structures. The primary advantage to nose-in parking is that it requires less
physical space for aircraft than any other aircraft parking type. The majority of
commercial service airports, particularly those with large volumes of jet aircraft
operations, have primarily nose-in parking.
With nose-in pa rk ing, o nly the fro nt-e ntry do or o n the a ircra ft is
use d for boa rd ing, because the rear doors are typically too far from the
terminal building to extend a lo a d i n g b r id g e . T h is h a s s o me , b u t n o t a n
e n t ir e ly s ig n i f ic a n t , i mp a c t o n th e efficiency of passenger boarding and
ww
deplaning.
w.E
Angled nose-in parking brings aircraft as close to the terminal
building as possible while maintaining enough maneuvering room so that
asy
aircraft may exit the parking space under its own power. Angled nose-in
En
parking is typically used by smaller aircraft, such as turboprops or small regional
jets.
gin
Parallel parking is s a id t o b e the e a s ie s t t o a c hie ve f r o m
eer
a n a i r c r a f t maneuvering standpoint, although each space tends to require the
largest amount of physical space for a given size of aircraft. In this
i ng.
configuration, both front and aft doors of the aircraft on a given side may be used
for passenger boarding by loading bridges. net
Nose-in parking
Nose in parking.
A parking position near the terminal building as shown in the illustration. Normal
ly, aircraft park in this position under their own power but they have to be towed back f
or starting and taxiing out. Many operators, when authorized by their regulatory authorit
y, can be “powered back” using the airplane power plant and reverse thrust.
Angled nose-in brings aircraft as close to the terminal building as possible while
maintaining enough maneuvering room so that aircraft may exit the parking space
under its own power.
Angled nose-in parking is typically used by smaller aircraft, such as turboprops

or small regional jets.
Aangled nose-out brings aircraft slightly farther from the terminal building
than nose-in and angled nose- in parking, because the blast from jets or large
ww
propellers has the potential of causing damage to terminal buildings if too close to the
facility.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

ww
w.E
UNIT 4a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

4.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RUNWAY
Length
Longitudinal and Effective gradient
Safety Area
Sight Distance
Transverse Gradient
Width
ww
Length of Runway
w.E
The Basic runway length is given by ICAO in accordance with the classification
of airports.
asy
The actual runway length is computed after applying corrections in length for: –
Elevation En
Temperature, and gin
Gradient eer
Longitudinal and Effective gradient i ng.
The longitudinal gradient increases the runway length net
Fuel consumption of aircraft increases on uphill slope climbing during takeoff.
Safety Area
It includes runway, shoulders on either side of runway, and additional length
The shoulders are generally unpaved
They are only used in case of emergency
They are generally turfed or made of stabilized soil
Shoulders provide a sense of openness and vastness to pilot

The length of safety area should extend by 60m on either side beyond runway
ends
The total length of safety area is = Runway Length +120
Stopway
A stopway is an area beyond the runway to decelerating an aircraft in case of an

aborted takeoff.
It must be at least as wide as the runway and must be capable of supporting an

airplane without causing structural damage to it.
ww
Clearway
w.E
A clearway is a defined area connected to the end of a runway
asy
It increases the allowable airplane operating takeoff weight without increasing
runway length.
Runway: En
Design Criteria
gin
eer
The major design guidelines:
i
It should be designed keeping in view the characteristics of critical aircraft.
ng.
Length, width, and orientation (direction), net
configuration (multiple runways),
Slope (Longitudinal and cross)
Pavement thickness of runways
Immediate airfield area surrounding the runways obstructions
Function of Taxiways
They connect runways with other areas, like terminal building, cargo, and
parking areas. Taxiways gives access for aircraft to and from the runways

Types of taxiways
Parallel taxiway
Provided parallel to an adjacent runway, It facilitates aircrafts to reach the apron

area from runway after landing and from apron area to runway for take-off.
Entrance taxiway
Located near the runway threshold. It facilitates entry of an aircraft to runway for
take-off operation.
Exit taxiways
wwLocated at various points along the runway to allow landing aircraft to efficiently
w.E
exit the runway after landing.
Bypass taxiways
asy
En
Provided to give way to aircraft, Located at areas of congestion at busy airports.
Taxiways:
gin
Design Criteria
eer
Provide each runway with a parallel taxiway
i ng.
Design taxiways of optimum length
Provide bypass capability or multiple accesses to runway ends

net
Minimize crossing runways
Provide large curves and fillet radii for easier maneuvering of aircrafts.
Provide airport traffic control tower line-of-sight

4.2 RUNWAY ORIENTATION
Runway
“Rectangular area on an aerodrome used for landing and takeoff.” Runway

orientation is important in airport planning. Current practice is to layout a runway in the
direction of prevailing wind.
Importance of runway layout
 Determination of runway is a critical task.

 It is very important for safe take offs and approaches.
ww
 The width and sloping of runway also play a role in safe approaches.
Runway Numbers
w.E
 Runways are numbered according the magnetic compass direction.
asy
 Consists of two numbers one at each end of runway.
 Preceding that number are eight stripes.En
Runway Heading gin
 By 500 feet is the touchdown zone, identified by six stripes.eer
i
 Runway numbers are not given in degrees, rather in shorthand format.
ng.
 A runway with a marking of 14 is actually 140 degrees.
 For simplicity FAA rounds off the precise headings to nearest tens.
net
Runway Configuration
FAA includes over 20 runway layouts. Amongst them there are 4 basic runway
patterns:
 Single Runway
 Parallel Runway
 Open-V Runway
 Intersecting Runway

Factors affecting runway orientation
 Wind
 Airspace Availability
 Environmental factors
 Obstructions to navigation
 Air traffic control visibility
 Wild life hazards
 Terrain and soil consideration
ww
Wind rose analysis
An approach often used in determining the runway orientation. The method uses
w.E
a wind rose template. A transparent runway template is placed and rotated around the
asy
center of wind rose. At each rotating angle, the percentage of allowable cross winds is
measured
En
Runway Lighting
gin
eer
These lights are used to assist pilot in to identify the runway.
 Green Threshold Lights: Line the runway edge.

 Red Lights: Mark the end of runway. i ng.
 Blue Lights: Run alongside taxiways.
net
While runways have Yellow or White lights marking their edges
Runway Signs
Various kinds of runway signs are also used for facilitation. They differ
according to their purpose and action.

4.3 WIND ROSE
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of

how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location.
Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on charts),
as there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind which blew
from such a direction.
Using a polar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of winds over a time
period is plotted by wind direction, with colour bands showing wind speed ranges.
wwThe direction of the longest spoke shows the wind direction with the greatest
frequency.
w.E
Before the development of the compass rose, a wind rose was included on maps
asy
in order to let the reader know which directions the 8 major winds (and sometimes 8
En
half-winds and 16 quarter-winds) blew within the plan view.
gin
No differentiation was made between cardinal directions and the winds which
blew from those directions. North was depicted with a fleur de lis, while east was
eer
shown as a Christian cross to indicate the direction of Jerusalem from Europe
i ng.
Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of
winds blowing from particular directions over a specified period. The length of each
"spoke" around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a
net
particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle represents a different
frequency, emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer
circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is
broken down into colour-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. Wind roses
typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they
may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.
In terms of angle measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°, East to

90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.

Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in

constructing airport runways, as aircraft can have a lower ground speed at both landing
and takeoff when pointing against the wind.
Wind rose, map diagram that summarizes information about the wind at a
particular location over a specified time period. A wind rose was also, before the use of
magnetic compasses, a guide on mariners’ charts to show the directions of the eight
principal winds. The modern wind rose used by meteorologists gives the percentage of
the time the wind blows from each direction during the observation period; it
sometimes shows the strengths of these winds and the percentage of the time calm air or
ww
light winds are observed. This wind rose usually has eight radiating lines, whose
lengths are proportional to wind frequency, and shows wind strength by the thickness of
w.E
the lines or by feathers attached to them. The frequency of calm or nearly calm air is
asy
given as a number in the centre.
En
The earliest-known wind roses appeared on navigation charts used in the 13th
century by Italian and Spanish sailors. The eight points were marked with the initials of
gin
the principal winds; sometimes the east point had a cross, and the north point had a
eer
fleur-de-lis. When the magnetic compass began to be used in navigation, the wind rose
was combined with it and used as a compass card.
i ng.
net

4.4 BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH
It refers to the length of an airport runway under the following assumptions:
Related to runway:
No wind is blowing on runway
Runway is levelled (No effective gradient)
Related to Airport:
Airport is at sea level C (Standard Temperature)
ww The temperature at the airport is 15
w.E
Related to aircraft:
Aircraft is loaded to its capacity

asy
Related to route to destination:
En
gin
No wind is blowing on the way to destination Standard temperature prevails
along the way
Factors Affecting Basic Runway Length eer

i
The following factors affect the calculation of basic runway length: ng.
• Aircraft characteristics net
• Airport environmental conditions
• Safety requirements
Aircraft Characteristics
• Power and propulsion system
• Critical aircraft: The aircraft that requires longest runway length for landing
and take-off operations. The length of runways for both the operations may be
determined from the flight manual of aircraft performance.
• Gross landing and take-off weight of the aircraft

• Aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics
Airport Environment
• Atmosphere
• Temperature
• Surface wind
• Altitude
• Runway Gradient
ww
Safety requirements
w.E
• Normal landing case
• Normal take-off case
• Engine Failure Case asy

En
Standard Atmospheric Parameters: C
• Temperature at MSL = 15
gin
• Pressure at MSL – 760mm of Hg
eer
i ng.
• Air Density = 1.225kg/m3 If the standard atmospheric conditions vary due to
any reason - corrections are applied to the basic runway length to calculate the actual
runway length.
net
Corrections to basic runway length
There are three main corrections to be applied to basic runway length to

determine the actual length of runway for an airport. These are:
• Elevation Correction
• Temperature Correction
• Gradient Correction

Elevation Correction
Change in elevation affects air density, atmospheric pressure and temperature.

Correction should be applied for change in altitude. The Elevation Correction is as
shown below: Correction for Altitude: Increase runway length by 7% per 300m altitude
above MSL
Temperature Correction
If standard temperature varies, correction to runway length should be applied:1.

Compute Airport Reference Temperature (ART) 2. Compute Standard Temperature at
the given Elevation (STE) 3. Compute Increase in ART above STE= ART- STE 4.
ww
Apply Correction based on the value obtained in Step-3
w.E
Airport Reference Temperature (ART)
asy
ART = 𝑇1 + 1/3(𝑇2 − 𝑇1) Where,
En
𝑇1 = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the C (hottest month of the
year)
gin
eer
𝑇2 = Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature for the C)same month
Standard Temperature at Elevation (STE)

i ng.
STE = Temperature at MSL +/- (rate of change of temperature x elevation) Rate
of change of temperature with height is given as: C / km net
height ---------- Up to 11km height from MSL-6.5 C
height--------- 11-20km height (Stratosphere)Constant at -56.5 C / km
height ---------- 20-32km height (Troposphere)+1
Temperature Correction C
Increase basic runway length by 1% for every 1 rise in Airport Reference

Temperature (ART).

Longitudinal Gradient:
• If the gradient is steep, it may cause pre-mature liftoff or may cause structural
damage
• It will consume more energy and will need longer runway to attain desired
ground speed
Effective Longitudinal Gradient:
It refers of the average gradient computed by subtracting maximum and

minimum elevations along the runway divided by the total length of runway.
ww
Gradient Correction
w.E
Runway length is increased at a rate of 20% for every 1% of the effective
gradient Note: This correction is applied only if the combined correction for Elevation
asy
and Temperature remains less than 35%
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

4.5 ELEMENTS OF TAXIWAY DESIGN
Taxiway
A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons hangars
terminals and other facilities.
Geometric Design Standards
 Turning radius
 Sight distance
 Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
ww
 Transverse gradient
 Longitudinal gradient
w.E
 Width of safety area
 Width of taxiway
 Length of taxiway
asy
En
Length of Taxiway
gin
eer
The speed of an aircraft on a taxiway is also less than the runway.
Width of taxiway is lower than the runway width.

i ng.
No specifications are recommended by any organisation. Width of taxiway
It should be as short as practicable.

net
Longitudinal Gradient
ICAO recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5% for A
and B types and 3% for C D and E types.
A width of 7.5 m of shoulders adjacent to the pavement edges should be paved

with light strength material.

Width of safety area
This area includes taxiway pavement on either side that may be partially paved plus
the area that is graded and drained.
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
ICAO recommends that the rate of change of slope in longitudinal direction should
not exceed 1% per 30 m length of vertical curve for A,B and C types and 1.2% for D
and E types of airports.
ICAO has recommended that the transverse gradient should not exceed 1.5% for
ww
A,B and C and C types and 2% for D and E types of airports.
w.E
Transverse Gradient
This is essential for quick drainage of water.
Sight distance asy

En
The radius of horizontal curve is obtained by : R=V^2/125f V =speed in kmph
coefficient of friction f =.13 gin
eer
Whenever there is a change in the direction of taxiway a horizontal curve is provided
.
i ng.
ICAO has recommended that the surface of taxiway must be visible from 3m height
for a distance of 300m for A,B and C types and distance of 250 m be visible for 2.1m
net
height for D and E types of airports.
TURNING RADIUS
Horonjeff equation
R=.388w^2/T/2-S
W=wheel base of taxiway in metre
T=width of taxiway pavement in metre

S=distance between midway point of main gears and the edge of the taxiway
pavement in metre for super sonic planes it is taken as 180m and for sub sonic it is
taken as 120m.
Taxiway design and geometrical design of taxiway
The speed of an aircraft on taxiway is much lower than its speed on a runway
during the landing or take-off. A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting
runways with aprons,hangars,terminals.
Factors controlling taxiway layout
ww
Turning radius
Sight distance
w.E
Transverse gradient
Longitudinal gradient asy

En
Width of safety area
gin
Width of taxiway
eer
Length of taxiway
Bypass taxiway
i ng.
Holding apron net
Separation clearance
Fillets
Exit taxiways
Factors controlling exit taxiway
Aircraft leaves runway quicker
Intersection of taxiway and runway avoid
Taxiway-short distance

No interfere taxiway
Fillets
Distance between two parallel taxiway
Icao-recommends radius of fillet should not less than width of taxiway
Provide at junction of two runways, taxiway.
Fillets(radius) separation clearance
Also called turnaround taxiway
ww
No parallel taxiway is recommended because is not economic
w.E
Checking process if any defects – change aircraft
Wait for turn to take-off
asy
Holding apron bypass taxiway(more traffic)
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

4.6 AIRPORT ZONING
Airport height zoning is also termed as hazard zoning. Height zoning is mainly
used to protect the approaches to the airport from the obstruction of any object. Certain
rules and regulars are made to the heights of structures on land surrounding the airport.
Land Use Compatibility Zones
It is critical to maintain safe operational environments both on airport property,

as well as within communities surrounding local airports. As outlined in previous
chapters, one of the primary factors in determining land use compatibility often relates
to the proximity of a specific land use to an airport and more specifically the runways.
ww
Identification of zones that delineate specific geographic areas of interest is an
w.E
important part of the land use planning process. It is necessary to define types of land
uses that are not compatible, limited, or allowed within the designated geographic areas
asy
surrounding an airport. These land uses can then be incorporated into city or county
En
comprehensive plans and/or airport zoning ordinances.
gin
The land uses included in this document are not an inclusive list. They are
eer
intended to provide a general understanding of the types of land uses typically found in
i
a community. If individual land use requests arise that are not included in the tables
ng.
identified in this chapter, local communities should apply the general concepts outlined
in this document to evaluate the requests for land use compatibility on a case-by-case
basis. Some interpretation by individual municipalities may be necessary to fully
net
address the needs within their community due to site specific needs. This chapter
identifies recommended land use zoning districts and distinguishes compatible land use
types within each zones district.
Basis for Land Use Zones
Two primary sources of information were used to develop recommended zones

for land use compatibility within Iowa:
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 150- 5300-13,

Change 11, Airport Design, specifically Runway Protection Zones (RPZs)

• Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 77, Objects Affecting Navigable

Airspace, commonly know as the FAR Part 77 Surfaces RPZs and Part 77 Surfaces .
FAR Part 77 Surfaces and RPZs can be utilized to evaluate the concept of
compatible land use and provide a multi-purpose tool with commonly recognized
surfaces to address both height and land use concerns. Dimensional standards and
descriptions of these surfaces are contained in the following section to define the basis
for land use compatibility. Airport traffic patterns, while not used as a basis for the land
use zoning districts, are important to understand as they relate to compatible land use
within each zone.
ww
Runway Protection Zones
w.E
RPZs are the areas at each end of the runway that have a critical need for
protection from incompatible land uses. It is desirable to clear all objects from the RPZ,
asy
per the criteria noted in FAA AC 150/5300-13 Change 11, Airport Design, although
En
some uses are permitted, provided they do not attract wildlife, are outside of the runway
gin
object free area (OFA), and do not interfere with navigational aids. Land uses specified
in AC 150/5300-13 Change 11, Airport Design, which are prohibited from the RPZ
areas include: eer
• Fuel storage facilities i ng.
• Residential structures (homes, condominiums, apartments, and manufactured
housing parks)
net
• Places of public assembly (places of worship, schools, hospitals, office
buildings, shopping centers, or other uses with similar concentrations of people)
If an airport does not own or control the entire RPZ where it has been determined
to be impracticable to purchase the property, then the AC’s RPZ land use standards
should be consulted to determine the appropriate recommendation status for the portion
not owned by the airport.
If residential structures are currently located within an RPZ, the airport should
attempt to fully acquire the property. However, if this option is impractical, the airport
sponsor should consider the acquisition of an avigation easement to provide control

over the RPZ area. Obtaining easements which are restrictive enough to limit building
opportunities, as well as height, are often just as costly to procure as purchasing the
property outright.
The FAA evaluates height concerns for land uses within the following four
surface areas used as a basis for compatibility.
Approach surface
The approach surface is longitudinally centered on the extended runway

centerline and extends outward and upward from the end of the runway primary
ww
surface. The approach slope of a runway is a ratio of 20:1, 34:1, or 50:1, depending on
w.E
the approach type. The length of the approach surface varies from 5,000 to 50,000 feet
and also depends upon the approach type.
Transitional surface asy

En
The transitional surface extends outward and upward at right angles to the
gin
runway centerline and extends at a slope of seven feet horizontally for each one foot
eer
vertically (7:1) from the sides of the primary and approach surfaces. The transitional
i ng.
surfaces extend to the point at which they intercept the horizontal surface at a height of
150 feet above the established airport elevation.
Horizontal surface net

The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane located 150 feet above the
established airport elevation and encompasses an area from the transitional surface to
the conical surface. The perimeter is constructed by generating arcs from the center of
each end of the primary surface and connecting the adjacent arcs by lines tangent to
those arcs. The radius of the arc is 5,000 feet for all utility or visual runways and 10,000
feet for all other runways.

Conical surface
The conical surface extends upward and outward from the periphery of the
horizontal surface at a slope of 20 feet horizontally for every one foot vertically (20:1)
for a horizontal distance of 4,000 feet.
Departure surface
In addition to the aforementioned surfaces, an additional surface to consider is

the departure surface for runways with non-precision or precision runways instrument
guidance. The departure surface is 1,000 feet to 10,000 feet depending on the type of
instrument guidance and has a slope of 40 feet horizontally for every one foot vertically
ww
(40:1) for a distance of 6,466 feet. Objects, structures, or natural vegetation penetrating
w.E
the departure surface may affect the departure procedures at an airport and therefore
should be protected for each runway end.
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

4.7 PASSENGER FACILITIES AND SERVICES
BAGGAGE WRAPPING
Baggage wrapping service using state of the art technology is available

in the city side as well as the check in area of International Terminals.
DUTY FREE
Duty free shops are located both in the arrival and departure of International
Terminals.
SELF CHECK IN
ww Simply drop your check in baggage at the baggage drop counter of respective
w.E
airlines on utilizing the self check-in facility available in the departure hall of domestic
and international terminals. You can select seats and print your boarding pass using this
facility. asy
WI-FI En
gin
Free wi-fi facility is available for 45 minutes for passengers at domestic and
eer
international terminal. To connect to free wi-fi service, passengers should provide their
i
mobile numbers as login id’s. Once connected, this service enables the passengers to
ng.
access the net. This service requires a valid Indian mobile number and after the free
time the same can be extended on payment. net
OTHER SERVICES
Passenger can place a request to concerned airline for a wheelchair

while booking tickets or can also contact the airline ticketing counter after
reaching the airport for the same
At the Airport, AAI has provided,
Ramps for seamless movement of wheelchairs.
Braille symbols and auditory signals in the lifts for visually impaired.
Differently-abled friendly toilets.

Ambulift services on payment basis.
Free telephone facility is also available on the cityside of the both the
Terminals with the contact numbers of airlines.
SMOKING LOUNGE
Smoking lounge facility is available at the Security Hold Area of both

International & Domestic Terminals.
PRAYER ROOM
Prayer room is available in the Security Hold Area at International
ww
Terminal for the convenience of passengers.
INDIA POST
w.E
asy
Both passengers & visitors can avail the facility of postal service at
the Airport. Counter is conveniently located at Domestic Departure level.
En
The postal services are available 10:00 hrs – 18:00 hrs from Monday to
gin
Saturday. The postal services remain unavailable on Sundays and Public
Holidays.
eer
INTER TERMINAL TRANSFERS
i ng.
Free battery-operated vehicles and courtesy coaches offering shuttle
service for the convenience of transit passengers between Domestic & net
International terminals.
LOST AND FOUND
As a policy and practise all agencies at the airport are expected to

deposit any unclaimed goods under the Lost & found property to the Duty
Terminal Manager both at Domestic & International Termi nals. The Lost &
Found item are deposited after duly recording the contents, description, date
& time of deposition and the depositors signature. The Lost & Found items
are deposited to warehouse after 24hrs and can be reclaimed by the

passenger or by any person duly authorized by passenger on all working

days between 0930 – 1800hrs.
CHILD CARE ROOM
Child care rooms are available at Domestic (5nos.) & International

(2nos.) Terminals for providing essentials to the child/infant such as
feeding, changing diapers etc.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE
ww Passengers and tourists can avail currency exchange services with 2

foreign exchange counters in Domestic Terminal and 5 counters in
w.E
International Terminal.
ATM
asy
En
Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) of various banks are conveniently
gin
located at Domestic & International Terminals to extend selected banking
services for travel need.
CHECK IN COUNTER eer

i
124 Check in counters are operational in Domestic & International ng.
Departure Terminals. The check -in counters are divided in two wings as east
& west wing containing 31 counters each and the information is available on
net
Flight Information Display Monitors
AIRLINE TICKET COUNTER
Ticketing counters of various airlines are available at Departure level

of Domestic Terminal. Two other non – airline ticketing counters are
providing services at Arrival level of Domestic Terminal and Departure
level of International Terminal. All these counters can be accessed through
cityside.

LOUNGE FACILITY
Lounges at multiple locations in the Domestic & International

Departures of Chennai Airport offers world class amenities including best of
cuisines, plush seating, complimentary Wi-Fi, wide range of National,
International & Regional dailies along with various magazines. Serving
round the clock the lounges cater to Airline CIP customers as well as
passengers availing access through Priority Pass, high -end credit cards and
other loyalty cards.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

4.8 RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY MARKING
Runways
Runways are defined rectangular surfaces, on an airport, prepared or suitable for

the landing or takeoff of airplanes. The colors of markings on runways are white. A
runway should be marked according to its usage. The three classifications of runways
are
1. Visual Runways,
2. Nonprecision Instrument Runways, and
3. Precision Instrument Runways.
ww A Visual Runway does not have an existing or planned straight-in instrument
approach procedure.w.E
asy
A Nonprecision Instrument Runway has an existing instrument approach
En
procedure which uses navigational aids with only horizontal or lateral guidance to the
airport or runway.
gin
eer
A Precision Instrument Runway has an existing instrument approach procedure
using a precision instrument landing system, which provides both lateral and vertical
guidance to a runway end. i ng.
Runway Centerline Markings
Centerline markings on runways identify the physical center of the runway and
net
provides alignment guidance during landing and takeoff. The runway centerline
markings are white and are located along the centerline of the runway between the
runway designation markings. These markings consist of a line of uniformly spaced
stripes and gaps. The stripes are 120 feet long and have gaps that are 80 feet in length.
Any adjustments to the length and gaps of the stripes that may be needed because of
runway length are to be made near the runway midpoint. The minimum width of each
stripe is 12 inches for visual approach runways, 18 inches for non precision instrument
runways, and 36 inches for precision instrument runways.

Runway Threshold Marking
A threshold marking identifies the beginning of the runway that is available and
suitable for landing. The runway threshold markings consist of eight white longitudinal
stripes of uniform dimension arranged evenly about the runway centerline. These
markings start 20 feet from the runway threshold. The stripes must be 150 feet long,
5.75 feet wide, and spaced 5.75 feet apart except the center space which is 11.5 feet
apart. The stripes extend sideways to within 10 feet from the edge of the runway or to a
distance of 90 feet on either side of a runway centerline, whichever is the smaller lateral
distance.
ww
Runway Aiming Point Marking
w.E
An aiming point marking provides jet aircraft a visual aiming point for landing
operations. The aiming points are white and the beginning of these markings are located
asy
1,020 feet from the threshold. The aiming points consist of two rectangular markings,
En
150 feet in length, located on each side of the runway centerline. The width of each
gin
marking is 30 feet for a runway with a width of 150 feet or greater. The spacing
between the inner sides of the markings is 72 feet for a runway width of 150 feet or
eer
greater. For runways that are less than 150 feet wide, the width of the markings and the
i ng.
space between the inner sides of the markings is decreased in proportion to the decrease
in the width of the runway. Where there are touchdown zone markings, the space
between the inner sides of the markings should be the same as that of the touchdown net
markings.
Runway Touchdown Zone Marking
The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landings and are
coded to provide distance information. These markings are white and consist of groups
of one, two, and three rectangular bars evenly arranged in pairs along the runway
centerline. For runways less than 150 feet in width, the markings and spaces are
reduced proportionally, but the lengths remain the same. On runways having
touchdown zone markings at both ends, the pairs of markings which extend to within
900 feet of the runway midpoint are eliminated. The fixed distance markings are a part
of the touchdown zone markings but are used alone on non precision instrument
runways and visual runways 4,000 feet in length or longer used by jet aircraft.
Touchdown zone markings are required on runways with precision instrument
approaches.
Runway Side Strip Marking
Runway side stripe markings provide a visual distinction between the runway and
the surrounding terrain and also outline the runway width. Runway side stripes are
white and consist of continuous stripes located along each side of the runway. The
maximum distance between the outer edges of the stripes is 200 feet. The stripes have a
ww
minimum width of 36 inches for precision instrument runways and are at least equal to
w.E
the width of the runway centerline stripes on other runways. The stripes extend to the
end of displaced threshold areas which are used for takeoffs and rollouts. Side stripes
asy
are required on precision instrument runways.
Runway Threshold Bar

En
gin
A threshold bar identifies the beginning of the runway that is available for
eer
landing when there is pavement aligned with the runway on the approach side of the
i
threshold. A threshold bar is white and is located on the landing runway at the
ng.
threshold. The threshold bar is 10 feet wide and extends across the width of the runway.
Demarcation Bar net

A demarcation bar identifies a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast
pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. The demarcation bar is yellow and is
located on the blast pad, stopway or taxiway at the point where the runway intersects.
The demarcation bar is 3 feet wide and extends across the width of the blast pad,
stopway or taxiway.
Arrows and Arrowheads
Arrows are used to identify a displaced threshold area and are useful for
centerline guidance for takeoffs and/or rollouts. Arrowheads are used in connection
with a threshold bar to highlight the beginning of a runway where the use of chevrons is
not appropriate. Arrows and arrowheads used in a displaced threshold area are white.
Arrowheads used on taxiway prior to a runway threshold are yellow.
When a runway threshold is permanently displaced, the rows and arrowheads are
located in the portion of the runway before the displaced threshold. Where the
pavement area before a runway is used as a taxiway, arrowheads are located prior to the
threshold bar. Please refer to the FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5340-1J, “Standards
for Airport Markings”, for dimensions and spacing of arrows and arrowheads.
Chevrons
Chevrons are used to identify pavement areas unusable for landing, takeoff, and
ww
taxiing. Chevrons are yellow and are located on pavement areas that are aligned with
w.E
and adjacent to the runway. Please refer to the FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5340-
1J, “Standards for Airport Markings”, for dimensions and spacing of chevrons.
asy
Markings For Blast Pads And Stopways
En
A runway blast pad is a surface near the ends of runways provided to reduce the
gin
erosive effect of jet blast and propeller wash. A runway stopway is a defined surface
eer
beyond the end of the runway that was designed to be suitable for supporting an
i ng.
aircraft, without damaging that aircraft, during an aborted takeoff. All markings on blast
pads and stopways are painted yellow.
Taxiways net
Taxiways are defined as the paths that are used for the taxiing of aircraft from
one part of an airport to another. All taxiway markings are yellow. The different types
of taxiway markings are as follows:
• Taxiway Centerline Marking
• Taxiway Edge Marking
• Holding Position Markings
• Markings for a Taxiway in Front of a Runway

Taxiway Centerline Marking
Taxiway centerlines are marked to provide a visual identification of the

designated taxiing path. Taxiway centerlines are yellow and consist of a continuous
stripe along the centerline of the designated taxiway. On a taxiway curve, the markings
continue from the straight portion of the taxiway at a constant distance from the outside
edge of the taxiway. A width of between 6 inches and 12 inches wide is acceptable
provided the width selected is uniform for its entire length.
The centerline will be continuous in length except where it intersects a holding

position marking or runway marking element. For taxiway intersections designed for
ww
the straight thorough method of taxiing, the centerline markings continue straight
w.E
through the intersection. At taxiway intersections with a runway end, the taxiway
centerline marking is terminated at the runway edge, (with the exception of the situation
asy
where there is a displaced threshold, in which case the taxiway centerline may be
En
extended onto the runway displaced area). On taxiways used as an entrance or exit to a
runway, the taxiway centerline marking curves onto the runway and extends parallel to
gin
the runway centerline marking for 200 feet past the point where the two markings
eer
become parallel. For taxiways crossing a runway, the taxiway centerline marking may
i
continue across the runway but must be interrupted for the runway markings.
ng.
Taxiway Edge Marking
Taxiway edge markings are used to delineate the edge of the taxiway. They are
net
used when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement and
where the full strength pavement of the taxiway is not readily visible. Taxiway edge
markings are yellow and can either be continuous or dashed. Continuous taxiway edge
markings are used to identify the taxiway from the shoulder or some other surface not
intended to be used by aircraft.
Dashed taxiway edge markings are used when the aircraft would need to cross
the lines, for example when a taxiway enters or crosses aprons.
Continuous taxiway edge markings consist of a continuous double yellow line,

each being at least 6 inches in width and spaced 6 inches apart. Dashed taxiway edge
markings consist of a broken double yellow line, each being at least 6 inches wide
spaced at 6 inches apart from edge to edge. The lines are 15 feet in length with 25 foot
gaps.
Runway Holding Position Markings
On Taxiways Holding position markings identify the location on a taxiway where

an aircraft is supposed to stop while awaiting clearance to proceed onto the runway.
Holding position markings should be located on all taxiways that intersect runways
based upon the most critical aircraft using the runway. There are four types of holding
position markings. These markings are outlined with black lines and black interim
ww
spaces if needed for improved visibility on light colored (such as Portland cement)
w.E
pavement areas. They are as follows:
• Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Runway Intersections
asy
• Holding Position Markings for Runway/Runway Intersections
En
• Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
gin
• Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS) Critical Areas
eer
Holding Positions Markings For Taxiway/Runway Intersections
i ng.
Holding position markings for taxiway/runway intersections are indicated with
two solid lines followed by two broken lines. The solid lines are always on the side
where the aircraft is to hold.
net
Holding Positions Markings For Runway/Runway Intersections
Holding position markings for runway/runway markings are identical to the

holding position markings for taxiway/runway intersections (see Figure 13.1). The solid
lines of these markings are also always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.
However, these markings should only be installed on a runway where that portion of the
runway is used as a taxiway or used for “land and hold short” operations.

Holding Positions Markings For Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections are indicated with a

single line of dashes and spaces. These markings should only be installed at
taxiway/taxiway intersections where there is an operational need to hold aircraft at this
point, and are often not necessary.
Holding Positions Markings For ILS Critical Areas
The holding position markings for ILS critical areas are indicated with a set of
two parallel lines spaced four feet apart, in between these two lines and perpendicular to
them are sets of two parallel lines spaced one foot apart . Due to their appearance, these
ww
markings are commonly referred to as a “ladder” or “rail road tracks”.
w.E
The holding position markings for ILS critical areas identify the location on a
asy
taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to enter
these critical areas. These critical areas are used to protect the navigational aid signal or
En
the airspace required for the approach procedure. These markings are installed at the
gin
perimeter of the ILS critical area and are perpendicular to the taxiway centerline. Where
eer
the distance between the taxiway/runway holding position and the holding position for
i
an ILS critical area is 50 feet or less, one holding position may be established, provided
ng.
it does not affect capacity. The local FAA airways facilities office will help designate
the ILS critical areas for the airport operator.
net

ww
w.E
UNIT 5a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

5.1 DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS
HARBOUR
Harbour is defined as a parking or storage space along the coastline, where boats,
barges and ships can take shelter from bad weather or are kept for future. It is the area
alongside the coast, which consists of a thick wall providing protection from the waves
and currents to the ships, vessels, and cargo container loaders.
PORT
Port is defined as the place situated at the shore of the sea which connects land
ww
with the waterbody. They work as junction points for trading internationally, as in the
exchange of modes of transport, goods, etc. These are located in harbours, alongside the
coastlines. w.E
SATELLITE PORT
asy
En
A satellite port can either be one that is already existing or is created near a port
gin
that is reaching capacity. Satellite ports help overcome issues such as limited land
availability and draft adequacy, which is depth of water to which a ship sinks according
to its load. eer
WHARF i ng.
net
It denotes any structure of timber, masonry, cement, or other material built along
or at an angle to the navigable waterway, with sufficient depth of water to
accommodate vessels and receive and discharge cargo or passengers. The term can be
substituted for quay when applied to great solid structures in large ports. The area
between the quay wall (made of solid masonry) and the nearby warehouse or storage
facility is ca1led the quay apron.
PIER
A pier is a construction work extending into the harbour with sufficient depth of
water alongside to accommodate vessels, also used as a promenade or landing place for
passengers.

JETTY
A jetty is a small pier, usually made of timbers for boats, yachts or fishing boats
(fisherman jetty), but it also refers to large ships.
DOCK
A dock is an enclosed area of water used for loading, unloading, building or

repairing ships. Such a dock may be created by building enclosing harbour walls into an
existing natural water space, or by excavation within what would otherwise be dry land.
A wet dock or impounded dock is a variant in which the water is impounded
ww
either by dock gates or by a lock, thus allowing ships to remain afloat at low tide in
places with high tidal ranges. The level of water in the dock is maintained despite the
w.E
rising and falling of the tide. This makes transfer of cargo easier. It works like a lock
asy
which controls the water level and allows passage of ships.
En
A dry dock is another variant, also with dock gates, which can be emptied of
water to allow investigation and maintenance of the underwater parts of ships.
gin
A floating dry dock (sometimes just floating dock) is a submersible structure
eer
which lifts ships out of the water to allow dry docking where no land-based facilities
are available.
i ng.
WAVES
Due to the extreme raging force exerted on the surface of the water by the wind,
net
waves are formed. Waves are usually seen in shallower areas of the ocean. Waves are
created when many winds and water influences interact with each other.
TIDES
Due to the interaction of gravitational effects between the Earth, the moon, and
the sun, tides are produced. In deep oceanic areas, tides are usually produced. Tides are
created by rising and falling sea levels through the influence of gravity.

5.2 PLANNING AND DESIGN OF HARBOURS
The planning and design of harbor is an important engineering phenomenon with

both major commercial and social implications. The literature suggests that various
approaches for harbors design of harbors such as fishing, commercial and refugee
harbors. The aim of this paper is to present a general guidance for the planning and
design of harbors. There are a number of general requirements which has to be fulfilled
while designing the harbors but also there are some specific requirements for each of
them. Furthermore, the different types of foundations such as shallow water
foundations, deep water foundations and pile foundations, as well as breakwaters such
ww
as permanent breakwaters and temporary breakwaters, and finally caissons are
submitted for the design of harbors. The equations, formulae and specifications for the
w.E
design of the essential components of harbors are also given.
asy
Due to the incremental growth in the world population and the current trend of
En
globalization, there is a significant interest for harbor development whether this
includes constructing new harbors or existing ports that need to improve or grow their
gin
ability. A harbor is a position of security and solace, a little bay or other shielded piece
eer
of a zone of water, generally very much ensured against high waves and solid streams,
i ng.
and sufficiently profound to give dock to ships and other specialty. It is likewise a place
where port facilities are given such as convenience for ships and cargo dealing
facilities. Harbor construction activities include installing anchor piles, constructing
jetty, mooring and berthing dolphins which are designed to safely moor vessels
net
alongside offshore structures and quay wall renovation which might be required to
reinforce existing quay walls to enable heavier materials and equipment to be handled.
Harbors can be classified into three categories which are natural, semi-natural and
artificial harbors
Major Types of Harbors Considering their benefit and situation, harbors are
separated into three types as refugee harbors including naval bases, commercial harbors
connected with ports and fishery harbors

Harbors of Refugee Including Naval Base
A harbor of refugee is a secured water region utilized exclusively as a sanctuary

for ships in a tempest or a part of a commercial harbor with satisfactory space for a
different dock zone that does not meddle with the commercial traffic.
Commercial Harbors Connected With Ports
A commercial harbor is one that has docking facilities comprising of piers,

wharves, or dolphins at which ships berth while loading or unloading cargo. Huge
numbers of extensive commercial harbors in urban communities are municipal, or
government-controlled, harbors operated by port authorities.
ww
Fishing Harbors
w.E
A fishing harbor contains multifunctional facilities that provide sufficient
asy
requirements for the capture of fish and its consumption. Large fishing vessels and huge
En
number of fish creates a demand for well-bred maintenance and repair facilities not
only for the vessels but also for the equipment as well.
gin
Design Requirements for Harbors
eer
i
Before designing a harbor, there are two major activities which have to be done.
ng.
These activities are ‘Collecting the necessary information’ and ‘Identifying the area
required’.
Collection of the Necessary Information

net
To carry out the planning of a harbor, the first step is that the collection of
necessary information of the existing properties of the suggested site. The following
important facts should be investigated first:
• To perform a complete investigation of the neighborhood including the

foreshore and depths of water in the vicinity
• To study the nature of the harbor (if it is refuge or not)
• To study the existence of sea insects which could give damage the foundation

• To study the problem of silting or erosion of coastline
• To ascertain the character of the ground borings and to take the soundings
• To identify the probable surface conditions on land and borings on land
• To study the natural metrological phenomenon at site with respect to frequency

of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and minimum temperatures, direction and
intensity of winds, humidity and also direction and velocity of currents
Identify the Area Required
The area of the harbor depends upon the following factors:
ww• Size and number of ships to be accommodated in the harbor at a time
w.E
• Length and width needed for movement of ships to and from berths
• Type of cargo carried

asy
General Requirements of a Harbor
En
Following are the requirements of a good harbor:
gin
eer
• The ship channels should have sufficient depth for the draft of the visiting
vessels to the harbor
i ng.
• The bottom of the harbor should provide secured anchorage to hold the ships
against the force of strong winds net
• The land masses or breakwater must be provided to protect against the
destructive wave action
• The entrance of the harbor should be wide enough to provide the ready passage
for shipping and at the same time it should be narrow enough to restrict the
transmission of excessive amount of wave energy in time of storms.
Requirements of a Harbor of Refugee Including Naval Base
Following are the requirements of a harbor of refugee:
• Facilities which obtain repairs and supplies

• Safe and convenient anchorage against the sea
• Ready accessibility from the high seas
• Spacious accommodation as damaged ships will need immediate shelter and

quick repairs
• Accommodation for naval vessels
Requirements of a Commercial Harbor
Following are the requirements of a commercial harbor :
• Storage sheds for cargo,

ww • Good and quick repair facilities to avoid any delay,
w.E
• Long and large quays to make loading and unloading of cargo and facilities for
transporting easier and quicker,
asy
En
• Sufficient accommodation for the commercial marine,
gin
• Large accommodation for the commercial marine,
eer
• Well and enough sheltered conditions for loading and unloading.
Requirements of a Fishing Harbor

i ng.
Following are the requirements of a fishing harbor:
net
• The harbor should be continuously available for arrival and departure of fishing
ships
• Loading and unloading facilities along with quick dispatch facilities for the
perishable fish catch such as railway sidings and roads should be there,
• Freezing compartment stores with sufficient storing space for keeping the fish
safe.

5.3 HARBOUR LAYOUT AND TERMINAL FACILITIES
Estimation of littoral drift and direction of net drift are needed for design of
harbour projects. Different methods are used to study shoreline changes in the coastal
area. Among them, mathematical modelling is considered as an effective technique. The
current study addresses this issue through the use of mathematical models viz. spectral
wave model to derive nearshore wave climate, Boussinesq wave model for evolving the
harbour layout to provide adequate wave tranquillity in the harbour basin and one line
model for prediction of shoreline changes in the adjacent shoreline of the project.
In the present study, the mathematical models were applied for design of a layout
ww
for fishing harbour, on the West Coast of India in Kerala State. Different alternatives of
w.E
the harbour layout were tested in order to reduce siltation in the harbour and also to
achieve the desired tranquillity in the harbour basin. In the first alternative, the southern
asy
breakwater was extended by 340 m. However it was observed that after two to three
En
years, the shoreline will advance and the drift will start entering the harbour basin.
Therefore, in the second alternative, the mouth of the harbour was further taken into
gin
deeper water to minimize the drift entering in the harbour. With this alternative the
eer
wave tranquility studies showed that the layout is adequate to provide desired
i ng.
tranquility in the harbour basin and the wave heights will remain within 0.3 m almost
round the year. Thus, mathematical modelling technique was used to evolve a harbour
net
layout that satisfies the tranquillity criteria and also ensures minimum siltation in the
harbour basin.
Introduction
Fisheries sector is considered as one of the most important productive and

developing sectors of the Kerala state. In order to promote fishing sector Kerala
government is building fishing harbours across Kerala coast. One such fishing harbour
with two breakwaters, north breakwater of 145 m length and south breakwater of 476 m
length was constructed at Thottappally. The location is fully exposed to the high waves
of upto 2.5 m height from Arabian Sea and also to the effects of littoral drift. Presently,
major siltation in the harbour and subsequent advancement of the shoreline on southern

side of south breakwater and erosion on northern side of north breakwater has been
observed since the construction of the two breakwaters.
Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) suggested modifications to

the existing harbour layout to minimize the problem of siltation in the harbour and
provide adequate wave tranquillity. This paper presents Mathematical model studies
carried out to optimize the harbour layout to provide desired tranquillity in the harbour
and also to reduce siltation in the harbour.
Methodology
The offshore wave data reported by India Meteorological Department as

ww
observed from ships plying in deep waters off Thottappally were transformed by MIKE
w.E
21 (SW) Spectral Wave model to get the near-shore wave climate at the fishing harbour
in the absence of measured near-shore wave data. MIKE21- (BW) Boussinesq Wave
asy
was used for assessment of near-shore wave field and wave penetration in the fishing
En
harbour. Estimation of littoral drift distribution and simulation of shoreline changes
gin
were carried out using LITPACK model. These mathematical models are developed by
Danish Hydraulic Institute , Denmark
eer
ite Conditions
i ng.
The fishing harbour is situated at 9°19'8.64"N latitude and 76°22'47.21"E
longitude. The near-shore bathymetry at the site is having mild slope and the coastline
orientation is 1550 N. Mean tidal level is 0.6 m. observed shoreline changes from
net
October 2005 to February 2013 were considered for the study. The grain size (D50 )
varied from 0.22 mm to 0.09 mm.
Littoral drift between Fort Cochin and Anthakaranazhi is 7X106 m3 towards

south as estimated by Pravin D Kunte (2001). Longshore sediment transport rates for
the Kerala Coast were estimated by V. Sanil Kumar (2006). The annual net transport of
16,929 m3 towards north was estimated at Alleppey which is about 25 km towards
North of Thottappally. The annual net transport of 383,784 m3 towards south was
estimated at Kollam which is about 50 km towards South of Thottappally. From
shoreline changes occurring in the vicinity of the breakwaters and also the satellite
imageries from Google, it is seen that net drift is towards north. The Offshore wave
climate during the entire year indicates that the predominant wave directions in deep
water are from SSW to West with the maximum wave heights of the order of 4.5 m.
These deep water wave data were transformed by MIKE 21- SW model to get the near-
shore wave climate in 8m depth at the fishing harbour.
Estimation of littoral drift distribution and simulation of shoreline changes
LITDRIFT module of LITPACK software was used to estimate annual littoral

drift rates and its distribution on the profile normal to the shoreline. The LITDRIFT
module simulates the cross-shore distribution of wave height, setup and longshore
ww
current for an arbitrary coastal profile. The longshore and cross-shore momentum
w.E
balance equation is solved to give the cross-shore distribution of longshore current and
setup. Wave decay due to breaking is modelled. LITDRIFT calculates the net/gross
asy
littoral transport over a specific design period. Important factors, such as linking of the
En
water level and the beach profile to the incident sea state, are included. The bed profile
near the harbour was used for drift computation. This profile covers a distance of 2.4
gin
km extending up to about -8m depth contour (with respect to Chart Datum). The profile
eer
was descretized with grid size of 10 m. The model was calibrated for observed
i ng.
shoreline changes. The model was run for annual nearshore wave climate. Annual,
northward and southward transport rates were computed. The northward drift is plotted
as positive while southward drift is plotted as negative. net
In order to assess the impact of the breakwaters on the coastline, LITLINE
module of LITPACK software was used. The length of the shoreline considered for the
studies is 1.2 km, extending about 500 m towards north of the breakwater and about
500 m towards south of the breakwater. It is divided into 236 grid points of grid size 5
m. The harbour layout proposed by Harbour Engineering Division (HED), Kerala, was
considered for the shoreline evolution. The harbour layout consists of Northern
breakwater of 250 m length and southern breakwater of 816 m (476+340) length.
LITLINE is a one dimensional model. Therefore, projected lengths of the breakwaters
were considered in the model setup. For the proposed layout, projected lengths of 250
m and 370 m of the Northern and Southern breakwater were considered respectively.
While the modified layout suggested by CWPRS, consists of southern breakwater of

896 m (476+420) and Northern breakwater of 436 m length. For the modified layout,
projected lengths of 388 m and 460 m of the Northern and Southern breakwater were
considered respectively. The model was run for 2, 4 and 6 years with the proposed
breakwaters and modified breakwaters.
Marine Terminals
A terminal is a place where loading and unloading of people or goods takes place
like for e.g. a bus terminal or a train terminal. In simple terms it can be said that marine
terminals are stops or stations for ships and boats.
ww However, it has to be noted that a marine terminal is not a distinct station for the
w.E
ships. Marine terminals just form a part of the port where goods and cargo can be
loaded into a ship and unloaded in case a ship comes to the port. Marine terminals are
asy
very popular and form an important necessity when it comes to the cargo aspect of
ships.
En
gin
The port or harbour is a very busy place. There are not just passengers arriving
eer
but there are also people waiting to aboard a ship. In addition to so many people, there
form a major component in ports. i

is also the hauling and offloading of cargo that needs to be done since cargo ships also
ng.
If proper care is not taken to load the cargo in the proper ship or offload thenet
goods correctly in the right manner, then it could lead to a lot of loss. This loss would
not only be in terms of finance but also in terms of important and necessary goods and
commodities, to both the businessmen as well as the clients.
This is the main reason why marine terminals are kept separate from the rest of
the port or harbour. This keeping aside of a separate area ensures that the loading and
offloading process takes place continuously, and in the most perfect manner. It has to be
noted that marine terminals are also known as docks (used for bigger ships) and wharfs
(when ships of smaller sizes are hauled with cargo).

Another important presence in such marine terminals is of the people, who are
responsible for the smooth functioning of the marine terminal. The professionals who
help with the entire goods hauling and unloading process work round-the-clock and
tirelessly to make sure that there are no errors whatsoever. They are alert and
responsible professionals which make it easier for the companies and clients to trust
such marine terminals with their goods and cargo.
Marine terminals are also an important necessity when it comes to oil rigs and oil
drillings. In the deep oceanic and high sea areas where oil drilling and oil rigs form a
crucial part, the crude oil containers are hauled and emptied in marine terminals that are
ww
located in the high seas. This ensures that a regular supply of crude oil and gas is
maintained to the inshore areas as and when required. This continuous supply also helps
w.E
to avoid any chances of oil spills and accidents in case any oil tanker collapses due to
excess weight.
asy
En
Business activities carried over sea-routes are a very old custom. But even as
they were popular and necessary in the olden days, the amount of loss to the cargo was
gin
also huge because of lack of regulation. In today’s times, with the benefits and
eer
assistance provided by marine terminals, the prospect of loss has been reduced
i ng.
drastically. For this reason alone, marine terminals and the people who work in such
terminals deserve to be appreciated and admired greatly.
net

5.4 COASTAL STRUCTURES
The main and prime reason to construct coastal protection structures is to protect
harbor and other infrastructures from sea wave effects such as erosion. Not only are
they useful for changing current and sand movements but also to redirect rivers and
streams.
Types of Coastal Protection Structures
There are various structures that considered or used as coastal protection

structures for example groins, seawalls, bulkheads, breakwaters, and jetties.
ww
1. Seawalls
This large coastal protection structures can be built using different types of
w.E
construction materials such as rubble mound, granite masonry, or reinforced
asy
concrete. Seawalls are commonly built and run along shoreline to prevent coastal
structures and areas from the detrimental influence of ocean wave actions and
En
flooding which are driven by storms. There are various arrangements or
gin
configurations that might be employed includes curved face seawall, stepped face
seawall, rubble mound seawall.
eer
a. Curved face seawall
i ng.
Curved face seawall is designed to withstand high wave action effects.
Foundation materials loss, which might be caused by scouring waves and
leaching from over topping water or storm drainage underneath the wall, is
net
avoided by employing sheet pile cut off wall. Moreover, the toe of the curved
face seawall is built from large stones to decrease scouring.
b. Stepped face seawall
Stepped face seawall is used to oppose or resist moderate wave actions.

Reinforced concrete sheet piles with tongue and groove joints are employed to
construction this type of seawall. The spaces which is created between piles is
either filled with grout in order make sand proof cut off wall or install geotextile
fiber at the back of the sheet pile to form sand tight barrier. Applying geotextile
is beneficial because it allows seeping water through and consequently prevents

accumulating hydrostatic pressure.
c. Rubble Mound Seawalls

Design and construction this type of seawall configuration might be easier
and cheaper. It can resist substantially strong wave actions. Despite scouring of
the front beach, quarry stone comprising the seawall could be readjusted and
settled without causing structural failure.
2. Bulkheads
Bulkheads can be constructed by concrete, steel, or timber. There two
ww major types which are gravity structures and anchored sheet pile walls. The
bulkheads might not have exposed to sustainability strong wave actions and its
w.E
main purpose is to retain earth but scouring at the base of the structure should be
asy
considered by the designer. Cellular sheet pile bulkheads are employed for
situations where rock is close to the surface and enough penetration cannot be
En
achieved for the anchored bulkhead type. Moreover, sheet pile should be
gin
sufficiently reinforced for bending moment, soil conditions, hydrostatic pressures
and support points.
eer
3. Groins
i ng.
Groins are shore protection structures that decrease erosion effects to the
shoreline by changing offshore current and wave patterns. Groins can be built by
materials such as concrete, stone, steel, or timber and are categorized depend on
net
length, height, and permeability. Furthermore, groins are commonly constructed
vertically to the shoreline and it can either impermeable or permeable.
4. Jetties
Jetties are usually built of materials such as concrete, steel, stone, timber,
and occasionally asphalt used as binder. This structure is constructed at river
estuary or harbour entrance and extended into deeper water to oppose forming of
sandbars and limit currents.

5. Breakwaters
There are three major types of breakwaters namely: offshore, shore-
connected, and rubble mound. Not only are they used to protect shore area,
anchorage, harbor from wave actions but also to create secure environment for
mooring, operating, and handling ships.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.5 PIER
A Pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of water and usually juts out
from its shore, typically supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-water access
to offshore areas. Frequent pier uses include fishing, boat docking and access for both
passengers and cargo, and oceanside recreation. Bridges, buildings, and walkways may
all be supported by piers. Their open structure allows tides and currents to flow
relatively unhindered, whereas the more solid foundations of a quay or the closely
spaced piles of a wharf can act as a breakwater, and are consequently more liable to
silting. Piers can range in size and complexity from a simple lightweight wooden
ww
structure to major structures extended over 1,600 m (5,200 ft). In American English, a
pier may be synonymous with a dock.
w.E
Piers have been built for several purposes, and because these different purposes
asy
have distinct regional variances, the term pier tends to have different nuances of
En
meaning in different parts of the world. Thus in North America and Australia, where
many ports were, until recently, built on the multiple pier model, the term tends to
gin
imply a current or former cargo-handling facility. In contrast, in Europe, where ports
eer
more often use basins and river-side quays than piers, the term is principally associated
i ng.
with the image of a Victorian cast iron pleasure pier. However, the earliest piers pre-
date the Victorian age.
TYPES OF PIER net

Piers can be categorized into different groupings according to the principal
purpose. However, there is considerable overlap between these categories. For example,
pleasure piers often also allow for the docking of pleasure steamers and other similar
craft, while working piers have often been converted to leisure use after being rendered
obsolete by advanced developments in cargo-handling technology. Many piers are
floating piers, to ensure that the piers raise and lower with the tide along with the boats
tied to them. This prevents a situation where lines become overly taut or loose by rising
or lowering tides. An overly taut or loose tie-line can damage boats by pulling them out

of the water or allowing them so much leeway that they bang forcefully against the
sides of the pier.
WORKING PIERS
Working piers were built for the handling of passengers and cargo onto and off
ships or (as at Wigan Pier) canal boats. Working piers themselves fall into two different
groups. Longer individual piers are often found at ports with large tidal ranges, with the
pier stretching far enough off shore to reach deep water at low tide. Such piers provided
an economical alternative to impounded docks where cargo volumes were low, or
where specialist bulk cargo was handled, such as at coal piers. The other form of
ww
working pier, often called the finger pier, was built at ports with smaller tidal ranges.
w.E
Here the principal advantage was to give a greater available quay length for ships to
berth against compared to a linear littoral quayside, and such piers are usually much
asy
shorter. Typically each pier would carry a single transit shed the length of the pier, with
ships berthing bow or stern in to the shore.
En
gin
The advent of container shipping, with its need for large container handling
spaces adjacent to the shipping berths, has made working piers obsolete for the handling
eer
of general cargo, although some still survive for the handling of passenger ships or bulk
i ng.
cargos. One example, is in use in Progreso, Yucatán, where a pier extends more than
4 miles into the Gulf of Mexico, making it the longest pier in the world. The Progreso
Pier supplies much of the peninsula with transportation for the fishing and cargo net
industries and serves as a port for large cruise ships in the area. Many other working
piers have been demolished, or remain derelict, but some have been recycled as
pleasure piers. The best known example of this is Pier 39 in San Francisco.
At Southport and the Tweed River on the Gold Coast in Australia, there are piers
that support equipment for a sand bypassing system that maintains the health of sandy
beaches and navigation channels.
PLEASURE PIER
Pleasure piers were first built in Britain during the early 19th century. The
earliest structures were Ryde Pier, built in 1813/4, Trinity Chain Pier near Leith, built in
1821, and Brighton Chain Pier, built in 1823. Only the oldest of these piers still
remains. At that time the introduction of the railways for the first time permitted mass
tourism to dedicated seaside resorts. The large tidal ranges at many such resorts meant
that for much of the day, the sea was not visible from the shore. The pleasure pier was
the resorts' answer, permitting holidaymakers to promenade over and alongside the sea
at all times. The world's longest pleasure pier is at Southend-on-Sea, Essex, and extends
1.3 miles (2.1 km) into the Thames estuary. The longest pier on the West Coast of the
US is the Santa Cruz Wharf, with a length of 2,745 feet (837 m).
Providing a walkway out to sea, pleasure piers often include amusements and
ww
theatres as part of their attractions. Such a pier may be unroofed, closed, or partly open
and partly closed. Sometimes a pier has two decks. Galveston Island Historic Pleasure
w.E
Pier in Galveston, Texas has a roller coaster, 15 rides, carnival games and souvenir
shops.
asy
En
Early pleasure piers were of wooden construction, with the first iron pleasure pier
being Margate Jetty, opened in 1855. Margate pier was wrecked in storms in 1978 and
gin
never repaired. The longest iron pleasure pier still remaining is the one at Southend.
eer
First opened as a wooden pier in 1829, it was reconstructed in iron and completed in
i ng.
1889. In a 2006 UK poll, the public voted the seaside pier onto the list of icons of
England.
Fishing piers net

Many piers are built for the purpose of providing boatless anglers access to
fishing grounds that are otherwise inaccessible. Many "Free Piers" are available in
larger harbors which differ from private piers. Free Piers are often primarily used for
fishing.

5.6 BREAKWATERS
Breakwaters are structures constructed on coasts as part of coastal defense or to

protect an anchorage from the effects of both weather and long shore drift.
• A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage or basin from wave

disturbance.
• A barrier that breaks the force of waves, as before a harbor.
Breakwater types
There are several types of breakwaters, the different types can be divided into
ww
two categories. Rubble mound breakwaters which are made out of large heaps of loose
w.E
elements, and monolithic breakwaters which have a cross section acting as one block,
for instance a caisson.
asy
The following breakwater types have been implemented: conventional rubble
En
mound breakwater, caisson breakwater and the vertically composite breakwater. For
gin
each of these structures a class is defined with which a conceptual design can be made.
Conventional Rubble Mound

eer
i ng.
As mentioned in the introduction a rubble mound breakwater is made out of large
heaps of loose elements, the armour layer of these types are made with either rock or
concrete armour units such as Xbloc or XblocPlus. Both types of armour layer can be
used to design a breakwater.
net
Design of breakwater with Rock as armour layer
Makes a conceptual design for a conventional rubble mound breakwater with rock as
the armour layer, for one or several limit states. The following computations are
performed:
 The armour layer is designed with the Van der Meer formulas for deep and
shallow water (van der Meer, 1988; van Gent et al., 2003).
 The underlayer is designed by using the rules for the underlayer
 A filter layer is designed if one is needed, depends on Dn50_core
 The toe is designed with the toe stability formula of Van der Meer (1998).
 The crest freeboard is computed with the formula from EurOtop (2018)
 The required width of the scour protection with Sumer and Fredsoe (2000)
 If a Soil is specified, a slip circle analysis is performed
Composite (vertical)
The caisson type and vertical composite breakwater are included in one design
class as they are basically the same structures. The main difference is the water depth
immediately in front of the caisson. In this package the classification criteria from
Eurotop (2018) is used, which classifies a vertical breakwater as vertical
ww
if dh>0.6dh>0.6, else the breakwater is classified as a vertically composite breakwater.
w.E
Design of (composite) vertical breakwater
asy
Makes a conceptual design of a vertical or composite vertical breakwater, with a
En
caisson on a rubble mound foundation. The following computations are performed:
gin
 The necessary size of the armour layer of the foundation is designed with the
modified Tanimoto formula (Takahashi, 2002).
 The required stone size for the core of the foundation eer
i ng.
 The water depth in front of the caisson is computed based on the dimensions
of the foundation and water depth
 The crest freeboard is computed with the formulae from EurOtop net
(2018), vertical() is used, which automatically classifies the breakwater so
that the correct formula is used.
 The required width of the caisson is computed with the extended Goda
formula (Takahasi, 2002).
 The required width of the scour protection with Sumer and Fredsoe (2000).
Note that a scour protection is only added if the width of the foundation is not
sufficient.
 If a Soil is specified the bearing capacity of the soil will also be checked with
Brinch Hansen (1970).

Breakwaters
• Breakwaters are structures constructed on coasts as part of coastal defense or to

protect an anchorage from the effects of both weather and long shore drift.
• A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage or basin from wave

disturbance.
• A barrier that breaks the force of waves, as before a harbor.
• Breakwater are the structures constructed to enclose the harbours to protect them
from the effect of wind generated waves by reflecting and dissipating their force or
ww
energy. Such a construction makes it possible to use the area thus enclosed as a safe
anchorage for ships and to facilitate loading and unloading of water by means of wave
breakers. w.E
Need of Breakwater
asy
En
• Breakwaters are built to provide shelter from waves to manipulate the littoral/sand
gin
transport conditions and thereby to trap some sand entrance inside the Anchorage Area
eer
• A breakwater is a large pile of rocks built parallel to the shore. It is designed to
submerged breakwater). i
block the waves and the surf. Some breakwaters are below the water's surface (a
ng.
• Breakwaters are usually built to provide calm waters for harbors and artificial
marinas.
net
• Submerged breakwaters are built to reduce beach erosion. These may also be
referred to as artificial "reefs."
• A breakwater can be offshore, underwater or connected to the land. As with groins

and jetties, when the long shore current is interrupted, a breakwater will dramatically
change the profile of the beach. Over time, sand will accumulate towards a breakwater.
Down drift sand will erode.
• A breakwater can cause millions of dollars in beach erosion in the decades after it
is built.
Types of Breakwaters
 Detached breakwater (breakwaters can completely isolated from the shore)
Head land breakwaters
Near shore breakwaters
 Attached breakwater (Breakwaters can be connected to the shore line)
Low crested structure
High crested structure
ww
 Rubble mound structure
 Composite structure
w.E
 Using mass ( caissons )
asy
 Using a revetment slope (e.g with rock or concrete armor units )
 Emerged breakwaters
 Submerged breakwaters En
 Floating breakwaters gin
eer
DETACHED Breakwater
i ng.
Breakwaters without any constructed connection to the shore. This type of
system detached breakwaters are constructed away from the shoreline, usually a slight
distance offshore .they are designed to promote beach deposition on their lee side
net
appropriate in areas of large sediment transport
Head land breakwaters(HB)
A series of breakwaters constructed in an “Attached” fashion to the shoreline &

angled in the direction of predominant waves - the shoreline behind the structures
evolves into a natural “crenulate” or log spiral embayment.
Nearshore Breakwaters
Nearshore breakwaters are detached, generally shore-parallel structures that reduce

the amount of wave energy reaching a protected area. They are similar to natural bars,
reefs or nearshore islands that dissipate wave energy. The reduction in wave energy
slows the littoral drift, produces sediment deposition and a shoreline bulge or salient
feature in the sheltered area behind the breakwater. Some longshore sediment transport
may continue along the coast behind the nearshore breakwater
Rubble mound breakwater
• Rubble mounds are frequently used structures.
• Rubble mound breakwater consists of armour layer, a filter layer & core.
• It is a structure, built up of core of quarry run rock overlain by one or two layers of
ww
large rocks. Armour stone or precast elements are used for outer armour layer to protect
the structure against wave attack. Crown wall is constructed on top of mound to prevent
w.E
or to reduce wave
asy
• A breakwater constructed by a heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble or
undressed stone.
En
gin
• When water depths are large RBW may be uneconomical in view of huge volume
of rocks required.
• Built upto water depth of 50m.

eer
i ng.
• Not suitable when space is a problem. If the harbor side may have to be used for
berthing of ships, the RBW with its sloping faces is no suitable for berthing. net
• These type of breakwaters dissipate the incident wave energy by forcing them to
break on a slope and thus do not produce appreciable reflection.
ADVANTAGES OF RMBW
• Use of natural material
• Reduces material cost
• Use of small construction equipment
• Less environmental impact
• Easy to construct
• Failure is mainly due to poor interlocking capacity between individual blocks
• Unavailability of large size natural rocks leads to artificial armour blocks.
Disadvantages of RMBW
• Needs a considerable amount of construction materials.
• Continuous maintenance is required.
• Sometimes there are difficulties in erection, as the rock weight increases with
the increase of wave heights.
• Can’t be used for ship berthing

ww
VERTICAL BREAKWATER
w.E
• A breakwater formed by the construction in a regular and systematic manner of
asy
a vertical wall of masonry concrete blocks or mass concrete, with vertical and seaward
face.
En
gin
• Reflect the incident waves without dissipating much wave energy.
• Wave protection in port/channel

eer
• Protection from siltation, currents
i ng.
• Tsunami protection
• Berthing facilities
net
• Access/transport facility
• Normally it is constructed in locations where the depth of the sea is greater than
twice the design wave height.
Vertical Wall Breakwaters - Types
Conventional type
The caisson is placed on a relatively thin stone bedding. Advantage of this type is
the minimum use of natural rock (in case scarce) Wave walls are generally placed on
shore connected caissons (reduce overtopping)
Vertical composite type
The caisson is placed on a high rubble foundation This type is economic in deep
waters, but requires substantial volumes of (small size) rock fill for foundation
Horizontal composite type
The front slope of the caisson is covered by armour units This type is used in
shallow water. The mound reduces wave reflection, wave impact and wave overtopping
Repair of displaced vertical breakwaters Used when a (deep) quay is required at the
inside of rubble mound breakwater
ww
Block type
w.E
This type of breakwater needs to be placed on rock sea beds or on very strong soils
due to very high foundation loads and sensitivity to differential settlements
asy
Piled breakwater with concrete wall
En
Piled breakwaters consist of an inclined or vertical curtain wall mounted on pile
gin
work. The type is applicable in less severe wave climates on site with weak and soft
subsoils with very thick layers. Manfredonia New Port (Italy)
eer
Sloping top
i ng.
The upper part of the front slope above still water level is given a slope to reduce
wave forces and improve the direction of the wave forces on the sloping front. net
Overtopping is larger than for a vertical wall with equal level.
Perforated front wall
The front wall is perforated by holes or slots with a wave chamber behind. Due to
the dissipation of energy both the wave forces on the caisson and the wave reflection
are reduced

Semi-circular caisson
Well suited for shallow water situations with intensive wave breaking Due to the
dissipation of energy both the wave forces on the caisson and the wave reflection are
reduced
Dual cylindrical caisson
Outer permeable and inner impermeable cylinder. Low reflection and low permeable
Centre chamber and lower ring chamber fills with sand Combi-caisson
Disadvantages of vertical wall breakwaters
ww
• Sea bottom has to be leveled and prepared for placements of large blocks or
caissons.
w.E
• Foundations made of fine sand may cause erosion and settlement.
asy
• Erosion may cause tilting or displacement of large monoliths.
• Difficult and expensive to repair. En

gin
• Building of caissons and launching or towing them into position require special
eer
land and water areas beside involvement of heavy construction equipments.
i ng.
• Require form work, quality concrete, skilled labour, batching plants and floating
crafts.
PARAMETERS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BREAKWATER

net
When a breakwater is to be built at a certain location, and the environmental impact
of such a structure has already been evaluated and deemed environmentally feasible, the
following parameters are required before construction can commence:
• a detailed hydrographic survey of the site;
• a geotechnical investigation of the sea bed;
• a wave height investigation or hindcasting;
• a material needs assessment; and

• the cross-sectional design of the structure.
Geotechnical investigation
A geotechnical investigation of the sea bed is required to determine the type of

founding material and its extent. The results of this investigation will have a direct
bearing on the type of cross-section of the breakwater. In addition, it is essential to
determine what the coastline consists of, for example:
• soft or hard rock (like coral reefs or granite);
• sand (as found on beaches);
ww
• clay (as in some mangrove areas); and
w.E
• soft to very soft clay, silt or mud (as found along some river banks, mangroves and
other tidal areas).
asy
Basic geotechnical investigations
En
Basic geotechnical investigations normally suffice for small or artisanal projects,
gin
especially when the project site is remote and access poor. A basic geotechnical
eer
investigation should be carried out or supervised by an experienced engineer or
i ng.
geologist familiar with the local soil conditions. The following activities may be carried
out in a basic investigation using only portable equipment:
• retrieval of bottom sediments for laboratory analysis; net

• measurement of bottom layer (loose sediment) thickness;
• approximate estimation of bearing capacity of the sea bed
The equipment required to carry out the above mentioned activities consists of :
A stable floating platform (a single canoe is not stable enough, but two canoes tied
together to form a catamaran are excellent)
Diving equipment
A Van Veen bottom sampler (may be rented from a national or university

laboratory)
A 20 mm diameter steel pricking rod and a water lance (a 20 mm diameter steel pipe
connected to a gasoline-powered water pump).
Simply picking up samples from the sea bed with a scoop or bucket disturbs the
sediment layers with the eventual loss of the finer material and is not a recommended
method. The sediments thus collected should then be carefully placed in wide-necked
glass jars and taken to a national or university laboratory for analysis. At least 10
kilograms of sediment are normally required by the laboratory for a proper analysis
Sometimes, a good hard bottom is overlain by a layer of loose or silty sand or mud.
In most cases this layer has to be removed by dredging to expose the harder material
ww
underneath. To determine the thickness of this harder layer, a water lance is required.
w.E
This consists of a length of steel tubing (the poker), sealed at the bottom end with a
conical fitting and connected to a length of water hose at the top end. The water hose is
asy
connected to a small gasoline-powered water pump drawing seawater from over the
En
side of the platform. The conical end has four 3 mm diameter holes drilled into it.
gin
The diver simply pokes the steel tube into the sediment while water is pumped into it
from above until the poker stops penetrating. The diver then measures the penetration.
eer
This method, also known as pricking, works very well in silty and muddy deposits up to
i ng.
2 to 3 metres thick. It is not very effective in very coarse sand with large pebbles.
net

5.7 WHARF
A wharf, quay or staith(e) is a structure on the shore of a harbour or on the bank

of a river or canal where ships may dock to load and unload cargo or
passengers.[2][3] Such a structure includes one or more berths (mooring locations), and
may also include piers, warehouses, or other facilities necessary for handling the ships.
Wharves are often considered to be a series of docks at which boats are stationed.
A wharf commonly comprises a fixed platform, often on pilings. Commercial

ports may have warehouses that serve as interim storage: where it is sufficient a single
wharf with a single berth constructed along the land adjacent to the water is normally
ww
used; where there is a need for more capacity multiple wharves, or perhaps a single
w.E
large wharf with multiple berths, will instead be constructed, sometimes projecting over
the water. A pier, raised over the water rather than within it, is commonly used for cases
asy
where the weight or volume of cargos will be low.
En
Smaller and more modern wharves are sometimes built on flotation devices
gin
(pontoons) to keep them at the same level as the ship, even during changing tides.
eer
In everyday parlance the term quay is common in the United Kingdom, Canada,
whereas the term wharf is i

Australia, and many other Commonwealth countries, and the Republic of Ireland,
more common in the United States. In someng.
contexts wharf and quay may be used to mean pier, berth, or jetty.
In old ports such as London (which once had around 1700 wharves) many old
net
wharves have been converted to residential or office use.
Certain early railways in England referred to goods loading points as "wharves".

The term was carried over from marine usage. The person who was resident in charge
of the wharf was referred to as a "wharfinger".
JETTIES
Jetties protect the shoreline of a body of water by acting as a barrier against

erosion from currents, tides, and waves. Jetties can also be used to connect the land

with deep water farther away from shore for the purposes of docking ships and
unloading cargo. This type of jetty is called a pier.
For regulating rivers
Another form of jetties, wing dams are extended out, opposite one another, from
each bank of a river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentration of
the current to produce a deepening.
For berthing at docks
Where docks are given sloping sides, openwork timber jetties are generally
ww
carried across the slope, at the ends of which vessels can lie in deep water or more solid
structures are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. Pilework jetties are also
w.E
constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on each side, so as to form an
asy
enlarging trumpet-shaped channel between the entrance, lock or tidal basin and the
approach channel, in order to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid
En
jetties, moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out into a wide dock, at
gin
right angles to the line of quays at the side, to enlarge the accommodation; and they also
eer
serve, when extended on a large scale from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an
taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseille. i

outlying breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when discharging and
ng.
At entrances to jetty harbor net
The approach channel to some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and
protected across the beach by parallel jetties. In some cases, these are made solid up to a
little above low water of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided
with a planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. In other cases, they
consist entirely of solid material without timber-work. The channel between the jetties
was originally maintained by tidal scour from low-lying areas close to the coast, and
subsequently by the current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably
deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent by the solid portion of
the jetties from the inroad of sand from the adjacent beach, and from the levelling
action of the waves; while the upper open portion serves to indicate the channel and to
guide the vessels. The bottom part of the older jetties, in such long-established jetty
ports as Calais, Dunkirk and Ostend, was composed of clay or rubble stone, covered on
the top by fascine-work or pitching, but the deepening of the jetty channel by dredging
and the need that arose for its enlargement led to the reconstruction of the jetties at
these ports. The nes jetties at Dunkirk were founded in the sandy beach, by the aid of
compressed air, at a depth of 22.75 feet (6.93 m). below low water of spring tides; and
their solid masonry portion, on a concrete foundation was raised 50 feet (15 m). above
low water of neap tides.
At lagoon outlets
ww A small tidal rise spreading tidal water over a large expanse of lagoon or inland
w.E
backwater causes the influx and efflux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a
narrows no longer confined by a bank on each side, becomes dispersed, and owing to
asy
the reduction of its scouring force, is no longer able at a moderate distance from the
En
shore effectually to resist the action of tending to form a continuous beach in front of
the outlet. Hence a bar is produced that diminishes the available depth in the approach
gin
channel. By carrying out a solid jetty over the bar, however on each side of the outlet,
eer
the tidal currents are concentrated in the channel across the bar, and lower it by scour.
Thus the available depth of the approach
i
channels
ng.
to Venice through
the Malamocco and Lido outlets from the Venetian Lagoon have been deepened several
net
feet (metres) over their bars by jetties of rubble, carried out across the foreshore into
deep water on both sides of the channel. Other examples are provided by the long jetties
extended into the sea in front of the entrance to Charleston harbour, formerly
constructed of fascines weighed down with stone and logs, but subsequently of rubble
stone, and by the two converging rubble jetties carried out from each shore of Dublin
Bay for deepening the approach to Dublin harbour. Jetties have the adverse effect of
endangering Surf Culture as a whole with their ability to destroy surf breaks.
At the outlet of tideless rivers
Jetties have been constructed on each side of the outlet river of some of the rivers
flowing into the Baltic, with the objective of prolonging the scour of the river and

protecting the channel from being shoaled by the littoral drift along the shore. The most
interesting application of parallel jetties is in lowering the bar in front of one of the
mouths of a deltaic river flowing into a tide — a virtual prolongation of its less sea, by
extending the scour of the river out to the bar by banks. Jetties prolonging the Sulina
branch of the Danube into the Black Sea, and the south pass of the Mississippi
River into the Gulf of Mexico, formed of rubble stone and concrete blocks, and
respectively, have enabled the discharge of these rivers to scour away the bars
obstructing the access to them; and they have also carried the sediment-bearing waters
sufficiently far out to come under the influence of littoral currents, which, by conveying
away some of the sediment, postpone the eventual formation of a fresh bar farther out
ww
At the mouth of tidal rivers
w.E
Where a river is narrow near its mouth, has a generally feeble discharge and a
asy
small tidal range, the sea is liable on an exposed coast to block up its outlet during
En
severe storms. The river is thus forced to seek another exit at a weak spot of the beach,
which along a low coast may be at some distance off; and this new outlet in its turn may
gin
be blocked up, so that the river from time to time shifts the position of its mouth. This
eer
inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the outlet of the river at a
i ng.
suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each side of this outlet across the beach, thereby
concentrating its discharge in a definite channel and protecting the mouth from being
net
blocked up by littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the shifting outlet of
the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth, and has also been successfully employed for
fixing the wandering mouth of the Adur near Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into
the Bay of Biscay below Bayonne. When a new channel was cut across the Hook of
Holland to provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel for the river Meuse, forming
the approach channel to Rotterdam, low, broad, parallel jetties, composed of fascine
mattresses weighted with stone, were carried across the foreshore into the sea on either
side of the new mouth of the river, to protect the jetty channel from littoral drift, and
cause the discharge of the river to maintain it out to deep water. The channel, also,
beyond the outlet of the river Nervion into the Bay of Biscay has been regulated by
jetties; and by extending the south-west jetty out for nearly 0.5 miles (0.80 km) with a
curve concave towards the channel the outlet has not only been protected to some extent
from the easterly drift, but the bar in front has been lowered by the scour produced by
the discharge of the river following the concave bend of the southwest jetty. As the
outer portion of this jetty was exposed to westerly storms from the Bay of Biscay before
the outer harbour was constructed, it has been given the form and strength of a
breakwater situated in shallow water.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.8 QUAYS
The construction of quays falls broadly into two classifications: quays with a
closed or solid construction, and quays with an open construction, where the deck is
supported on piles. A key element inside a typical fishing harbour, however, is the draft,
ranging from 1.5 metres to 6 metres may be required, depending on the type, size and
number of resident fishing vessels. An artisanal fishing port hosting small fishing
vessels having a loaded draft of no more than 1 metre would not normally require a
draft of more than 1.5 metres at low tide unless large vessels visit the port during the
peak fishing season.
ww
Solid quays – minimum draft 1.5 metres
w.E
The earth-retaining structure, as the quay wall is known, consists of a number of
layers of concrete-filled jute bags placed on a rubble foundation in a brickwall fashion.
asy
This structure does not require any major cranage and may be built with the sole
En
assistance of one or two divers. The major advantage of this type of construction is that
gin
an uneven sea bed or large boulders can be included in the foundation. The jute bags
should be filled with just enough concrete to form a pillow of uniform thickness.
eer
Overstuffed bags, item B, should not be incorporated into the wall. Prior to
i
commencing such work, a temporary guide frame should be built as shown in the
ng.
construction method for solid breakwaters. The frame can be in scaffold pipes, bamboo
or other timber sections. net
Granular material only (no silt, mud or clay) should be used as backfill and the
top surface should be blinded or sealed with graded aggregate. The blinding should be
compacted properly using a vibrating plate compactor. The front or toe of the quay
should also be protected against scour by both propellers and tidal streams. This
protection can consist of concrete-filled jute bags laid side by side over the screeded
rubble. The concrete capping block should be cast in situ after the granular backfill has
been placed. Each capping block should not be more than 5 metres long and should
contain some reinforcement.

Solid quays – minimum draft 3 metres
Concrete blockwork quay built from concrete blocks placed by a crane on a

screeded bed of stone rubble. This kind of earth-retaining structure is very common but
requires the use of a suitable crane. The crane can either be the floating type or
terrestrial. The concrete blocks are first cast in a yard and after 28 days have elapsed,
they are lifted and placed on the sea bed. The blocks are placed to form pillars on the
screeded rubble. The block pillars should be kept about 50 mm apart in such a way that
each pillar may settle without rubbing against adjacent pillars. To achieve this, it is
ww
common to nail wooden spacers, 50 mm thick, to one side of the blocks prior to
w.E
placing. Slings may either pass underneath the block or lift the block via hooks. The
slings may be in wire rope or chain and the factor of safety in the lifting apparatus for
asy
safe working loads is 8. Some countries require a higher value to take the wear-and-tear
of the slings into consideration.
En
Solid quays – minimum draft 6 metres and beyond
gin
eer
The cross-section may be adapted for a quay with a draft of 6 metres by
i
increasing the size and width of the concrete blocks; however, the required size of the
ng.
blocks would be so large as to require very large and heavy lifting equipment. A more
economical solution in terms of the equipment required. The earth-retaining structure in
net
this case is a special corrugated sheet of steel, known as a sheet pile, which interlocks
with adjacent units to form a continuous wall. This wall is driven into the sea bed, sheet
pile by sheet pile, and the top tied back to an anchor wall, which may consist of a slab
of reinforced concrete or a length of the same bulkhead. A temporary timber or steel
guide frame is generally erected to help drive the sheet piles vertical and in a straight
line. The crane used to drive sheet piles must have a long jib to enable it to pick entire
lengths of sheet pile for driving.
The crane may either be mounted on a barge, in which case the sheet piles are
driven from the sea side of the bulkhead, or driven over a temporary reclamation and
driven from the rear of the bulkhead. The temporary reclamation may then be used as
backfill. Sheet piles are suitable for driving into clay, sand and silt deposits, as well as
some types of coral. Sheet piles cannot be driven in most types of rock and in the
presence of large boulders. Hammers for driving sheet piles may be of two types:
impact hammers or high-frequency hammers. Impact hammers, as their name suggests,
are hammers which impart an impact to the sheet pile. In the presence of soft deposits
or clay, impact hammers do not pose any problem. In the presence of difficult ground,
however, such as when sand contains large boulders, the impact from the hammer may
damage or bend the sheet pile.
Open quays – minimum draft 1.5 metres
ww The deck of an open quay is supported on piles and the whole structure is open to
w.E
full view. In view of this, an open structure is considered to be more delicate than a
solid one and special fendering measures have to be incorporated in the design to
asy
prevent damage to the structure. Open quays may be constructed entirely in timber,
En
concrete or steel, or a mixture of the three. Timber, however, may be attacked by
insects. It illustrates how an artisanal open quay may be built using mainly locally
gin
available materials, such as timber or steel pipes. Given the small dimensions of the
eer
structure, a crane may not be needed if a light lattice tower or tripod and a piling winch
i ng.
are available to drive the piles. The figure also demonstrates the manner in which the
pile heads should be prepared to receive the cross-beams. The timber used in such a
structure should be the right kind of timber and treated against decay and attack by
insects.
net
Open quays – minimum draft 3 metres and beyond
Conventional, deeper water open quays of the type traditionally found in larger
fishing ports. The structures are typically subdivided into two categories: with and
without tidal variation. Cross-section without tidal variation, where the impact load
from a vessel is transmitted directly to the deck of the quay via a simple rubber fender.
The open quay, in this case, is fronted by another structure, the rubbing fender pile,
which has to absorb the impact from a vessel mooring at low tide without damaging the
main quay piles immediately behind it. If the quay wall is solid (sheet piles), then

timber or rubber strips are applied to the sheet pile for the vessels to rub against. Piled
quays are particularly effective at absorbing wave energy due to the presence of the
rubble slope underneath the deck. The rubble is normally similar to a breakwater
grading, requiring core material (1–100 kilograms), armouring (200–1 000 kilograms)
and toe berm (1 000–2 000 kilograms) to prevent scour damage. If the reclamation
behind the piled structure is not sealed properly with a geotextile membrane, fines tend
to leach out of the rubble, leading to uneven settlement of the apron.
The piles may either be in normally reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, or

steel. Whereas most concrete piles are solid, steel piles are usually hollow pipes. In
ww
most cases, if only small lengths of pile can be handled by the crane, piles can be
jointed in situ to form longer lengths as required. Concrete piles are generally glued
w.E
with special epoxy glues, whereas steel piles are commonly welded together via simple
asy
butt-joints. If hollow pipes are used, these may either be filled up with concrete and
reinforcing steel (to prevent corrosion on the inside and add strength to the pile) or, if
En
the pipe thickness is enough, left as open-ended piles.
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.9 FENDERS
These are the marine equipment’s specially designed for the purpose of imparting
safety to the port and vessels against collision with other vessels. These are special
equipment designed to provide the cushion effect to ship, boats or other naval vessels
when they experience collision against other vessels, wharves, piers and ports or berths.
These are also referred as marine bumpers.
Marine fenders are a type of marine equipment that are used to prevent boats,
ships and other naval vessels from colliding against each other or against docks,
wharves and piers. In other words, marine fenders can be simply termed as a marine
ww
bumper.
w.E
Marine fenders are important marine equipment as they prevent loss to the body
of a boat or a ship. The fender systems that are used in naval vessels have evolved
asy
continuously throughout the times and now are devised in such a way that the
En
prevention process is almost faultless and foolproof.
gin
Marine fenders, in today’s times are employed in such a way that they are kept
eer
on the hull or the head of a boat or a ship in order to prevent casualty to the hull or the
i
head of the naval vessel if there is any collision happening between boats. However, at
ng.
the same time, marine fenders are also employed in piers, docks, wharves and other
regular boat entrance and exit points on a permanent basis.
This permanent fixing of marine fenders help because, in case there is a heavy
net
traffic of boats passing through from a particular dockyard, and there is an accident or a
collision then the casualty to the boat and the dockyard will be both minimised to a
great extent.
Fender systems have been devised in order to protect all vehicles from damage
caused due to accidents. When it comes to marine fenders, the marine equipment is one
of the best technological advancements to have occurred in contemporary times.
Even in the earlier centuries, fender systems were used to prevent loss to a naval
vessel’s torso but the concept and idea has evolved more in the modern times than in

the past. Through successful innovations and initiations, there are a wide variety of
marine fender systems available which act as excellent marine equipment.
There are various types of marine fenders which have emerged over the years and
which provide excellent utility in the area of water transportation. The wide variety of
marine fenders ensures that sufficient options are provided so as to enable a person or
an authority to choose the best possible fender system or marine fender.
During its voyage, a vessel has to approach port for loading and unloading of
crew and commodities and to other vessel for supplying and accepting certain
commodities; in these cases there are definite chances of collision and during collision
ww
huge amount of energy is transferred which causes fatality to its crew and damage to
w.E
vessel itself, port and commodities. Marine fenders prevent either the head or hull of a
vessel to collide with any other water body. The certain features for which a port
asy
authority has to look after before buying the marine fenders are briefed as follows:
i)
En
These marine bumpers should be made up of high performance
ii)
gin
materials which require no or little maintenance.
ii) These are to be designed in such a way that they can serve all the
working demands for which these are deployed. eer
iii)
i ng.
iii) These marine fenders should be capable of serving to all their
iv)
commitments in all prevailing environmental conditions.
iv) The marine fenders should be durable i.e. they are so designed andnet
developed so as to serve a longer period of time.
Categorizations Of Marine Fenders
Marine Fenders can be categorized in different types on the basis of location

where these are fitted and material they are made up of.
On The Basis Of Material
The different sorts of marine bumpers available in the market as per the material
they are made up of are as follows:
1. Rubber Fenders
2. Foam Fenders
3. Composite Fenders
1.Rubber Fenders:
Rubber fenders are developed in wide range of variations to serve different

applications. These fenders are developed complying with PIANC guiding
principles. Rubber Fenders decrease the input reaction force and provide requisite
angular guidance to the hull pressure. These are the fenders which have highest
market demand. These fenders also have a positive impact on rubber industries
round the globe. There noticed a great advancement and growth of rubber industry
ww
due to marine application of rubber in last ten years. There are many types of rubber
w.E
fenders, manufactured by different shipping accessory companies, which are
detailed as follows:
asy
a) Super Cone Fenders: These are the latest sort of rubber fenders and generally
En
referred as “Cone Fenders”. The conical body of the cone fenders keep them
gin
stabilised at even higher values of compression angles. They are highly efficient and
provide optimum performance. They have better resistance to shear and over-
eer
compression. Their geometry plays a significant role in their stability. Today, rubber
i ng.
compounds find their widespread application in marine industry and extensively
used for manufacturing of Cone Fenders.
b) SCK Cell Fenders: These fenders have simpler design which is the main
reason for their popularity. These high performing fenders have great strength.
net
These cell fenders are available in vast size range and capable of supporting large
panels. These cell fenders are preferably found appropriate for systems which deal
with hull at low level.
c) Arch Fenders: This type of marine equipment is used in order to provide aid
and assistance to a type of marine fender known as the cylindrical fender. Since the
maintenance aspect in arch fenders is absolutely zero, it is one of the best marine
equipment and the best fender system. Arch fenders can be used for small and mid-
ranged ships and boats and provide excellent quality service to the same. These
fenders are favoured when there is a need of rough marine fender system. These are
most reliable fenders which serve their purpose victoriously even in severe most
conditions. These allow easy installation. These are excellent in wear resistance and
shear resistance. If these fenders are to be provided on corners of harbor these are
called as Corner Arch Fenders.
d) Leg Fenders: These are the fenders which can be easily installed due to their
modular design. A main advantage of these fenders is that they require less or no
maintenance. Leg fenders are majorly opted at locations where the area on which
fenders are to be mounted is limited.
e) Parallel motion Fenders: These can reduce the overall reaction to about 60%
more as compared to conventional cone fenders. These are somewhat similar to leg
ww
fenders with difference that parallel motion fenders are vertical non tilting type
w.E
fenders, but still capable of catering berth or vessel at 20° without energy
dissipation.
asy
f) Slide in Slide Out Fenders (or SISO Fenders): These fenders have frontal
En
frame to which wear pads are fastened with the help of bolts. For maintenance
gin
purpose and in case of failure the complete assembly of fenders is not needed to be
eer
changed but the replacement made is conforming to only wear pads with sliding
panel, which are to be replaced with newer ones. Sliding panels can be easily
i ng.
removed from guide rails and replaced with spare panels. So their maintenance is
quite easier and can be quickly availed for services when go out of order.
g) Cylindrical Fenders: They are the most basic and common fender systems net
used in today’s times. They can be used for all types of marine boats and ships and
they are quite economical too when the aspect of fitting them up is taken into
account. These are easy to install, widely used fenders with simpler design. They can
serve to both large as well as small vessels. As per the requirement of cylindrical
fenders, these are available in three size categories: Small Cylindrical Fenders,
Intermediate Cylindrical Fenders and Large Cylindrical Fenders. These fenders are
economical and have thick walls which can efficiently resist wear, abrasion and
higher loads.

h) Extruded Fenders: These are the rubber fenders with simpler design and are
directly fastened using bolt fasteners to the structure. These fenders are highly
flexible and can fit any length and even curves.
i) Composite Fenders (Rubbylene): These are the fenders which are made up of
composite rubber compounds and provide maximum resilience to the vessel. These
fenders are made up with tough materials having lower coefficient of friction and
maximum resistance to wear.
j) Marine Fender Bars: These fenders are made up of high performance tough
bars which have highest impact resistance. These bars have wider flexibility of
application. They can be installed at all sorts of locations.
ww k) Pneumatic Fenders: These are the ideal choice for inter ship dealings and
w.E
port accessories. Their deployment is quick and robust. At the time of docking the
pneumatic fenders minimize the risk of damage and safeguards both people and
asy
cargo. These fenders should comply with quality assurance guidelines of ISO issued
En
in 2014. These are of five types namely: chain-tire net (CTN) pneumatic fenders;
gin
Sling type fenders; low pressure pneumatic fenders; hydo-pneumatic fenders and.
eer
The CTN pneumatic fender has a network of tyres connected with chains in
horizontal as well as vertical direction to protect the fender body. As the chains
i ng.
remains in water all the time so must be made up of corrosion resistant galvanized
materials. These are simplest and cheaper type of marine fenders which increases the
clearance between structure and the hull to a larger extent. Sling type pneumatic net
fenders are similar to chain type fenders with the only difference that fenders can be
slung with even ropes made up of meshed wire strands than chains. Low pressure
pneumatic fenders are the type of pneumatic fenders which deliver minimum
pressure to the hull by absorbing kinetic energy to a maximum extent by providing
maximum contact surface. Hydro-pneumatic Fenders: These are the pneumatic
fenders which are made in compliance to the need of fender.
2)Form Fenders
The structure of these fenders is a dual-layered closed cell structure. The inner
core of foam fenders is made up of polyethylene foam and reinforced polyurethane
elastomer is used as covering to the core. The water penetration in these type of
fenders is approximately nil. These can serve continuously throughout their life and
even when damaged. There are different sorts of foam fenders:
a) Sea-Guard fenders: These can serve equally well in floated as well as

suspended conditions. These fenders are available for both ship as well as harbor and
have easy maintenance works. These fenders are mostly employed in ship-to-ship
operation and cannot be destroyed or destructed. These fenders are unsinkable and
deflation-free. Most of the foam fenders are manufactured on the guidelines of US
navy stipulations.
ww b) Sea-cushion fenders: These are rough and tough fenders. These are floating
w.E
fenders to be employed in roughest situation and the core used in their
manufacturing is of superior grade then in sea-guard fenders. It has a network of
asy
chain tire with hard core which serves as a unsinkable and sea-cushion. These are
En
most reliable and efficient sort of foam fenders used for LNG vessels which require
least maintenance. They find their application in LNG ships because they cannot
burst. gin
eer
c) Donut Fenders: These are a special sort of marine fenders and moreover a
i ng.
type of berth fenders which are used as a guide or a turn structure. For the alignment
of ships these fenders have tubular pile which can be rotated. These are made up of
net
nylon filament reinforced in polyurethane skin. These are available in bright colours
for improved visible access. As it is a sort of form fenders so require less
maintenance.
3) Composite Fenders
These are the fenders which can be made up of any sort of composite materials.
All sorts of Tug Fenders are considered in this category
Tug Fenders: These are only vessel fenders and installed on a tug vessel. These
fenders are exposed to maximum wear and abrasion so these are made up of toughest
materials which are capable of bearing greater degree of wear and abrasion, to which a
ship is exposed due to water currents and other ship. So that the fenders can serve
longer life with maximum efficiency. These can be cylindrical, tapered, key hole, M-
and W-tug fenders on the basis of geometrical features. These all are ship fenders and
somehow similar to one another with only difference in geometric design. All of these
tug boat fenders are made up of extremely tough materials so as to resist wearing and
shearing offered to the ship by other ship and the water current. All these fenders are
heavy duty fenders and different design enable efficient working in different condition.
On The Basis Of Location They Are Fitted: On The Basis Of Location Of Fenders
These Are Of Two Types Namely:
1.) Ship Fenders: These are the fenders which are installed to the ship so as to have
ww
increased clearance while having ship-to-ship dealing. Tug boat fenders fall in this
w.E
category. These fenders should be made up of material stronger than that used in dock
fenders because the ship fenders are exposed to more severe conditions than the dock
fenders.
asy
En
2.) Dock Fenders: Dock fenders are the sort of fenders which are installed at harbor
gin
and provide protection to ship and dock at the time of docking. Leg fenders and parallel
flow fenders are the examples of such sorts of fenders.
eer
i
All these fenders serve the primary purpose of absorbing high kinetic energy so that the
ng.
shock experienced by the dock or the ship is minimized so as to cause no harm to the
cargo and the crew.
W Fenders:
net
These type of marine fenders are used mainly to aid the larger ships and boats
because they offer a high rate of resistance and thus better protection to the water-crafts
in case of any accident occurring.
Other types of marine fenders are the I fender, Cell Fender, Cone Fender and the
Pneumatic Fender which along with the other three marine fenders, help in providing a
very viable and feasible solution to the problem of accidents and collisions of naval
vessels.

Precautions While Working With Marine Fenders
 A certain degree of softness in fender is necessary for efficiently absorbing the

kinetic energy and thrust, but it should be hard enough to bear the impact.
 Fenders should not burst while in operation.
 Proper repair works and maintenance should be carried out to ensure maximum
safety.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.10 DOLPHINS AND FLOATING LANDING STAGE
A kind of floating dolphin landing stage includes main hull, and the main hull
bottom is provided with multiple drinking water bodies being parallel to each other, and
drinking water is provided with ballast tank in vivo. It is connected in main hull front at
least provided with the anchor chain that a pair are symmetrical arranged in anchor
capstan, anchor capstan connection through the hawse-pipe on main hull with being
located at the anchor of main hull bottom. The utility model has the advantages that,
improve the utility of coastline of port and pier, particularly original old harbour is
renovated, the solution for anchor of exempting to cast anchor can be provided for
ww
substantial amounts of harbour anchorage by using the arrangement form of multiple
rows of row combination, bank electricity is inputted into this floating dolphin landing
w.E
stage using very simple technique to realize come port berthing ship lay day " oil
asy
changes electricity ", positive booster action is played to build green harbour.
Floating dolphin landing stage

En
Technical field
gin
eer
This project is related to a kind of floating dolphin landing stage, and its structure
i
type is simple, cheap, deep with enough drinking water The drinking water of degree
ng.
and anchor chain exit point is more than the extreme draft for mooring waters ship.
Background technology net

Existing port and pier have jetty type wharf, quay by horizontal layout form, dig
into formula harbour, island-type pier With formula harbour in dike；This kind of
Wharf Construction investment is huge, and the construction period is long, and the
big-and-middle-sized harbour in generally harbour and inland is adopted With；Most
of inland rivers and the port and pier in reservoir waters are influenceed typically to use
special landing stage by the seasonal water level swell that disappears Form, water level
phase of rising that disappears wants frequent shifting berth, causes to be unable to the
actual conditions of operation during its shifting berth, to normal production and
operation order Impact, and the old anchoring in landing stage and the formation of
mooring form can only moor a boat by waters center side, utility of coastline It is
extremely low, and being exposed to the anchor chain and mooring cable of the water
surface and being had the wet season more wound by a large amount of floating refuses,
but can not be with very Convenient method cleaning, has uglified harbour water area
environment, has a ship waters wide, there is large number of different types of anchor
Ground, but be all the form of single secure anchoring up to now, and this anchoring
approach wastes a large amount of water surface areas. Before setting sail Necessarily
unmoor, build fixed anchorage and carry out the mode of anchorage ship and also there
is no precedent. Due to being independent anchoring, ship is in anchoring Harbor
generator is at least also used in period, substantial amounts of ship is generated
ww
electricity using subsidiary engine in anchorage causes substantial amounts of waste gas
w.E
row again Put, severe contamination harbour environment.
asy
With the fast development of economic society, China faces resource
environment constraint, communications and transportation development and faces soil,
En
water front The rigid constraint of resource scarcity will be further exacerbated by, and
gin
more urgent requirement is proposed to communications and transportation Green
eer
Development. Therefore, build If green harbour is the important measures for
i
promoting transportation Green Development. Now, limited harbour coastline resource
ng.
is non-renewable, Old terminal facilities, equipment and very low utilization rate
hinders the fast development of port construction.
The content of the invention

net
The technical problems to be solved in the utility model is to provide a kind of
floating dolphin landing stage to improve the bank of port and pier Line use ratio,
particularly renovates to original old harbour, uses the arrangement form of multiple
rows of multiple row chain of rings combination can be with The solution for anchor of
exempting to cast anchor is provided for substantial amounts of harbour anchorage,
bank electricity is inputted by ship by this floating using very simple technique Pier
landing stage, which is realized, carrys out port berthing ship lay day " oil changes
electricity ", and positive booster action is played to build green harbour.

In order to solve the above technical problems, the technical solution adopted in
the utility model, which is a kind of floating dolphin landing stage, includes master
Hull, the main hull bottom is provided with ballast tank in vivo provided with drinking
water body, drinking water；
In main hull front main ship is passed through at least provided with the anchor
chain that a pair are symmetrical arranged in anchor capstan, anchor capstan connection
Hawse-pipe on body is connected with being located at the anchor of main hull bottom.
Further, the hawse-pipe is penetrated from main hull front and passed from drinking
ww
water body bottom, the master in hawse-pipe exit Hull base plate is set and hawse-pipe
central axis.
w.E
Further, four drinking water bodies set up separately at four angles of main hull bottom.
asy
Further, main hull bottom is provided with a drinking water body, and drinking water
body forms a Back Word along main hull bottom margin Type closed shape.
En
Further, main hull bottom symmetrical absorbs water provided with two and is not
gin
connected between bodies, two described drinking water bodies.
eer
Further, the ballast tank of each drinking water body carries out ballast or off-load using
portable pump.
i ng.
Further, the drinking water of the drinking water body, which is more than, moors most
gobbling for waters berthing this floating dolphin landing stage ship Water.
Further, bank electricity can be inputted this floating dolphin by the floating dolphin
net
landing stage using very simple technique Landing stage, realizes and carrys out port
berthing ship lay day " oil changes electricity ".
Advantages：
1. The floating dolphin landing stage after anchorage is appropriate, because of its
anchor chain exit point（Hawse-pipe is exported）With enough depth, Using
when the water-area navigation or berthing operation ship are heavily loaded
extreme draft deeply plus rich d -trans- allethrin as its draft. When carrying out
ship berthing Without producing anchor chain touching carry out ship and

hindered because its anchor chain exit point is relatively deep, forming peripheral
direction all around can moor The floating dolphin of ship, economic and
practical, operation technique is simple, construction cost is cheap, is efficiently
to utilize non-renewable harbour bank Line resource provides a solution.
2. Floating dolphin landing stage only set anchor and anchor chain it is supporting
come anchorage landing stage, exempt to set to bank base mooring hawser be set,
it is excellent In conventional landing stage as fine as a spider's web cable lead
around defect, can create whole in the waters collar of its berthing inward ship
operation Clean, safe water environment.
3. With two this landing stages and any pierhead pontoon as dried food and nuts
ww pierhead pontoon, wharf for bulk cargo landing stage, container The a chain of
w.E
landing stage of pierhead pontoon, roll-on berth is combined, and applicability is
extensive.
asy
4. Can also constitute jointly pontoon bridge type harbour using a plurality of
En
floating dolphin landing stage, this combining form be suitable for from The
gin
shallower water environment of bank and reach deeper water, deeper water is
eer
arranged in using this landing stage of supporting relatively deep drinking water,
it is supporting compared with This light-draft landing stage, which to be
i ng.
arranged in, gone directly compared with shallow water area on the bank,
supporting between this landing stage of pontoon bridge type harbour scope two
of which Using landing stage connection is jumped, anchor arrangement need not net
be configured by jumping landing stage, and such combination can be utilized
extends compared with shallow water area to profundal zone Carry out wharf.
5. This landing stage can as floating dock dolphin, the sinking at floating dock and
lift what the special process of ship operation needed Maximum is heavy deep
larger, general river ship dock >=3m, the drinking water of seagoing vessel
floating dock is bigger, if made using itself mooring system Industry,
cumbersome, labor intensity are big, add and are frequently adjusted using high-
power windlass, energy consumption is big；It is fixed using pile foundation
Harbour configuration guide pillar can solve above-mentioned problem, but pile
foundation fixed quay is built by harbour addressing, all many conditions of

fluctuation in stage Limitation and it is difficult, and invest huge, unsuitable
popularity. This project only needs to configure two floating dolphin landing
stages, A side of a ship shipboard only on this landing stage, which is set, to sink
with floating dock and the attachment means of lift ship floating linkage can just
solve to float The above-mentioned problem of dock, and economic, applicable,
safety, energy-conservation.
6. Common pierhead pontoon general at this stage be using anchoring and mooring
two ways is come fixed quay landing stage, its Middle anchoring form is because
anchor chain exit point surfaces mostly and causes berthing ship from the initial
ww and tail sections close to landing stage, wherein mooring Form be to guide
w.E
mooring rope on the bank earth anchor facility from landing stage bollard, be
substantially all exposed to landing stage and pull in shore the water of side On
asy
face, it is also as fine as a spider's web that What is more, and such landing stage
En
offshore side is just unable to berthing ship completely. Form dock barge only
gin
Can be by the middle of the river（Or waters center）A side of a ship berthing
eer
carry out ship. Harbour utility of coastline is extremely low, the protrusion on
i
floating dolphin landing stage Advantage can be achieved on four direction all
ng.
around and harbour utility of coastline can be substantially increased with
berthing ship, be precious The rational exploitation and utilization of expensive
coastline resource, there is provided a solution for beautification harbour
net
environment. Further use this practicality New any combination form, can easily
be realized using the technique being simply connected with bank base very
much the harbour itself and come Port berthing operation ship uses bank
electricity, reaches the purpose of " oil changes electricity ", and a kind of
solution is provided to create the green harbour of energy-saving and emission-
reduction Certainly scheme.

5.11 INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
Navigable Inland Waterways
A stretch of water, not part of the sea, over which craft of a carrying capacity not
less than 50 tonnes can navigate when normally loaded. This term covers both
navigable rivers and lakes (natural water courses, whether or not they have been
improved for navigation purposes) and canals (water ways constructed primarily for the
purpose of navigation).The length of rivers and canals is measured in mid channel and
length of lakes, as well as lagoons, is counted as the length between the most distant
points between which the transport is performed. An inland waterway forming a
ww
common frontier between two countries is reported by both.
w.E
National Waterways means an Inland Waterway of India designated as a National
Waterway by the Government.
asy
Major Port vis a vis Non-Major Port
En
The words "major", "intermediate" and "minor", do not have a strict association
gin
with the traffic volumes served by these ports. As an example, Mundra Port, a newly
eer
developed minor port in the state of Gujarat registered a cargo traffic of around 28.8
i ng.
million tonnes per annum during the financial year of 2008, which is higher than that of
many major ports.
The classification of Indian ports into major, minor and intermediate has an net
administrative significance. Indian government has a federal structure, and according to
its constitution, maritime transport falls under the "concurrent list", to be administered
by both the Central and the State governments. While the Central Shipping Ministry
administers the major ports, the minor and intermediate ports are administered by the
relevant departments or ministries in the nine coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Several of these 185 minor and intermediate ports are merely "notified", with little or
no cargo handling actually taking place. These ports have been identified by the
respective governments to be developed, in a phased manner, a good proportion of them
involving Public-private partnership.
INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
The chief data source for this sector is Transport Research Wing of the Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways.
As on 31st March, 2007 the total navigable length of waterways in the country
was 13731.2 kilometre. Number of inland water vessels increased from 7434 in 2002-
03 to 12906 in 2006-07, showing an impressive CAGR of 15% per annum.
Total number of accidents increased from 583 in 2005-06 to 687 in 2006-07.

Number of persons killed increased from 742 in 2005-06 to 825 in 2006-07. This shows
that suitable safety measures and technology upgradations need to be evolved in IWT to
ww
improve safety of passengers.
w.E
Central budgetary support for the sector increased from `89.9 crore in 2002-03 to
asy
`150 crore in 2006-07. However utilization of funds is showing a decreasing trend from
87% to 66% during the period. The total state plan outlay during the 10th plan was `192
En
crore compared to central plan outlay of `634 crore.
gin
Cargo movement on inland waterways has shown an impressive increase from 9
eer
million tonnes in 2002-03 to 35 million tonnes in 2006-07. Passenger movement during
the period increased from 87 million to 107 million.
i ng.
The maximum freight per tonne kilometer for cargo transport (for the reporting
companies) was `3.41/- in 2005-06 and `2.10/- in 2006-07. This gives us a very broad net
idea of freight charges because freight charges may vary widely based on cargo type.

5.12 WAVE ACTION ON COASTAL STRUTURES
Waves are important for building up and breaking down shorelines. Waves
transport sand onto and off of beaches, transport sand along beaches, carves structures
along the shore. The largest waves form when the wind is very strong, blows steadily
for a long time, and blows over a long distance.
The wind could be strong, but if it gusts for just a short time, large waves won’t
form. Wave energy does the work of erosion at the shore. Waves approach the shore at
some angle so the inshore part of the wave reaches shallow water sooner than the part
that is further out. The shallow part of the wave ‘feels’ the bottom first. This slows
ww
down the inshore part of the wave and makes the wave “bend.” This bending is
called refraction.
w.E
Wave refraction either concentrates wave energy or disperses it. In quiet water
asy
areas, such as bays, wave energy is dispersed, so sand is deposited. Areas that stick out
En
into the water are eroded by the strong wave energy that concentrates its power on the
wave-cut cliff.
gin
eer
A wave-cut platform is the level area formed by wave erosion as the waves
i
undercut a cliff. An arch is produced when waves erode through a cliff. When a sea
ng.
arch collapses, the isolated towers of rocks that remain are known as sea stacks.
Wave Deposition net

Rivers carry sediments from the land to the sea. If wave action is high, a delta
will not form. Waves will spread the sediments along the coastline to create a beach.
Waves also erode sediments from cliffs and shorelines and transport them onto beaches.
Beaches can be made of mineral grains, like quartz, rock fragments, and also pieces of
shell or coral. Waves continually move sand along the shore and move sand from the
beaches on shore to bars of sand offshore as the seasons change. In the summer, waves
have lower energy so they bring sand up onto the beach. In the winter, higher energy
waves bring the sand back offshore. Some features form by wave-deposited sand. These
features include barrier islands and spits. A spit is sand connected to land and extending
into the water. A spit may hook to form a tombolo. Shores that are relatively flat and
gently sloping may be lined with long narrow barrier islands. Most barrier islands are a
few kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long. In its natural state, a barrier island acts
as the first line of defense against storms such as hurricanes. When barrier islands are
urbanized, hurricanes damage houses and businesses rather than vegetated sandy areas
in which sand can move. A large hurricane brings massive problems to the urbanized
area.
PROTECTING SHORELINES
Intact shore areas protect inland areas from storms that come off the ocean.
Where the natural landscape is altered or the amount of development make damage
ww
from a storm too costly to consider, people use several types of structures to attempt to
w.E
slow down wave erosion. A groin is a long narrow pile of rocks built perpendicular to
the shoreline to keep sand at that beach. A breakwater is a structure built in the water
asy
parallel to the shore in order to protect the shore from strong incoming waves. A
En
seawall is also parallel to the shore, but it is built onshore. People do not always want to
choose safe building practices, and instead choose to build a beach house right on the
gin
beach. Protecting development from wave erosion is difficult and expensive and it
eer
doesn’t always work. The northeastern coast of Japan was protected by anti-tsunami
i ng.
seawalls, yet waves from the 2011 tsunami that resulted from the Tohoku earthquake
washed over the top of some seawalls and caused others to collapse. Japan is now
planning to build even higher seawalls to prepare for any future (and inevitable)
tsunami.
net

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

[email protected]

CE8702 Rcet Notes - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE8702 Rcet Notes - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE8702 Rcet Notes - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.

**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

The Main Components of Permanent Way are as Follows:

(i) The guage should be uniform and correct. eer

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1. Double headed rails(D.H. Rails)

DOUBLE HEADED RAILS

BULL HEADED RAILS En

FLAT FOOTED RAILS

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Sleepers serve the following functions:

(i) To hold the rails to proper gauge.

Ballast in railway track performs the following functions.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

ww In India, the following materials are used as ballast.

FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS

FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS

Rail fixtures and fastenings have the following functions:

(v) To maintain the required tilt of rails.

TYPES OF FIXTURES AND FASTENING

Fixtures and fastenings commonly used in a permanent way are of following

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.2 SELECTION OF GAUGES

The gauge of a railway track is defined as the clear minimum perpendicular

1. Broad Gauge: width 1676 mm to 1524 mm or 5’6” to 5’0”

2. Standard Gauge: width 1435 mm and 1451 mm or 4’-8⅟2”

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.3 TRACK STRESS

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Pressure on formation or subgrade

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Magnitude and Direction of Creep

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.5 DEFECTS IN RAILS

Shelling and black spots

Corrugation consists of minute depressions on the surface of rails, varying in

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.6 ROUTE ALIGNMENT SURVEY:

Importance of reconnaissance survey eer

Reconnaissance Survey and Information Gathered

The information are generally gathered in the following two categories

a. Traffic Reconnaissance Survey

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Traffic Reconnaissance Survey

This consists of collection of the information regarding the following:

1. General character of the country and extent of cultivation

1. Physical features of a country gin

The object of preliminary survey is

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Importance of Preliminary Survey

Instrument Used in Preliminary Survey

Appropriate helping instruments

Work of Location Survey

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

(i) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net