INDEFINITE INTEGRALS [[[[

INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
In many practical problems, the derivative of a function is given and we are required to find the
function which has the given derivative. The process of finding this function is called integration.

Definition: Basic Concept

d
Let F(x) be a differentiable function of x such that F  x    f  x  . Then F(x) is called the
dx 
integral of f(x). Symbolically, it is written as  f(x) dx = F(x).
f(x), the function to be integrated, is called the integrand.
F(x) is also called the anti-derivative (or primitive function) of f(x).

Constant of Integration:
As the differential coefficient of a constant is zero, we have
d d
dx
F  x    f  x   dx F  x   c   f  x  .

Therefore, f(x)dx = F(x) + c.

The constant c is called the constant of integration and can take any real value. By assigning
different value to c, we obtain different values of the integral.

Basic formulae:
Antiderivatives or integrals of some of the widely used functions (integrands) are given below:
d  xn1  xn1

xn dx 
n
    x  c , n  – 1
dx  n  1  n 1
d 1 1

dx
(ln | x | ) 
x

x 
dx  ln | x | c

d x

dx
(e )  e x  
e x dx  e x c

d x ax

dx
(a )  (a x ln a)   ax dx 
ln a
c (a > 0)

d

dx
(sin x)  cos x   cos x dx  sin x c

d

dx
( cos x)   sin x   sin x dx   cos x c

d
 sec
2
 ( tan x)  sec 2 x  x dx  tan x c
dx
d

dx
( cos ec x)  (  cot x cos ec x)   cos ecx cot x dx   cos ecx c

d

dx
( sec x)  sec x tan x   sec x tan x dx  sec x  c

d
 cos ec
2
 (cot x)   cos ec 2 x  x dx   cot x  c
dx
 d  1 x  1 1 x

dx 
sin
a 

a2  x 2
 
a2  x 2
dx  sin1   c
a
x
or  cos1    c1
a
d  x a dx 1 x

dx 
tan1   2
a  x  a2
 
x 2  a2 a
 tan1 c
a
d 1 1

dx
(sec 1 x) 
| x | x2  1
 
x x 12
dx  sec 1(x)  c

d 1 dx

dx
(cos ec 1x) 
| x | x2  1
 | x | 2
x 1
  cos ec 1x  c

cos x

 cot x dx   sin x dx  ln | sin x |  c

 sin x

 tan x dx   cos x dx   ln | cos x |  c  ln | sec x |  c

sec x(sec x tan x) x 


 sec x dx   sec x  tan x
dx  ln | sec x  tan x | c  ln tan     c
2 4
cosecx(cot x  cosec x) x

 cosecx dx  
cot x  cosec x
dx  ln (cot x  cosec x) | c = ln tan  c
2

Standard Formulae:
dx

 x a2 2
 ln x  x2  a2  c

dx

 x a2 2
 ln x  x2  a2  c

dx 1 xa

x 2
a 2
 ln
2a x  a
c

dx 1 xa

a 2
x 2

2a
log
xa
c

x a2

 x 2  a2 dx 
2
x 2  a2 
2
ln x  x 2  a2  c

x a2

 x 2  a2 dx 
2
x 2  a2 
2
ln x  x 2  a 2  c

x 2 a2 x

 a2  x2 dx =
2
a  x2 
2
sin-1
a
 c

Properties of indefinite integration:

Let f (x) and g (x) be two integrable functions. Then the following results hold:
i)   f(x) dx   f(x) dx where  is an arbitrary constant.

d d
Proof: We know that ( p (x)) =  (p (x)).
dx dx
d
Let f (x) =
dx
(p (x))  p (x) =  f(x) dx

2
 d
  f(x) dx   p(x)   dx ( p(x)) dx
d
=   dx (p(x)) dx   f(x) dx
ii)  f(x)  g(x) dx   f(x) dx   f(x) dx .
Proof: From the property of differentiation, we have
d d d
p(x)  g(x)  (p(x))  (g(x))
dx dx dx
d d
If (p(x)) = f (x) and (q (x)) = g (x), then
dx dx

 f(x) dx = p (x) and  g(x) dx = q (x)

d
so that  f(x) dx   g(x) dx  p(x)  q(x)   p(x)  q(x) dx
dx
d d 
=   dx p(x)  dx (q(x)) dx   f(x)  g(x) dx .
 In general;

   f (x)   f (x)  ...   f (x) dx.

11 2 2 n n

=   f (x) dx    f (x) dx  .....    f (x) dx

1 1 2 2 n n

where f1, f2, …, fn are integrable function and 1, 2, …, n are arbitrary constants.

d d
iii)  dg  f  g(x) dx  g(x) dx  f  g(x) .
d d d
Proof: We know that  f(g(x))  f  g(x) g(x) (Chain rule)
dx dg dx
d d d
  dg  f  g(x) dx  g(x) dx   dx  f  g(x) dx = f (g (x)).
1
iv) If  f(u)du = F(u) + c, then f(ax + b) dx = F  ax  b   c, a  0.
a
Proof: Write u = ax + b so that du = a dx. Hence
1
 f(u)du  a f(ax  b)dx  F(ax  b)  c 1 
 f(ax  b)dx 
a
F(ax  b)  c .

 Trigonometric identities help in the simplification when the integral involves

trigonometric function.

1  cos 4x 
Illustration 1. Evaluate I =  cot x  tan x  dx .
2 cos2 2x 1
Solution: I=  cos 2
x  sin x 2
. sin x.cos x dx   2 cos 2x 2 sin 2x dx

1 1
=
2sin 4x dx   cos 4x  c .
8

3
 dx
Illustration 2. Evaluate I   sin 2
x.cos 2 x
.

Solution: Transform the integrand in the following way.

1 sin2 x  cos2 x

sin2 x cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x
d
 sec 2 x  cos ec 2 x   tan x  cot x 
dx

  sec 
2
Hence I = x  cos ec 2 x dx = tanx – cotx + c.

dx
Illustration 3. Evaluate  cos ecx  cot x .
dx
Solution: Let I =  cos ecx  cot x
 cos ecx  cot x  dx
= cos ec 2 x  cot 2 x 
  cos ecx  cot x  dx 

x
= log tan + log |sinx| + c
2
= log (1  cosx) + c1.

1/2 3/2
Illustration 4. Evaluate 3x (1 + x ) dx.

1/2 3/2 3/2 2

Solution: Here 3x (1 + x ) is the derivative of (1 + x )
1  x3 / 2 dx
 3x
1/ 2 3/2 2
I= = (1 + x ) + c.

Illustration 5. Evaluate  cos4x cos7x dx.

Solution: When solving such problems it is expedient to use the following trigonometric
identities:
sin(mx) cos(nx) = (1/2) [sin(m – n)x + sin(m + n)x],
sin(mx) sin(nx) = (1/2) [cos(m – n)x – cos(m + n)x],
cos(mx) cos(nx) = (1/2) [cos(m – n)x + cos(m + n)x].
Here cos4x cos7x = (1/2) [cos(3x) + cos 11x]
1
I=
2 
 cos 3x  cos11x  dx
1  sin 3x sin11x 
   c.
2 3 11 

dx sin x
Illustration 6. Evaluate (i)  1  sin x , (ii)  1  sin x dx .
dx 1  sin x 1  sin x
Solution: (i)  1  sin x   1  sin x dx  cos x dx
2 2

=   sec x  sec x tan x  dx = tan x  sec x + c.

2

4
 sin x sin x  1  1
(ii) Here  1  sin xdx   1  sin x
dx

 1 
=  1  1  sin x  dx
= x  (tan x  sec x) + c.

Exercise 1.
Integrate the following functions
4  5 sin x cos 2 x  cos 2
i) ii)
cos 2 x cos x  cos 
1 2
iii) x  iv) sin x
x
2
x  1 
v) 2x  3 cos x + e vi)  x  
 x

Methods of Integration
If the integrand is not a derivative of a known function, then the corresponding integrals cannot be
found directly. In order to find the integrals of complex problems, generally four methods are used
so that the integral is reduced to the standard form.
 Integration by substitution or by change of the independent variable.
 Integration by parts.
 Integration by using trigonometric identities.
 Integration by partial fractions.

Integration By Substitution

Direct Substitutions:

If the integral is of the form  f(g(x)) g(x) dx, then put g(x) = t, provided  f(t) dt exists.
d g(x) dt
g (x) = t 
dx

dx
so that the integral  f  g(x) g(x) dx
dt
become f(t) 
dx
dx  f(t) dt . 
The problem of integrating with respect to x is transformed to integrating f (t) with respect to t and

 f(t) dt = k (t) + c = k (g (x)) + c.

1  ln x 2
Illustration 7. Evaluate  x
dx .

1
Solution: Let 1 + ln x = t so that dx = dt
x
1  ln x 2 1 3 1  ln x 3
I=  x
dx =  t 2 dt =
3
t +c=
3
c.

5
 sin  ln x 
Illustration 8. Evaluate  x
dx .

1
Solution: Let lnx = t. Then dt = dx.
x
sin ln x 
Hence I =
 x
dx =  sint dt = – cost + c = – cos(lnx) + c.
x 2
 1 dx 
Illustration 9. Evaluate  .
x 4 2
 3 x  1 tan  1  1
x  
 x
Solution: The given integral can be written as
 1 
 1  2  dx
 x 
I=
  1
2  1  1
.
 x    1 tan  x  
 x   x

 1  1 
Let  x    t . Differentiating we get  1  2  dx = dt.
 x  x 
dt
Hence I = 
t  1 tan1 t
2
.

-1
Now make one more substitution tan t = u. Then
dt du
2
t 1
 du and I=
u
 ln | u | c 
Returning to t, and then to x, we have
 1
I  ln tan1 t  c  ln tan1  x    c .
 x

Illustration 10. Evaluate

dx dx
(i) x(log x )m
, x > 0; (ii)  x a  x b

1
Solution: (i) Let log x = t  dx = dt.
x
Substituting in the given integral, we have
dx dt
x(log x)m
 m  t m dt
t  
t m 1 1
= c = (log x)1m  c .
m  1 1 m
dx dt
 For m = 1, 
x log x

t 
 log | t | c = log |log x| + c

dx
(ii) Let I =  xa  xb
1  x a  x b
=    dx
x  a  x  b  x  a  x  b 

6
  
xa  xb 1
=  (a  b)
=
(a  b)
x  a  x  b dx

1 2 2 
=  (x  a)3 / 2  (x  b)3 / 2   c
a  b 3 3 
2 (x  a)3 / 2  (x  b)3 / 2   c .
=
3(a  b)  

Exercise 2.
Integrate the following:
cos x  sin x 1
i) , ii) ,
cos x  sin x sin 1
x. 1  x 2
x  4 x 6 
iii) x loge(ex), iv)  2 ,
 x  3 x  100 
cos x sec 2  log( x ) 
v) , vi) .
x x

Standard Substitutions:
2 2
 For terms of the form x + a or x 2  a2 , put x = a tan or a cot.
2 2
 For terms of the form x – a or x 2  a2 , put x = a sec or a cosec.
2 2
 For terms of the form a – x or a2  x 2 , put x = a sin or a cos.
 If both a  x , a  x are present, then put x = a cos.
 For the type  x  a b  x  , put x = a cos2 + b sin2.
 For the type ( x2  a2  x)n or (x  x 2  a2 )n , put the expression within the
brackets = t.
1
1 1 1
1 1  x  b n 1
 For the type  x  a  n  x  b n or   (n  N, n > 1),
 x  a  x  a 2
xb
put  t.
xa
1
 For , n1, n2  N (and > 1), again put (x + a) = t(x + b).
 x  a n  x  b n
1 2

dx
Illustration 11. Evaluate   x  1 6/5
 x  3 4 / 5
.

dx dx
Solution: I=   x  1 6/5
 x  3 4/5
=    x  3 
4/5
.

 x  1  2

  x  1 
x 3 4
Put   = t  dt = dx.
 x 1  x  12

7
 1/ 5
1 dt 5 5x 3
Hence I =
4 t 4/ 5
 t1/ 5  c  
4 4  x  1 
c.

dx
Illustration 12. Evaluate
 ( x  a) (b  x )
.

2 2 2
Solution: Writing x = acos  + bsin  = a + (b  a) sin , the given integral becomes
2(b  a) sin  cos d
I 
 
1/ 2
(a cos2   b sin2   a) (a cos2   b sin2   b
2 b  a  sin  cos d  ba
=  b  a  sin  cos 
=  
ba  2 d
x a
= 2 + c = 2 sin1   c.
b a

Indirect Substitutions:
If the integrand is of the form f(x).g(x), where g(x) is a function of the integral of f(x), then put
integral of f(x) = t.

x
Illustration 13. Evaluate  a  x3
3
dx .

x3 / 2
Solution: Integral of the numerator = .
3/2
3/2
Put x = t.
3
2 dt 2 t 2  x 2
We get, I =
3  a3  t 2
= sin-1
3 a3/2
 c  sin-1    c .
3 a

sin x  cos x
Illustration 14. Evaluate  9  16 sin 2x dx .
sin x  cos x
Solution: I=  25  16  sin x  cos x  2
dx

Put t = sinx – cosx  dt = (cosx + sinx)dx

dt 1 5  4t
I= 
25  16t 2

40
ln
5  4t
c

1 5  4  sin x  cos x 
 ln c.
40 5  4  sin x  cos x 

Derived Substitutions:
Some times it is useful to write the integral as a sum of two related integrals, which can be
evaluated by making suitable substitutions.

8
Examples of such integrals are:

A. Algebraic Twins
2x 2 x2  1 x2  1
x 4
1
dx  x 4
1
dx  x 4
1
dx

2 x2  1 x2  1
x 4
1
dx   x4  1
dx   x4  1
dx

2x2 2
 x 4
 1  kx 2

dx,  x 4
 1  kx 2 
dx

B. Trigonometric Twins
1
 tan x dx,  cot x dx ,   sin 4
x  cos4 x 
dx ,

1  sin x  cos x
  sin 6
x  cos x 6

dx ,  a  b sin x cos x dx .
Method of evaluating these integrals are illustrated by mean of the following examples:

x2  1
Illustration 15. Evaluate x 4
 x2  1
dx .

 1 
2 1  2 
x 1  x 
Solution: Let I =  4 2
x  x 1
dx =
 2 1  
dx .
 x  1 2 
 x 
1  1 
Put x – = t   1  2  dx  dt
x  x 
dt  x2  1
 1 t t + c = tan1 
–1
 I= = tan c.
2  x 
 

1
Illustration 16: Evaluate x 4
 1  5 x2
dx .

1 2
Solution: Let I =
2 x 4
 1  5x 2
dx

1 1  x2 1 x2  1
=
2 x 4
 1  5x 2
dx 
2 x 4
 1  5x 2
dx

1 
1  1/ x 2  1   1  1/ x 2
=
2  x  1/ x 
2 2
5
dx 
2  x  1/ x   5dx = (I
2 2
1 – I2)/2 (say).

1 1
For I1, we write x – = t  (1 + 2 )dx = dt
x x
dt 1 t 1  x  1/ x 
 I1 =  2
t 7

7
tan1
7
=
7
tan1 
 7 
.

9
 1
For I2, we write x + =t
x
1
 (1 – )dx = dt
x2
dt 1 t 1  x  1/ x 
 I2 = t 2
3

3
tan 1
3
=
3
tan1 
 3 
.

Combining the two results, we get I = (I1 – I2)/2

1  x  1/ x  1  x  1/ x 
= tan1   – tan1   + c.
2 7  7  2 3  3 

Illustration 17. Evaluate  tan x dx .

2 2 2tdt
Solution: Put tanx = t  sec x dx = 2t dt  dx =
1  t4
2tdt
 I=  tan x dx = t 1  t4
2t 2 dt t2  1 t2  1
=  1 t 4
1
= t
t4  14
dt . dt  
This can be solved by the method used in Illustration -16.

4
Illustration 19. Evaluate  sin 4
x  cos 4 x
dx .

1 sin2 x  cos2 x
Solution: Let I = 4  sin 4
x  cos 4 x
dx = 4  sin x  cos x dx
4 4

=4
 tan 2

x  1 cos2 x
dx = 4
 tan x  1 sec x dx .
2 2

 tan 4
x  1 cos 4
x  tan x  1 4

2
Now, put tanx = t  sec x dx = dt
1  t2 1/ t 2  1
 I=4 
1  t4
dt = 4
t 2  1/ t 2
dt . 
1  1
Now, put t  = z   1  2  dt  dz
t  t 
dz 1 z 1 t  1/ t
I= z 2
2 2
= tan1
2
+c =
2
tan1
2
+c

1 1 tan x  1/ tan x
= tan c.
2 2

2 cos xdx
Illustration 19. Evaluate  3  4 sin 2x .
2 cos xdx cos x  sin x cos x  sin x
Solution: Here  3  4 sin 2x   3  4 sin 2x dx   3  4 sin 2x dx

10
  cos x  sin x  dx  cos x  sin x  dx
=  3  4 1   sin x  cos x 2  3  4 sin x  cos x 2  1 .

   
In the first integral put sinx – cosx = t, in the second integral put sinx + cosx = y,
and proceed.
 Similarly, we can solve integrals of the type:
1 1
a sin x  bsecx
dx, 
p cos x  q cos ecx
dx .

dx
Illustration 20: Evaluate  2 sin x  sec x .
dx cos xdx 1 cos x  sin x  cos x  sin x
Solution: Let I =  2 sin x  sec x   sin 2x  1  2  sin 2x  1
dx

1 cos x  sin x 1 cos x  sin x

=
2  1  sin 2x
dx 
2 1  sin 2x
dx

1 cos x  sin x 1 cos x  sin x

=
2  1  1   sin x  cos x 
2
dx  
2  sin x  cos x 2
dx .

Let u = sinx – cosx and v = sinx + cosx.

1 du 1 dv 1 2 u 1
Then I =  
2 2  u2 2 v 2 
=
4 2
ln
2 u

2v
c

1 2  sin x  cos x 1
= ln  c.
4 2 2  sin x  cos x 2  sin x  cos x 

Exercise 3.
Integrate the following functions:
1 x2  1
i) cot x ii) iii)
x  3x2  9 x 
4 2
2
1
sin 2 x x 1
iv) v) vi)
p cos 2 x  q sin2 x x4 1  cot x

Integrals of trigonometric functions:

(i).  tan x dx  log | sec x | c .

Proof: Write cos x = t so that – sin x dx = dt.
sin x dx dt

Hence tan x dx 
cos x
  t 
=  log |t| + c =  log |cos x| + c
= log |sec x| + c.
(ii)  cot x dx  log | sin x | c
Proof: Writing sin x = t and cosx dx = dt, we get

11
 dt
 cot x dx   t = log |t| + c = log |sin x| + c
(iii)  sec x dx = log |secx + tanx| + c.
sec x(sec x  tan x)
Proof: Here  sec x dx   sec x  tan x
dx

sec x tan x  sec 2 x

=  sec x  tan x
dx .
2
Let sec x + tan x = t  (sec x tan x + sec x) dx = dt.
dt

Hence sec x dx 
t 
 log | t | c

= log |sec x + tan x| + c.

(iv)  cos ecx dx = log |cosec x  cot x| + c.
cos ecx(cos ecx  cot x)
Let I =  cos ecx dx   dx .
cos ecx  cot x
2
Writing cosec x + cot x = t   (cosec x + cot x cosec x) dx = dt
dt
We find that I = 
t 
=  log |t| + c

1
= log c
cos ecx  cot x
(cos ecx  cot x)
= log c
cos ec 2 x  cot 2 x
= log |cosec x  cot x| + c.

Illustration 21. Evaluate the following:

sin 2x 1  sin x
(i)
sin 4x
dx (ii)  1  cos x dx
 sin
7
(iii) x dx

sin 2x sin 2x
Solution: (i) We have  sin 4x dx   2 sin 2x cos 2x dx
1 1
=
2 
sec 2x dx 
4
sec t dt 
where 2x = t

1 1
= log |sec t + tan t| + c = log |sec 2x + tan 2x| + c.
4 4
1  sin x 1  2 sin x / 2 cos x / 2
(ii) Here 
1  cos x
dx  
2 sin2 x / 2
dx

1 x x 1 cot x / 2 x
=
2 
cos ec 2 dx  cot dx = 
2 2  2 1/ 2
 2 log sin  c
2
x x
=  cot  2 log sin  c .
2 2

 sin  sin
7 6
(iii) We write x dx  x sin x dx

 (1  cos
2
= x)3 sin x dx .

12
 Let cos x = t   sin x dx = dt.

 sin 
7
Hence x dx   (1  t 2 )3 dt

 3 1 

=  (1  3t 2  3t 4  t 6 ) dt =   t  t 3  t 5  t7   c
 5 7 
 3 1 
=   cos x  cos3 x  cos5 x  cos7 x   c .
 5 7 

Exercise 4. Evaluate the integrals of the following functions with respect to x:

sin x 2
i) ii) sec x tan x
sin( x  a )
1 1  cos 2 x
iii) iv)
sin x  cos x 1  cos 2 x
sec x cos ec x 3 2
v) vi) sin x cos x.
log cot x

Integrals of some particular functions:

Let us now prove some of the results given on page 2.
dx
 I= 
a  x2
2
; we write x = a tan  and get

a sec 2  d 1  1 x
I= a sec 2 2
a

a 
d   c  tan1  c .
a a
dx dx 1  1 1 
 I= 2
a x 2
   
(a  x)(a  x) 2a  a  x a  x 
 dx 
1
=   log | a  x |  log | a  x |  c
2a
1 ax
= log c.
2a ax
Alternatively, we may write x = a sin  and get
1 1 1 1  sin  2
I=
a 
sec  d  log | sec   tan  | c =
a 2a
log
cos2 
c

1 1  sin  1 ax
= log c  log c.
2a 1  sin  2a ax
dx
 I=  x  a2
2
; we write x = a tan  and get

I=  sec  d  log | sec   tan  | c = log tan2   1  tan   c

x  x 2  a2
= log c.
a

 I=  a2  x 2 dx ; we write x = a sin , dx = a cos  d and get

a2 a2  1 

I = a2 cos2  d 
2  (1  cos 2) d 
2    2 sin 2   c
 

13
 a2 a2  x x a2  x 2 
=    sin  cos    c   sin1  c
2 2 

a a2 

a2 x x a2  x 2
= sin1  c.
2 a 2

dx
 I= | x | x 2  a2
; we write x = a sec , dx = a sec  tan  d and get

a sec   tan   d
I=  | a sec  |  | a tan  | .
x    
Since  = sec1 and its range  0,    ,   ,
a  2 2 
a sec  a tan  is positive. Hence
1 1 x
I=
a 
 d  sec 1 + c.
a a
Remarks: If f (x) is a differentiable function of x, then
f (x)
(i) 
2
1  f (x)
dx  tan1  f(x)   c

f (x)
(ii)  2
1  f (x)
dx  sin1  f(x)   c

f (x)
(iii)  f(x) dx  log  f(x)  c
by writing f (x) = t.

Illustration 22. Evaluate the integrals with respect to x, of the functions

1 2 x2 x
(i) 4 2
, (ii) 4 2
, (iii) .
x a x a (9  x 2 )3 / 2
dx x 2  a  (x 2  a)
Solution: (i) Let I = x 4
a 2
  2a(x 4  a2 )
dx .

1 x2  a 1 x2  a
=
2a x 4
 a2
dx 
2a x 4
 a2
dx

1 1  a / x2 1 1  a / x2
=
2a x 2
a /x 2 2
dx 
2a x 2
 a2 / x 2
dx

1 1  a / x2 1 1  a / x2
=
2a  a 
2
a
dx 
2a  2
dx .

 x  x   2a  x  x   2a
   
a a
Writing x   t and x  = z, we get
x x
1 dt 1 dz
I=  
2a t 2  2a 2a z2  2a 
1 1 t 1 z  2a
=  tan1  log c
2a 2a 2a 2a  2 2a z  2a

14