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Engineering
Physics
Second Edition
About the Authors
Hitendra K Malik is currently Professor of Physics at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
from where he received his PhD degree in the field of Plasma Physics, in 1995 at the age of 24. He
has been a merit scholarship holder throughout his academic career. He is the recipient of Career
Award from AICTE, Government of India, for his teaching and research, Outstanding Scientist
Award from VIF, India, for his contributions to Science, and 2017 Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime
Achievement Award from USA. In addition, he received the prestigious Erasmus Mundus Visiting
Fellowship from European Union (Germany and France), JSPS Fellowship (two times) from Japan,
FRD Fellowship from South Africa and DAAD Fellowship from Germany. Owing to his worldwide recognition, his
name has been included in ‘Marquis Who’s Who’ in 2011, published from USA. Based on the survey conducted by
ResearchGate (RG), his scientific score has been found within top 5% of the scientists and researchers all over the world.
Professor Malik is highly cited in India and abroad for his research work and books with h-index of 24 and
i10-index of 70. Governments of India, Germany and France, through DST, CSIR, DRDO, AICTE, DAAD,
CEFIPRA, etc., have provided him funding to accomplish 12 sponsored research projects. He is on the editorial
board of 5 reputed research journals (including Springer). In recognition of his outstanding research and teaching
contributions, he has been asked to deliver more than 50 keynote and invited talks in India, Japan, South Korea,
USA, France, Germany, South Africa, and Turkey. Also, he has been chief guest in various universities, mentor of
faculty colleagues of engineering institutions, and member of organizing and advisory committees of national and
international conferences held in India and abroad.
He has guided 80 PhD, postgraduate and undergraduate theses, including 22 PhD theses in the area of laser/
microwave plasma interactions, particle acceleration, solitons, Terahertz radiation, Hall thrusters, plasma material
interaction, and nanotechnology. He has published more than 330 scientific papers in high impact factor journals
and conferences, including 19 independent articles. He has been reviewer for 72 Journals of international repute,
several sponsored research projects (Indian and Foreign agencies), and 18 PhD theses. He is an expert member of
academic and administrative bodies of 14 different universities and institutions from 8 states of India including UGC.
Apart from this book, he has also authored another textbook on Laser-Matter Interaction, CRC Press, 3 Chapters
in the Books Wave Propagation, InTechOpen Science, Croatia (featured as highly downloaded chapter), Society,
Sustainability and Environment, Shivalik Prakashan, New Delhi, and Plasma Science and Nanotechnology, Apple
Academic Press, exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press, a Taylor & Francis Group.
Ajay Kumar Singh has almost two decades of teaching experience in several engineering
institutions across North India. Currently, he is Professor of Physics at the Department of
Applied Sciences, Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology (MSIT), Janakpuri, New Delhi.
He has also served as the Head of Department at MSIT. Earlier, he was associated as Professor
(2003–2012) at the Department of Applied Science and Humanities, Dronacharya College of
Engineering, Haryana.
Dr. Singh completed his PhD from Aligarh Muslim University in the year 1999. During his
PhD, his work specifically focused on Uranium concentration in rock samples, soil samples
and fly ash samples. He also investigated radon levels in low and high background areas. He has published more
than 20 research papers and several articles in national and international journals and conferences. He has edited
and co-authored several books on Environment, Water Resources, Nuclear Physics, and Engineering Physics. His
book on Engineering Physics Practical and Tutorials has been highly appreciated by students. He is a life member
of Plasma Science Society of India (PSSI).
Dr. Singh was the ‘B.Tech First Year Syllabus Revision Committee’ coordinator representing all the affiliated
engineering colleges of Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU). He is academic coordinator of PhD
scholars enrolled at MSIT under University School of Information, Communication and Technology, GGSIPU,
Dwarka, New Delhi. He is also supervisor of PhD students under USICT, which is a premier constituent institute
of GGSIPU. Dr. Singh has also been teaching a special course on Nanotechnology for the USICT PhD students. He
is also the teacher representative in the governing board of Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology.
Engineering
Physics
Second Edition
Hitendra K MaliK
Professor, Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi
ajay KuMar SingH
Professor, Department of Applied Sciences
Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology
(MSIT) New Delhi
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Engineering Physics, 2e
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Dedicated to
OMENDRA Bhaiya and all those moments
that remain with me as a source of inspiration
and help me to move ahead with great success,
satisfaction and optimistic approach
Brief Contents
Foreword xix
Preface to the Second Edition xxi
Preface to the First Edition xxiii
1. Interference 1
2. Diffraction 63
3. Polarisation 121
4. Lasers and Holography 155
5. Fibre Optics 186
6. Electron Optics 208
7. Waves and Oscillations 233
8. Simple Harmonic Motion and Sound Waves 259
9. Sound Waves and Acoustics of Buildings 284
10. Dielectrics 313
11. Electromagnetism 328
12. Theory of Relativity 395
13. Applied Nuclear Physics 451
14. Crystal Structure 517
15. Development of Quantum Mechanics 551
16. Quantum Mechanics 595
17. Free Electron Theory 634
18. Band Theory of Solids and Photoconductivity 654
19. Magnetic Properties of Solids 685
20. Superconductivity 716
21. X-Rays 735
viii Brief Contents
22. Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 751

Appendices
Appendix 1 Measurements and Errors 779
Appendix 2 Optics 790
Appendix 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 794
Chapter-wise Answers to Objective Type Questions 805
Index 809
Contents ix
Contents
Foreword xix
Preface to the First Edition xxiii
1. Interference 1
Learning Objectives 1
1.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 2
1.2 Concept of Waves and Huygens’ Principle 2
1.3 Phase Difference and Path Difference 3
1.4 Coherence 4
1.5 Coherent Sources 5
1.6 Analytical Treatment of Interference 6
1.7 Conditions for Sustained Interference 8
1.8 Multiple Beam Superposition 9
1.9 Interference by Division of Wavefront 10
1.10 Interference by Division of Amplitude 16
1.11 Applications of Interference in the Field of Engineering 32
1.12 Scientific Applications of Interference 35
1.13 Homodyne and Heterodyne Detection 35
Summary 37
Solved Examples 38
Objective Type Questions 57
Short-Answer Questions 58
Practice Problems 58
Unsolved Questions 60
2. Diffraction 63
2.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment: Diffraction or Interference? 64
2.2 Difference between Diffraction and Interference 64
2.3 Types of Diffraction 64
2.4 Fresnel’s Half-period Zones 66
2.5 Zone Plate 68
2.6 Fresnel’s Diffraction by a Circular Aperture 72
x Contents
2.7 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Single Slit 76

2.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction by Double Slits 80
2.9 Fraunhofer Diffraction by N Slits: Diffraction Grating 84
2.10 Application of Diffraction Grating 90
2.11 Resolving Power of an Optical Instrument 91
2.12 Resolving Power of a Telescope 93
2.13 Resolving Power of a Microscope 94
2.14 Resolving Power of a Plane Diffraction Grating 96
2.15 Dispersive Power of a Plane Diffraction Grating 97
Summary 98
Solved Examples 99
3. Polarisation 121
3.1 Mechanical Experiment Showing Polarisation of Transverse Wave 122
3.2 Difference between Unpolarised Light and Polarised Light 123
3.3 Means of Production of Plane–Polarised Light 123
3.4 Theory of Production of Plane, Circularly and Elliptically Polarised Light 135
3.5 Optical Activity 138
3.6 Specific Rotation 138
3.7 Laurent’s Half-shade Polarimeter 138
3.8 Biquartz Polarimeter 139
3.9 Saccharimeter 140
3.10 Photoelasticity 141
Summary 142
Solved Examples 143
4. Lasers and Holography 155
4.1 Absorption and Emission of Radiation 156
4.2 Population Inversion 159
4.3 Characteristic of Laser Light 161
4.4 Main Components of Laser 163
4.5 Types of Laser 163
4.6 Applications of Lasers 169
4.7 Laser Cooling 170
4.8 Holography 170
Contents xi
4.9 Holography Versus Conventional Photography 171

4.10 Recording and Reconstruction of Image on Holograph 172
4.11 Types of Holograms 174
4.12 Applications of Holography 177
Summary 178
Solved Examples 179
5. Fibre Optics 186
5.1 Fundamental Ideas about Optical Fibre 187
5.2 Optical Fibres as a Dielectric Waveguide 188
5.3 Types of Optical Fibres 188
5.4 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture 190
5.5 Fibre Optics Communication 193
5.6 Optical Fibre Sensors 196
5.7 Optical Fibre Connector 197
5.8 Optical Fibre Couplers 197
5.9 Applications of Optical Fibre Couplers 198
Summary 198
Solved Examples 200
6. Electron Optics 208
6.1 Specific Charge of an Electron 208
6.2 Determination of Specific Charge of an Electron: Thomson’s Method 209
6.3 Motion of an Electron in Uniform Electric and Magnetic Fields 210
6.4 Electrostatic and Magnetostatic Focusing 219
6.5 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 220
6.6 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) 225
Summary 226
Solved Examples 227
7. Waves and Oscillations 233
7.1 Translational Motion 233
7.2 Vibrational or Oscillatory Motion 233
7.3 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 234
7.4 Differential Equation of SHM and Its Solution 234
7.5 Simple Pendulum 239
xii Contents
7.6 Mass-string System 241

7.7 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 243
7.8 Attenuation Coefficients of a Vibrating System 245
7.9 Forced Vibrations 247
7.10 Resonance 250
Summary 251
Solved Examples 252
8. Simple Harmonic Motion and Sound Waves 259
8.1 Superposition of Two SHMs 260
8.2 Sound Wave and its Velocity 260
8.3 Sound Displacement 261
8.4 Standing Waves 261
8.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns 262
8.6 Doppler Effect 264
8.7 Supersonic and Shock Waves 266
8.8 Derivation of Sound Speed 267
8.9 Intensity of Sound and Its Derivation 268
8.10 Sound-Intensity Level 269
8.11 Interference of Sound Waves in Time: Beats 270
8.12 Relation between Displacement and Pressure Amplitude 271
8.13 Lissajous Figures 272
8.14 Endoscopy 274
Summary 275
Solved Examples 276
9. Sound Waves and Acoustics of Buildings 284
9.1 Audible, Ultrasonic and Infrasonic Waves 284
9.2 Production of Ultrasonic Waves 285
9.3 Absorption and Dispersion of Ultrasonic Waves 290
9.4 Detection of Ultrasonic Waves 291
9.5 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves 292
9.6 Types of Acoustics 295
9.7 Acoustics of Buildings 296
9.8 Factors Affecting the Architectural Acoustics 300
Summary 301
Solved Examples 302
Contents xiii

True or False 311
10. Dielectrics 313
10.1 Dielectric Constant 313
10.2 Types of Dielectrics 314
10.3 Polarisation of Dielectrics 315
10.4 Types of Polarisation 317
10.5 Gauss’s Law in Dielectrics 318
10.6 Dielectric Loss 319
10.7 Clausius-Mosotti Equation 321
Summary 322
Solved Examples 323
11. Electromagnetism 328
11.1 Charge Density 329
11.2 Del Operator 330
11.3 Gradient 331
11.4 Divergence 331
11.5 Curl 332
11.6 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 333
11.7 Fundamental Theorem for Gradient 333
11.8 Gauss’s or Green’s Theorem 334
11.9 Stokes’ Theorem 335
11.10 Electric Field and Electric Potential 335
11.11 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations 336
11.12 Capacitor 337
Æ
11.13 Magnetic Flux Density (B ) 338
Æ
11.14 Magnetic Field Strength (H ) 338
11.15 Ampere’s Circuital Law 338
11.16 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions 339
11.17 Scalar and Vector Potentials 341
11.18 Continuity Equation 342
11.19 Maxwell’s Equations: Differential Form 343
11.20 Maxwell’s Equations: Integral Form 348
11.21 Significance of Maxwell’s Equations 350
11.22 Maxwell’s Displacement Current and Correction in Ampere’s Law 351
11.23 Eletromagnetic (EM) Wave Propagation in Free Space 352
11.24 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 355
xiv Contents
11.25 Maxwell’s Equations in Isotropic Dielectric Medium: EM Wave Propogation 355

11.26 Maxwell’s Equations in Conducting Medium: EM Wave Propagation and Skin
Depth 357
11.27 Electromagnetic Energy Density 360
11.28 Poynting Vector and Poynting Theorem 361
11.29 Wave Propagation in Bounded System: Waveguide 363
11.30 Coaxial Cable 364
Summary 365
Solved Examples 369
12. Theory of Relativity 395
12.1 Frame of Reference 395
12.2 Galilean Transformation 396
12.3 Michelson-Morley Experiment 398
12.4 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity 401
12.5 Lorentz Transformation 401
12.6 Length Contraction 403
12.7 Time Dilation 405
12.8 Addition of Velocities 406
12.9 Variation of Mass with Velocity 407
12.10 Einstein’s Mass Energy Relation 409
Summary 411
Solved Examples 413
13. Applied Nuclear Physics 451
13.1 Basic Properties of Nucleus 452
13.2 Nuclear Forces 454
13.3 Binding Energy of Nucleus 455
13.4 Nuclear Stability 457
13.5 Nuclear Models 457
13.6 Nuclear Shell Model 457
13.7 Nuclear Liquid Drop Model 459
13.8 Radioactivity 460
13.9 Discovery of Neutron 469
13.10 Nuclear Reactions: Conservation Laws 471
13.11 Nuclear Fission 473
Contents xv
13.12 Nuclear Fusion 476

13.13 Controlled Fusion 477
13.14 Particle Accelerators 481
Summary 487
Solved Examples 492
14. Crystal Structure 517
14.1 Types of Solids 518
14.2 Unit Cell 518
14.3 Types of Crystals 519
14.4 Translation Vectors 520
14.5 Lattice Planes 521
14.6 Miller Indices 521
14.7 Simple Crystal Structures 523
14.8 Coordination Number 523
14.9 Interplanar Spacing 524
14.10 Nearest Neighbour Distance and Atomic Radius 525
14.11 Packing Fraction 526
14.12 Potential Energy Curve and Nature of Interatomic Forces 528
14.13 Different Types of Bonding Forces 529
14.14 Crystal Structure Analysis 531
14.15 Point Defects in Solids 534
Summary 537
Solved Examples 539
15. Development of Quantum Mechanics 551
15.1 Blackbody Radiation: Spectral Distribution 552
15.2 Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis 554
15.3 Simple Concept of Quantum Theory 556
15.4 Wave Particle Duality 557
15.5 Photoelectric Effect 557
15.6 de Broglie Waves: Matter Waves 559
15.7 Compton Effect: Compton Scattering 561
15.8 Phase and Group Velocities: de Broglie Waves 565
Summary 569
xvi Contents
Solved Examples 570

16. Quantum Mechanics 595
16.1 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 596
16.2 Wave Function and Its Physical Significance 601
16.3 Time Independent Schrödinger Equation 602
16.4 Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation 603
16.5 Operators 604
16.6 Applications of Schrödinger Equation 605
16.7 Quantum Statistics 614
Summary 617
Solved Examples 618
17. Free Electron Theory 634
17.1 Lorentz–Drude Theory: Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals 635
17.2 Applications of Lorentz–Drude Theory 636
17.3 Limitations of Lorentz–Drude or Free Electron Theory 638
17.4 Quantum Theory of Free Electrons 638
17.5 Thermionic Emission 644
Summary 645
Solved Examples 646
18. Band Theory of Solids and Photoconductivity 654
18.1 Kronig-Penney Model 655
18.2 One- and Two-Dimensional Brillouin Zones 659
18.3 Effective Mass of an Electron 660
18.4 Distinction between Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors (Metals) 661
18.5 Intrinsic Semiconductor 664
18.6 Extrinsic Semiconductor 667
18.7 Hall Effect 669
18.8 Photoconductivity 671
18.9 Simple Model of Photoconductor 671
Contents xvii
18.10 Effect of Traps 674

18.11 Applications of Photoconductivity 675
Summary 676
Solved Examples 678
19. Magnetic Properties of Solids 685
19.1 Magnetic Moment of an Electron 687
19.2 Classification of Magnetic Materials 688
19.3 Comparison of Properties of Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic
Materials 689
19.4 Classical Theory of Diamagnetism (Langevin’s Theory) 689
19.5 Classical Theory of Paramagnetism (Langevin’s Theory) 693
19.6 Classical Theory of Ferromagnetism 696
Æ Æ
19.7 Hysteresis: Nonlinear Relationship between B and H 697
19.8 Energy Loss Due to Hysteresis 698
19.9 Importance of Hysteresis Curve 699
19.10 Magnetic Circuits 700
19.11 Forces on Magnetic Materials 700
19.12 Magnetic Materials and Their Applications 700
Summary 702
Solved Examples 705
20. Superconductivity 716
20.1 Electrical Resistivity of Solids and Phonons 717
20.2 Properties of Superconductors 717
20.3 Classification of Superconductors 719
20.4 Effect of Magnetic Field 719
20.5 Isotope Effect 720
20.6 London Equations 720
20.7 Penetration Depth 722
20.8 Cooper Pairs 723
20.9 Bose–Einstein Condensation 724
20.10 BCS Theory: Qualitative Explanation 724
20.11 Coherence Length 725
20.12 High Temperature (Hi-Tc) Superconductivity 726
20.13 Application of Superconductivity 726
Summary 727
Solved Examples 729
xviii Contents

21. X-Rays 735
21.1 Origin of X-rays 736
21.2 Properties of X-rays 736
21.3 X-ray Spectra 737
21.4 Moseley’s Law 738
21.5 Practical Applications of X-rays 740
Summary 740
Solved Examples 741
22. Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 751
22.1 How Nanomaterials are Differenet from Bulk Materials? 752
22.2 Difference between Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 752
22.3 Quantum Confinement and Classification of Nanostructures 752
22.4 Nanoscale in 1-D 753
22.7 Applications of Nanotechnology 768
22.8 Limitations of Nanotechnology 770
22.9 Disadvantages of Nanotechnology 770
Summary 771
Solved Examples 773
Appendices
Appendix 1 Measurements and Errors 779
Appendix 2 Optics 790
Appendix 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 794
Chapter-wise Answers to Objective Type Questions 805
Index 809
Foreword xix
Foreword
It gives me immense pleasure to see the present textbook on “Engineering Physics” which
covers almost the entire syllabus taught at undergraduate level at different engineering
colleges and institutions throughout India. I complement the authors and appreciate their
efforts in bringing out this book written in a very simple language. The text is comprehensive
and the explanation of topics is commendable. I understand that this book carries all the
elements required for a good presentation.
I have been a student of IIT Kharagpur and later on taught at IIT Delhi. Being a part of
the IIT system, I recognise that the rigorous and enriching teaching experience at IITs originating from the
interaction with the best engineering students and their strong feedback results in continuous evolution and
refinement of the teachers. This spirit is reflected in the comprehensive and in-depth handling of important
topics in a very simple manner in this book. I am happy to note that this textbook has been penned down by
IITian and hope that it would serve to be a good textbook on the subject. Since this book also covers advanced
topics, it will be an important learning resource for the teachers, and those students who wish to develop
research skills and pursue higher studies. I hope that the book is well received in the academic world.
Professor Prem Vrat

Vice-Chancellor, U.P. Technical University, Lucknow
Founder Director, IIT Roorkee
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of the textbook was appreciated by the teachers and students of many universities, engineering
colleges and institutes, including IIT’s throughout India. Words of appreciation were also received from
faculty colleagues from Japan, China, Taiwan, Russia, Canada, South Korea, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Turkey,
Iran, South Africa, Germany, France, United Kingdom, and United States of America. Students preparing for
GATE/CSIR competitive examinations also suggested for more examples in the book and inclusion of topics
of postgraduate level. The students very enthusiastically informed us about the utility of the book for the
preparation of interviews for admission in PhD programmes at IITs and other universities (including foreign
universities) or to get government jobs in India.
In view of all the above points, we have come up with the second edition of the book, where we have used
simple language for explaining each and every topic. We have included more physical insight, wherever
required. Some chapters are thoroughly revised in terms of new topics and solved problems. We have also
updated advanced topics keeping in mind the research going on in these fields. The solutions to the Objective-
Type Questions are also provided at the end of the book.
In particular, Chapter 4 includes details of the topic Population Inversion which covers various schemes
for the same, i.e., two-level, three-level and four-level systems. In Chapter 5, a topic on Optical Fibres as a
Dielectric Waveguide is included. After Chapter 7 on Waves and Oscillations, a new Chapter 8 on Simple
Harmonic Motion and Sound Waves has been included that discusses standing waves, supersonic and shock
waves, in addition to sound waves, Doppler effect and Lissajous figures. Chapter 9 on Sound Waves and
Acoustics of Buildings has been thoroughly revised. In this chapter, Recording and Reproduction of Sound
has been withdrawn and other topics are revisited. New topics on ultrasonics have been included which talk
about production of ultrasonic waves and their absorption, dispersion, detection and applications. In Chapter
10 on Dielectrics, a topic Energy Stored in an Electrostatic Field is withdrawn as its concept is discussed
in Chapter 11 on Electromagnetism. Moreover, details of Clausius-Mosotti equation are revised with the
inclusion of physical insight of this equation. The chapter on Electromagnetism has been thoroughly revised.
For example, Section 11.21 has been rewritten in order to make the readers understand which form of the
Maxwell’s equations is appropriate for free space, dielectric medium and conducting medium and how are
these equations modified in these media. Bound charges and bound currents are also discussed. The solution to
wave equation in conducting medium is included as Section 11.28.1, where dispersion relation, skin depth and
phase relationship of the electric and magnetic field vectors are discussed. New solved problems, objective-
type questions and other practice problems are also included in order to provide an indepth knowledge on the
electromagnetic fields and their propagation in different media.
In Chapter 12 on Theory of Relativity, physical insight to two interesting topics, viz. Length Contraction
and Time Dilation is provided. Several new solved problems on various topics are also provided for the
readers. Chapter 13 on Applied Nuclear Physics has been thoroughly revised and new topics are included on
xxii Preface to the Second Edition
basic properties of nucleus, nuclear forces, binding energy of nucleus, nuclear stability and various nuclear
models, in addition to more equations and problems, both solved and unsolved. Introduction part of Chapter
16 on Quantum Mechanics has been revised. The topic on Thermionic Emission (Section 17.7) has been
shortened but significance of Richardson’s equation is included. The earlier Chapter 21 on Photoconductivity
and Photovoltaics has been withdrawn but its important topics, viz. photoconductivity, simple model of
photoconductor and effect of traps, are included in Chapter 18 on Bond Theory of Solids and Photoconductivity.
The much important Chapter 22 on Nanophysics has been rewritten in view of recent advances in the
field. Now, it is renamed as Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Certain new topics are included to clarify
how nanomaterials are different from bulk materials and to know the differences between nanoscience and
nanotechnology. The chapter very systematically discusses the nanoscales in 1D, 2D, 3D and OD. Particu-
larly, nanowires, carbon nanotubes, inorganic nanotubes, biopolymers, nanoparticles, buckyballs/fullerenes
and quantum dots are discussed in detail along with the methods of their synthesis, properties and their
applications. Finally, the applications, limitations and disadvantages of nanotechnology are also discussed.
The exhaustive OLC supplements of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/malik/ep and contain
the following:
For Instructors
• Solution Manual
• Chapter-wise Power Point slides with diagrams and notes for effective lecture presentations
For Students
• A sample chapter
• A Solved Question Paper
• An e-guide to aid last minute revision need
We believe the readers shall find the second edition of the book more beneficial in terms of syllabus covered,
quality of topics, large number of solved problems aimed at providing physical insight to various topics,
and teaching various methods of solving difficult problems. The systematic approach adopted in the present
book shall certainly help the teachers and students providing for crystal clear understanding of the topics and
carrying out research in the related fields. This edition will be vital in enhancing the self confidence of our
UG and PG students which will help them in advancing their careers.
Finally, we look forward to receive feedback from the teachers and students on the recent edition of the book.
H K Malik
Ajay K Singh
Publisher’s Note:
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments, all of which can be sent to
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
Preface to the First Edition
Physics is a mandatory subject for all engineering students, where almost all the important elements of
the subject are covered. Finally, these evolve as different branches of the engineering course. The book
entitled Engineering Physics has been written keeping in mind the need of undergraduate students from
various engineering and science colleges of all Indian universities. It caters to the complete syllabus for
both–Physics-I and Physics-II papers in the first year Engineering Physics course.
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ters carry unsolved questions based on which the students would be able to test their knowledge as to what
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lae will be helpful to students for a quick review during examinations. The rich pedagogy consists of solved
examples (450), objective-type questions (230), short-answer questions (224) and practice problems (617).
The manuscript has been formulated in such a way that students shall grasp the subject easily and save their
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The manuscript contains 22 chapters which have been prepared as per the syllabus taught in various colleges
and institutions. In particular, the manuscript discusses optics, lasers, holography, fibre optics, waves,
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The structuring of the book provides in-depth coverage of all topics. Chapter 1 discusses Interference.
Chapter 2 is on Diffraction. Chapter 3 is devoted to Polarization. Coherence and Lasers are described in
xxiv Preface to the First Edition
Chapter 4. Chapter 5 discusses Fibre Optics and its Applications, while Electron Optics is dealt with in
Chapter 6. Chapter 7 describes Waves and Oscillations. Chapter 8 is on Sound Waves and Acoustics.
Chapter 9 is on Dielectrics. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation is described in Chapter 10. Chapter 11
discusses the Theory of Relativity.
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with the Development of Quantum Physics, while Chapter 15 is on Quantum Mechanics. Chapter 16
discusses Free Electron Theory. Band Theory of Solids is explained in Chapter 17. Chapter 18 describes
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while Chapter 21 is on Photoconductivity and Photovoltaics. Finally, Chapter 22 discusses Nanophysics
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Dhirendra Kumar Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology, Uttar Pradesh
Vinay Kumar SRMS CET, Bareilly
Prerna Garg Meerut Institute of Technology, Uttar Pradesh
Amit Kumar Srivastava Aryavrat Institute of Technology and Management, Lucknow
Shyam Singh Aryavart Institute of Technology and Management, Lucknow
R S Tiwari Apollo Institute of Engineering, Kanpur
Kamlesh Pathak SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat
Kanti Jotania M S University, Baroda, Gujarat
Vijayalakshmi Sanyal Bharathiyar College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikal, Tamil Nadu
A K Meikap NIT, Durgapur, West Bengal
K Sivakumar Anna University, Chennai
H K Malik
Ajay K Singh
Interference 1
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you will be able to LO5 Discuss analytical treatment of
interference and conditions for
LO1 Explain interference through Young’s sustained interference
double slit experiment
LO6 Examine multiple beam superposition
LO2 Describe the concept of wave and and interference by division of
Huygen’s principle wavefront and amplitude
LO3 Illustrate phase and path difference LO7 Review engineering/scientific
LO4 Explain coherence, its various types applications of interferences including
and coherent sources homodyne and heterodyne detection
Introduction
You would have seen beautiful colours in soap films or patch of oil floating on the surface of water.
Moreover, the colour gets changed when you watch it from different angles. Did you ever try to find
out the reason? In scientific language, this takes place due to the phenomenon of interference. The
phenomenon of interference of light tells us about the wave nature of the light. In optics, the interference
means the superposition of two or more waves which results in a new wave pattern. Here, we are talking
about the interaction of waves emerging from the same source or when the frequencies of these waves
are the same. In the context of light, which is an electromagnetic wave, we say that when the light from
two different sources moves in the same direction, then these light wave trains superimpose upon each
other. This results in the modification of distribution of intensity of light. According to the principle of
superposition, this is called the interference of light. More precisely the interference can be defined as the
interaction between two or more waves of the same or very close frequencies emitted from coherent
sources (defined later), where the wavefronts are combined according to the principle of superposition.
The resulting variation in the disturbances produced by the waves is called the interference pattern.
Thomas Young, in 1802, explained the interference successfully in his double slit experiment.
2 Engineering Physics
1.1 YOung’s DOubLe sLit experiment LO1

The phenomenon of interference may be better understood by taking two point light sources S1 and S2 which
produce similar waves (Fig. 1.1). Let the sources S1 and S2 be at equal distances from the main source S while
being close to each other. Since the sources emit waves in all the directions, the spherical waves first pass
through S and then S1 and S2. Finally these waves expand into the space.
The crests of the waves are represented by complete arcs and the troughs
by dotted arcs. It is seen that constructive interference takes place at the
points where the crests due to one source meet the crests due to another
source or where their troughs meet each other. In this case, the resultant
S1
amplitude will be the sum of the amplitudes of the separate waves and
hence the intensity of the light will be maximum at these points. Similarly, S
at those points where crests due to one source meet the troughs due to S2
another source or vice-versa, the resultant amplitude will be the difference
of the amplitudes of the separate waves. At these points the intensity of
the waves (or light) will be minimum. Therefore, due to the intersection
of these lines, an alternate bright and dark fringes are observed on the Screen
screen placed at the right side of the sources S1 and S2. These fringes are
Figure 1.1
obtained due to the phenomenon of interference of light.
1.2 COnCept Of Waves anD HuYgens’ prinCipLe LO2

A wave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time, usually with the transference of energy from
one point to another without any particle of the medium being permanently displaced. Under this situation,
the particles only oscillate about their equilibrium positions. If the oscillations of the particles are in the
direction of wave propagation, then the wave is called longitudinal wave. However, if these oscillations take
place in perpendicular direction with the direction of wave propagation, the wave is said to be transverse
in nature. In electromagnetic waves, such as light waves, it is the changes in electric and magnetic fields
which represent the wave disturbance. The progress of the wave propagation is described by the passage of a
waveform through the medium with a certain velocity called the phase velocity or wave velocity. However,
the energy is transferred at the group velocity of the waves making the waveform.
The wave theory of the light was proposed in 1678 by Huygens, a Dutch scientist. On the basis of his wave
theory, he explained satisfactorily the phenomena of reflections, refraction etc. In the beginning, Huygens’
supposed that these waves are longitudinal waves but later he came to know that these waves are transverse
in nature. Huygens’ gave a hypothesis for geometrical construction of the position of a common wavefront
at any instant when the propagation of waves takes place in a medium. The wavefront is an imaginary
surface joining the points of constant phase in a wave propagated through the medium. The way in which the
wavefront is propagated further in the medium is given by Huygens’ principle. This principle is based on the
following assumptions:
(i) Each point on the given wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets from each point travel through space in all the directions with velocity of
light.
(iii) A surface touching the secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any given time
constructs the new wavefront at that instant. This is known as secondary wavefront.
Interference 3
In order to demonstrate the Huygens’ principle, we consider P1 P2 P P1

the propagation of a spherical wavefront (Fig. 1.2a) or plane P
wavefront (Fig. 1.2b) in an isotropic (uniform) medium P2
1 1
(for example, ether) emerging from a source of light S. At
any time, suppose PQ is a section of the primary wavefront 2 2
drawn from the source S. To find the position of the wavefront
after an interval t, we take points 1, 2, 3, ... on the primary 3 3
wavefront PQ. As per Huygens’ principle, these points act S
4
4
as the source of secondary wavelets. Taking each point as
the centre, we draw spheres of radii ct, where c is the speed 5 5
of light. These spherical surfaces represent the position of 6
6
secondary wavelets at time t. Further, we draw a surface
P1Q1 that touches tangentially all these secondary wavelets Q2
in the forward direction. This surface P1Q1 is the secondary Q Q2 Q Q1
Q1
wavefront. Another surface P2Q2 in the backward direction is
not called the secondary wavefront as there is no backward (a) (b)
flow of the energy during the propagation of the light waves. Figure 1.2
1.3 pHase DifferenCe anD patH DifferenCe LO3

As mentioned, the interference pattern is obtained when the two or more waves superimpose each other. In
order to understand this pattern it is very important to know about the path and phase differences between
the interfering waves.
1.3.1 phase Difference

Two waves that have the same frequencies and different phases are known to have a phase difference and are
said to be out of phase, with each other. If the phase difference is 180°, then the two waves are said to be in
antiphase and if it is 0°, then they are in phase as shown in Fig. 1.3(a and b). If the two interfering waves meet
at a point where they are in antiphase, then the destructive interference occurs. However, if these two waves
meet at a point where they are in the same phase, then the constructive interference takes place.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3
1.3.2 path Difference

In Fig. 1.4, while the two wave crests are traveling a different distance from their sources, they meet at a point
P in such a way that a crest meets a crest. For this particular location on the pattern, the difference in distance
traveled is known as path difference.
1.3.3 Relation between Path Difference and

phase Difference
It is clear from the positions of crests or troughs of the waves r1
that if the path difference between the two waves is equal to S1 P
the wavelength l, the corresponding phase difference is 2p
(360°). Suppose for a path difference of d the corresponding
phase difference is f. Then it is clear that r2
S2
2p
f= d d = r2 − r1
l
2p (Path difference)
Phase difference = ¥ Path difference (i)
l Figure 1.4
This can be made clearer with the help of Fig. 1.4, where two sources of waves S1 and S2 are shown. The
wavelength of these sources is l and the sources are in phase at S1 and S2. The frequencies of both the waves
are taken to be the same as f. Therefore, the angular frequency w = 2pf. They travel at the same speed and the
2p
propagation constant for them is k = . We can write the wave equations for both the waves at point P as
l
y1 = a cos(wt – kr1) for the wave emerging from source S1 and
y2 = a cos(wt – kr2) for the wave emerging from source S2
Here (wt – kr1) is the phase f1 and (wt – kr2) is the phase f2. Therefore, the phase difference between them is
f1 – f2, given by f1 – f2 = wt – kr1 – wt + kr2 = k(r2 – r1).
2p
Using Eq. (i) and k = , the path difference is obtained as
l
Path difference d = r2 – r1.
1.4 COHerenCe LO4

Coherence is a property of waves that helps in getting stationary interference, i.e., the interference which is
temporally and spatially constant. During interference the waves add constructively or subtract destructively,
depending on their relative phases. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase.
This also means that they have the same frequency. Actually the coherence is a measure of the correlation
that exists between the phases of the wave measured at different points. The coherence of a wave depends on
the characteristics of its source.
1.4.1 Temporal Coherence

Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a wave (light) at different points
along the direction of wave propagation. If the phase difference of the wave crossing the two points lying
along the direction of wave propagation is independent of time, then the wave is said to have temporal
coherence. Temporal coherence is also known as longitudinal coherence. This tells us how monochromatic
a source is. In Fig. 1.5A, a wave traveling along the positive x-direction is shown, where two points A and B
are lying on the x-axis. Let the phases of the wave at these points at any instant t be fA and fB, respectively,
and at a later time t¢ they be f¢A and f¢B . Under this situation, if the phase difference fB – fA = f B¢ - f A¢ , then
the wave is said to have temporal coherence.
Interference 5
x axis
A B
Figure 1.5A
1.4.2 Spatial Coherence

Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a wave (light) at different points
transverse to the direction of propagation. If the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying
on a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation is independent of time, then the wave is said to
have spatial coherence. This tells us how uniform the phase of the wavefront is. In Fig. 1.5B, a wave traveling
along the positive x-direction is shown, where PQRS is a transverse plane and A and B are the two points
situated on this plane within the waveforms. Let the waves crossing these points at any time t have the same
phase f and at a later time t¢ the phases of the waves are again the same but equal to f¢. Under this situation,
the waves are said to have spatial coherence.
Q
P
A
x axis
B
x axis
R
S
Figure 1.5B
1.4.3 Coherence Time and Coherence Length

A monochromatic source of light emits radiation of a single frequency (or wavelength). In practice, however,
even the best source of light emits radiations with a finite range of wavelengths. For a single frequency wave,
the time interval over which the phase remains constant is called the coherence time. The coherence time is
generally represented by Dt. In a monochromatic sinusoidal wave the coherence time is infinity because the
phase remains constant throughout. However, practically the coherence time exists and the distance traveled
by the light pulses during this coherence time is known as coherence length DL. The coherence length is
also called the spatial interval, which is the length over which the phase of the wave remains constant. The
coherence length and coherence time are related to each other according to the following formula
DL = cDt
1.5 COHerent sOurCes LO4

Two sources of light are said to be coherent, if they emit waves of the same frequency (or wavelength), nearly
the same amplitude and maintain a constant phase difference between them. Laser is a good example of
coherent source. In actual practice, it is not possible to have two independent sources which are coherent. This
can be explained as follows. A source of light consists of large number of atoms. According to the atomic
theory, each atom consists of a central nucleus and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
When an atom gets sufficient energy by any means, its electrons jump from lower energy level to higher
energy level. This state of an atom is called an
excited state. The electron lives in this state only
for about 10–8 seconds. After this interval of time
the electrons fall back to the inner orbits. During
this process, the atoms radiate energy in the form of
light. Out of the large number of atoms some of
them emit light at any instant of time and at the next
instant other atoms do so and so on. This results in
the emission of light waves with different phases.
So, it is obvious that it is difficult to get coherent Many Source Points Many Wavelengths
light from different parts of the same source (Fig.
1.6). Therefore, two independent sources of light Figure 1.6
can never act as coherent sources.
1.5.1 Production of Coherent Light from Incoherent Sources

An ordinary light bulb is an example of an incoherent source. We can produce coherent light from such an
incoherent source, though we will have to a lot of the light. If we use spatially filter the light coming from
such source, we can increase the spatial coherence (Fig. 1.7). Further, spectrally filtering of the light increases
the temporal coherence. This way we can produce the coherent light from the incoherent source.
Spatial Filter Spectral Filter
Coherent
Light
Incoherent Source
Pinhole Wavelength Filter

Figure 1.7
1.6 anaLYtiCaL treatment Of interferenCe LO5

Let us consider the superposition of two waves of same frequency w and a constant phase difference f
traveling in the same direction. Their amplitudes are taken as a1 and a2, respectively. The displacement due
to one wave at any instant is given by
y1 = a1 sin wt (i)
and the displacement due to another wave at the same instant is given by
y2 = a2 sin (wt + f) (ii)
Interference 7
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement (yR) is given by

yR = y1 + y2 (iii)
= a1 sin wt + a2 sin (wt + f)
= a1 sin wt + a2 sin wt cos f + a2 cos wt sin f
= (a1 + a2 cos f) sin wt + a2 sin f cos wt (iv)
Assuming a1 + a2 cos f = A cos q (v)
a2 sin f = A sin q (vi)
We obtain using Eq. (iv) – (vi)
yR = A sin (wt + q) (vii)
On squaring and adding Eqs. (v) and (vi), we have
2 2
A2 (sin2q+ cos2q) = a2 sin2f + a12 + 2a1a2 cos f + a2 cos2f
A2 = a12 + a22 (sin2f + cos2f) + 2a1a2 cos f (viii)
The resultant intensity is therefore given by
2 2
I = A2 = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos f (ix)
The angle q can be calculated from Eqs. (v) and (vi) as
a2 sin f
tan q = (x)
a1 + a2 cos f
1.6.1 Condition for Constructive Interference

It is clear from Eq. (ix) that the intensity, I will be maximum at points where the values of cos f are +1, i.e,
phase difference f be 2np, with n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... Then the maximum intensity is obtained from Eq. (ix) as
Imax = (a1 + a2)2 (xi)
In other words, the intensity will be maximum when the phase difference is an integral multiple of 2p. In this
case,
I max > a12 + a22
Thus, the resultant intensity will be greater than the sum of the individual intensities of the waves.
If a1 = a2 = a, then
Imax = 4a2
1.6.2 Condition for Destructive Interference

It is clear from Eq. (ix) that the intensity I will be minimum at points where cos f = –1. i.e., where phase
difference f = (2n + 1)p, with n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... Then Eq. (ix) gives
Imin = (a1 – a2)2 (xii)
Therefore, it is clear that in destructive interference the intensity will be minimum when the phase difference
f is an odd multiple of p.
If a1 = a2, then Imin = 0
If a1 π a2, then Imin π 0
I min < a12 + a22

Thus, in the case of destructive interference the resultant intensity will be less than the sum of the individual
intensities of the waves.
Figure 1.8 represents the intensity variation with phase differences f graphically (for a1 = a2 = a).
I
4a2
–7p –6p –5p –4p –3p –2p –p 0 p 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

f
Figure 1.8
1.6.3 Conservation of Energy

The resultant intensity due to the interference of two waves a1 sin wt and a2 sin (wt + f) is given by Eq. (ix),
reproduced below
2 2
I = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos f
2 2
\ Imax = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 = (a1+ a2)2
and Imin = a12 + a22 – 2a1a2 = (a1 – a2)2
If a1 = a2 = a then
Imax = 4a2 and Imin = 0
Therefore, average intensity (Iav) will be obtained as

Iav = 2a2
2 2
For unequal amplitudes a1 and a2 the average intensity would be (a1 + a2 ) . Thus, in interference only some
part of energy is transferred from the position of minima to the position of maxima, and the average intensity
or energy remains constant. This shows that the phenomenon of interference is in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy.
1.7 COnDitiOns fOr sustaineD interferenCe LO5

Sustained interference means a constant interference of light waves. In order to obtain such interference, the
following conditions must be satisfied
(i) The two sources should emit waves of the same frequency (wavelength). If it is not so, then the
positions of maxima and minima will change with time.
Interference 9
(ii) The waves from the two sources should propagate along the same direction with equal speeds.
(iii) The phase difference between the two interfering waves should be zero or it should remain constant.
It means the sources emitting these waves must be coherent.
(iv) The two coherent sources should be very close to each other, otherwise the interference fringes will
be very close to each other due to the large path difference between the interfering waves. For the
large separation of the sources, the fringes may even overlap and the maxima and minima will not
appear distinctly.
(v) A reasonable distance between the sources and screen should be kept, as the maxima and minima
appear quite close if this distance is smaller. On the other hand, the large distance of the screen
reduces the intensity.
(vi) In order to obtain distinct and clear maxima and minima, the amplitudes of the two interfering waves
must be equal or nearly equal.
(vii) If the source is not narrow, it may act as a multi source. This will lead to a number of interference
patterns. Therefore, the coherent sources must be narrow.
(viii) In order to obtain the pattern with constant fringe width and good intensity fringes, the sources
should be monochromatic and the background should be dark.
1.7.1 Condition of Relative Phase Shift

This is regarding the introduction of additional phase change between the interfering waves when they emerge
after reflecting from two different surfaces. In most of the situations, the reflection takes place when the beam
propagates from the medium of lower refractive index to the medium of higher refractive index or vice-versa.
When the reflection occurs with light going from a lower index toward a higher index, the condition is called
internal reflection. However, when the reflection occurs for light going from a higher index toward a lower
index, the condition is referred to as external reflection. A relative phase shift of p takes place between the
externally and internally reflected beams so that an additional path difference of l/2 is introduced between
the two beams. If both the interfering beams get either internally or externally reflected, no phase shift takes
place between them.
1.8 muLtipLe beam superpOsitiOn LO6

In Section 1.6, we have given theoretical analysis of the interference due to the superposition of two waves
of the same frequency and the constant phase difference. The intensity of the interference pattern showed its
dependence on the amplitudes of the interfering waves. However, now we consider a large number of waves
of the same frequency and amplitude, which propagate in the same direction. The amount by which each
wave train is ahead or lags behind the other is a matter of chance. Based on the amplitude and intensity of
the resultant wave, we can examine the interference. We assume n number of wave trains whose individual
amplitudes are equal (= a, say). The amplitude of the resultant wave can be understood as the amplitude of
motion of a particle undergoing n simple harmonic motions (each of amplitude a) at once. In this case, if all
these motions are in the same phase, the resultant wave will have an amplitude equal to na and the intensity
would be n2a2, i.e., n2 times that of one wave. However, in our case, the phases are distributed purely at
random, as shown in Fig. 1.9 as per graphical method of compounding amplitudes. Here, the phases f1, f2,
f3, ... take arbitrary values between 0 and 2p. The intensity due to the superposition of such waves can be
calculated by the square of the resultant amplitude A. In order to find A2, we should square the sum of the
projections of all vectors a along the x-direction and add it to the square of the corresponding sum along the
y-direction. The summation of projections along x-direction are given by the following expression
a(cos f1 + cos f2 + cos f3 + ... + cos fn)
y
a f3
f2
A a
a
f1
O X
Figure 1.9
The square of quantity in the parentheses gives the terms of the form cos2 f1, 2 cos f1 cos f2, etc. It is seen that
the sum of these cross product terms increases approximately in proportion to number n. So we do not obtain
a definite result with one given array of arbitrarily distributed waves. For a large number of such arrays, we
find their average effect in computing the intensity in any physical problem. Under this situation, it is safe to
conclude that these cross product terms will average to zero. So we consider only the cos2 f terms. Similarly,
for the y projections of the vectors we obtain sin2 f terms. With this we have
I ª A2 = a2(cos2 f1 + cos2 f2 + cos2 f3 + ... + cos2 fn) + a2(sin2 f1 + sin2 f2 + sin2 f3 + ... + sin2 fn).
Using the identity sin2 fp + cos2 fp = 1, the above expression reduces to I ª a2 ¥ n.
Since a2 is the intensity due to a single wave, the above relation shows that the average intensity resulting
from the superposition of n waves with arbitrary phases is n times of a single wave. It means the resultant
amplitude A increases in proportion with in length as n gets increased.
1.9 interferenCe bY DivisiOn Of WavefrOnt LO6

This method uses multiple slits, lenses, prisms or mirrors for dividing a single wavefront laterally to form
two smaller segments that can interfere with each other. In the division of a wavefront, the interfering beams
of radiation that left the source in different directions and some optical means is used to bring the beams
back together. This method is useful with small sources. Double slit experiment is an excellent example of
interference by division of wavefront. Fresnel’s biprism is also used for getting interference pattern based on
this method.
1.9.1 Fresnel’s Biprism

Fresnel’s Biprism is a device by which we can obtain two virtual coherent sources of light to produce
sustained interference. It is the combination of two acute angled prisms which are joined with their bases in
such a way that one angle becomes obtuse angle q¢ of about 179° and remaining two angles are acute angles
each of about 1/2°, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Interference 11
S1 d
d
B
q¢
2d
S
C
q
S2
D
A¢
Y
Figure 1.10
Let monochromatic light from slit S fall on the biprism, placed at a small distance from S. When the light falls
on upper part of the biprism, it bends downward and appears to come from source S1. Similarly, the other
part of the light when falls on the lower part of the biprism, bends upward and appears to come from source
S2. Here, the images S1 and S2 act as two virtual coherent sources of light (Fig. 1.10). Coherent sources are
the one that have a constant or zero phase difference throughout. In the situation, on placing the screen XY on
right side of the biprism, we obtain an alternate bright and dark fringes in the overlapping region BC.
1.9.1.1 Theory of Fringes
X
Let A and B be two virtual coherent sources of light separated by a distance
P
2d. The screen XY, on which the fringes are obtained, is separated by a
distance D from the two coherent sources, as shown in Fig. 1.11. The
point C on the screen is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, the path xn
difference between the two waves from sources A and B at point C is
zero. Thus the point C will be the centre of a bright fringe. On both sides A N
of C, alternately bright and dark fringes are produced. d
2d S C
Draw perpendiculars AN and BM from A and B on the screen. Let the d
B M
distance of a point P on the screen from the central bright fringe at C be D
xn. Y
From geometry, we have Figure 1.11
NP = xn – d; MP = xn + d
In right angled DANP,
AP2 = AN2 + NP2 (i)
2 2
= D + (xn – d)
È ( x - d )2 ˘
D 2 Í1 + n ˙
Î D2 ˚
1/2
È ( x - d )2 ˘
AP = D Í1 + n ˙
Î D2 ˚
È 1 ( xn - d ) 2 ˘
AP = D Í1 + ˙ , [as (xn - d ) << D ]
Î 2 D2 ˚
1 ( xn + d )2
AP = D + (ii) [By using Binomial Theorem]
2 D
Similarly, in DBMP,
1 ( xn + d ) 2 (iii)
BP = D +
2 D
Hence, the path difference between the waves reaching via AP and BP paths at the point P on the screen
È 2˘ È 2˘
D = BP - AP = Í D + 1 ( xn + d ) ˙ - Í D + 1 ( xn - d ) ˙
Î 2 D ˚ Î 2 D ˚
4x d
= n
2D
2d
D= xn (iv)
D
Condition for Bright Fringes: In order to interfere constructively and produce bright fringes, the two rays
should arrive at points P in phase. This is possible if the path difference is an integral multiple of l. Therefore,
D = nl
2d
xn = nl where n = 0, 1, 2 ……
D
nl D
xn = (v)
2d
Here it may be recalled that xn is the distance of the nth order bright fringe from the central maxima.
The distance of the next (n + 1)th maximum from the point C can be calculated by replacing n by n + 1 in
equation (v). Therefore,
lD
x( n +1) = (n + 1)
2d
The separation between two consecutive maxima gives the fringe width b, as follows
b = xn+1 – xn
or fringe width
lD
b= (vi)
2d
Interference 13
Condition for Dark Fringes: In order to interfere destructively and produce dark fringe at point P, the two
rays should arrive at this point in out of phase (phase difference of p). This is possible, if the path difference
l
is an odd multiple of . Therefore,
2
Ê 1ˆ
D = Á n + ˜ l , where n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Ë 2¯
From Eq. (iv)
2d l
D= xn = (2n + 1) (vii)
D 2
(2n + 1)l D
xn = (viii)
4d
Equation (viii) gives the distance of nth order dark fringe from the point C. The distance of the next (n+1)th
minimum from the point C will be
[2(n + 1) + 1]l D
x( n +1) =
4d
(2n + 3)l D
= (ix)
4d
Hence, the fringe width between two consecutive minima would be
(2n + 3)l D (2n + 1)l D
b = x( n +1) - xn = -
4d 4d
lD
b= (x)
2d
It is clear from Eqs. (vi) and (x) that the bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
1.9.1.2 Experimental Method for Determination of Wavelength of Light
The experimental setup used for the determination of wavelength of light consists of a good quality heavy
optical bench of about 1.5 meter length fitted with scale. It has four uprights that carry an adjustable slit S, a
biprism, a convex lens and a micrometer eyepiece, respectively. These components are shown in Fig. 1.12.
Each upright can be moved along the length of the optical bench and screws are provided to rotate the slit and
biprism in their own planes and the eyepiece can also move at right angle to the length of the optical bench.
To obtain well defined and sharp interference fringes, the following adjustments are necessary:
(i) Labeled optical bench by using spirit level and leveling screws.
(ii) Adjust all uprights to the same height.
(iii) Illuminate the vertical slit by monochromatic source of light. Make the slit narrow.
(iv) Now place the biprism on the second upright and try to adjust its edge parallel to the slit until two
equally bright virtual sources A and B are observed.
(v) Shift the micrometer eyepiece on the bench away from the slit and also move it at right angle to the
length of optical bench until the fringes are observed in the field of view.
(vi) In order to get fine fringes, change the position of the biprism slowly in its own plane such that its
edge remains parallel to the slit.
A
C1 E
S
C2
Figure 1.12
Lateral shift and its removal: On moving the micrometer eye piece on the bench towards the biprism, if
the fringes appear to shift at right angle to the optical bench then it is known as lateral shift (Fig. 1.13(a)).
However, if the principle axis and axis of optical bench become parallel, then no lateral shift remains, as
shown in Fig. 1.13(b).
Axis of Optical
Bench
Principle Axis
(a) Lateral shift (b) No lateral shift of fringes
Figure 1.13
1.9.1.3 Determination of Distance between Two Virtual Coherent Sources

For measuring 2d, a convex lens of short focal length is placed between the biprism and the micrometer eye
piece. This distance between the biprism and the micrometer eye piece is more than 4 times of the focal
length of the convex lens. By moving the lens we obtain two positions L1 and L2 of the convex lens such
that two separated images d1 and d2 of the two coherent sources respectively can be observed, as shown in
Fig. 1.14.
For the first position of lens, L1, the magnification is given as
v d1
= (i)
u 2d
and for second position of the lens, the magnification is
u d2
= (ii)
v 2d
Interference 15
Then from Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

v u d1d 2
¥ = or (2d ) 2 = d1d 2
u v (2d ) 2
or 2d = d1d 2 (iii)
u v
2d d2 d1
L1 L2
v u
Figure 1.14
Therefore, the measurement of positions of images d1 and d2 will determine the distance 2d between the
sources. The wavelength l of monochromatic light can be calculated when we substitute the values of b, D
and 2d in the formula l = b(2d/D), derived in the previous section.
1.9.1.4 Determination of Thickness of Thin Transparent
Sheet (Displacement of Fringes)
Let A and B be two virtual coherent sources of light. The point C0 on the
P
screen is equidistant from both the sources (Fig. 1.15). When a transparent
material plate G of thickness t and having refractive index m, it is placed t
G
in the path of one of the light wave, we observe that the fringe which was xn
originally at C0 shifts to another position P, as shown in Fig. 1.15.
A
The time taken by the light wave from A to P partly through air and partly
through the plate is the same as the time taken by the other light wave C0
from B to P in air. If c and v be the velocity of light in air and in the plate,
B
respectively, then
Figure 1.15
BP AP - t t
= +
c c v
BP AP - t mt È c˘
or = + ÍÎQ m = v ˙˚
c c c
or BP = (AP – t) + mt
or BP – AP = (m – 1)t (i)
Here BP – AP is the path difference between the two interfering waves.
If the point P is originally occupied by the nth order bright fringe, then the path difference between the two
interfering waves will be
BP – AP = nl,
(m – 1) t = nl (ii)
The distance xn through which the fringe is shifted to point P from the central maximum C0 is given by
nl D
xn = (iii)
2d
lD
where, = b = fringe width.
2d
From Eq. (iii), we get
xn ◊ 2d
= nl (iv)
D
From Eqs. (ii) and (iv), we get
xn ◊ 2d
( m - 1)t =
D
xn ◊ 2d
or t= (v)
( m - 1) D
Therefore, by knowing xn, 2d, D and m, we can calculate thickness t of the glass plate by using Eq. (v).
1.10 interferenCe bY DivisiOn Of ampLituDe LO6

The method, which is used to produce two coherent sources from a common source, is called division of
amplitude that maintains the same width but reduced amplitude. After following different paths the two
waves of reduced amplitudes are combined to produce an interference pattern. In this method, the interfering
beams consist of radiation that has left the source in the same direction. This radiation is divided after leaving
the source and later combined to produce interference. This method can be used with extended sources.
Michelson interferometer is an example of interference by division of amplitude. Thin films are also used for
getting interference pattern based on this method.
1.10.1 Interference Due to Thin Films

This is clear that the interference takes place when the two waves superimpose each other after traveling
some distance, i.e., when there is a path difference between them. Since the thin film has its two surfaces, the
waves reflected from these surfaces can attain a path
difference and can interfere. The same may be applied C E
A M
on the waves that transmit through the film.
i i Air
1.10.1.1 Thin Film of Uniform Thickness (90 - i) D
t
B H
Consider a uniform transparent film having thickness
t and a refractive index m. A ray of light AB incident r r r
Film
at an angle i on the upper surface of the film is partly t
(µ > 1)
reflected along BC and partly refracted along BF at r r r r
an angle r. At point F the wave BF is again partly I G
reflected from the second surface along FD and partly F
t
i Air
emerges out along FK and so on. In this situation, the
interference occurs between reflected waves BC and J L
DE and also between the transmitted waves FK and K
GL (Fig. 1.16). Figure 1.16
Interference 17
The path difference between the reflected rays

D = (BF + FD)in film – (BM)in air
D = m (BF + FD) – BM
Q BF = FD
\ D = 2 mBF – BM (i)
In the right angled DBFH,
t t
cos r = or BF = (ii)
BF cos r
BH
and tan r = or BH = t tan r
t
BD = 2 ¥ BH
\ BD = 2t tan r (iii)
In the DBMD,
BM
sin i = or BM = BD sin i
BD
\ BM = 2t tan r sin i (iv)
From Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iv), we get
t
D = 2m - 2t tan r sin i (v)
cos r
sin i
Q m= or sin i = m sin r (vi)
sin r
2 mt sin r 2 mt
\ D= - 2t m sin r = [1 - sin 2 r ]
cos r cos r cos r
D = 2mt cos r (vii)
Equation (vii) represents only the apparent path difference and does not represent the effective total path
difference. When the light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium in case of rad BC, a
phase change of pa equivalent to path difference of l/2 is introduced. Therefore, the total path difference
between BC and DE will be
D = 2mt cos r + l/2 (viii)
Condition for Maxima: To have a maximum at a particular point, the two rays should arrive there in phase.
So the path difference must contain a whole number of wavelength, i.e.,
D = nl, n = 0, 1, 2..., (ix)
From Eq. (viii) and (ix), we get
2mt cos r + l/2 = nl
2mt cos r = nl – l/2
2mt cos r = (2n – 1)l/2 (x)
Condition for Minima: To have a minimum at a particular point, the two rays should arrive there in out of
phase (odd multiple of p) for which the path difference must contain a half odd integral number of wavelength,
i.e,
Ê 1ˆ
D = Án + ˜ l (xi)
Ë 2¯
Using Eq. (viii), we obtain
2mt cos r = nl where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (xii)
It should be noted that the interference pattern will not be perfect because the intensities of the rays BC and
DE are not the same and their amplitudes are different.
In order to obtain the interference between the transmitted waves, we calculate the path difference between
the waves, FK and GL as under
D = (FD + DG)in film – (FJ)in air
D = m[FD + DG] – FJ
Q FD = DG
\ D = 2mFD – FJ (xiii)
DI t t
In DFDI, cos r = = or FD = (xiv)
FD FD cos r
FI FI
and tan r = = or FI = t tan r
DI t
FG = 2t tan r (xv)
In right angled DFJG,
FJ
sin i = or FJ = FG sin i
FG
\ FJ = 2t tan r sin i (xvi)
From Eq. (xiii), (xiv) and (xvi), we get
2mt
D= - 2t tan r sin i
cos r
2mt sin r È sin i ˘
=
cos r
- 2t
cos r
m sin r Í m = sin r ˙
Î ˚
2mt
= [1 - sin 2 r ] = 2 mt cos r
cos r
Since these two waves are emerging from the same medium, the additional phase difference (or path
difference) will not be introduced. Therefore, the total path difference
D = 2mt cos r (xvii)
Condition for Maxima: As discussed, it is possible when
D = nl (xviii)
Interference 19
From Eqs. (xvii) and (xviii), we get

2mt cos r = nl where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (xix)
Condition for Minima: For obtaining minimum intensity, we should have
Ê 1ˆ
D = Án + ˜ l
Ë 2¯
Ê 1ˆ
which gives 2mt cos r = Á n + ˜ l where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …(xx)
Ë 2¯
Thus, the conditions for interference with transmitted light are obviously opposite to those obtained with
reflected light. Hence, if the film appears dark in the reflected light, it will appear bright in the transmitted
light and vice-versa. This shows that the interference pattern in the reflected and transmitted lights are
complimentary to each other.
(i) Necessity of an Extended Source of Light for Interference in Thin Films
When a thin transparent film is exposed to white light and seen in the reflected light, different colours are
seen in the film. These colours arise due to the interference of the light waves reflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of the film. The path difference between the reflected rays depends upon the thickness t,
refractive index m of the film and the angle q of inclination of the incident rays. The light which comes from
any point from the surface of the film will include the colour whose wavelength satisfies the equation 2mt cos
r = (2n – 1) l/2 and only this colour will be present with the maximum intensity in the reflected light.
When the transparent film of a large thickness as compared to the wavelength of the light, is illuminated by
white light, the path difference at any point of the film will be zero. In the case of such a thick film, at a given
point, the condition of constructive interference is satisfied by a large number of wavelengths, as << t. The
condition of destructive interference is also satisfied at the same point for the large number of wavelengths.
Therefore, consequently that point receives an average intensity due to the light of all wavelengths and no
colours are observed.
In the context of realization of above phenomena it is always needed to use a broad power of light that will
enable the eye to see whole of the film simultaneously.
If we use a point source, then we observe that different parts of reflected light cannot reach the eye due to
small size of the pupil, as shown in Fig. 1.17(a). The reflected rays only from a small portion of the film can
enter the eye. Hence, the whole of the film cannot be seen by the eye placed in a fixed position. However, if a
Eye Extended Source Eye
Point Source
(a) (b)
Figure 1.17
broad source of light is used to illuminate a thin film, the light reflected from each part of the film reaches the
eye placed in a fixed position, as shown in Fig. 1.17(b). Hence, one can seen the entire film simultaneously
by employing an extended source of light.
1.10.1.2 Non-uniform Thickness Film (Wedge Shaped Film)
Consider two plane surfaces OM and OM¢ inclined at an angle q enclosing a wedge shaped air film of
increasing thickness, as shown in Fig 1.18. A beam of monochromatic light is incident on the upper surface
of the film and the interference occurs between the rays reflected at its upper and lower surfaces. The
interference occurs between the reflected rays BK and DL, both of which are obtained from the same incident
ray of light AB.
K
E L
M¢
i D
r
A i (r + q)
i
B r+q t
N (r + q)
q r
O M
C H
q (r + q)
I¢
I
Figure 1.18
The path difference between the two reflected rays

D = [BC + CD]in film – [BE]in air
D = m(BC + CD) – BE
Q CD = CI
D = m(BC + CI) – BE
= mBI – BE
= m(BN + NI) – BE (i)
In right angled DBED,
BE
sin i = (ii)
BD
Interference 21
In right angled DBND,

BN
sin r = (iii)
BD
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (iii), we get
sin i BE sin i BE
= or =m=
sin r BN sin r BN
or BE = mBN (iv)
From Eqs. (i) and (iv), we get
D = m(BN + NI) – mBN
or D = mNI (v)
In right angled DDNI,
NI
cos (r + q ) =
DI
\ DI = DH + HI = t + t = 2t
NI
cos (r + q ) = or NI = 2t cos (r + q ) (vi)
DI
From Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get
D= 2mt cos (r + q) (vii)
Equation (vii), in the case of reflected light, does not represent the effective total path difference, as a phase
difference of p (Stokes phase change) has been introduced through the reflection of wave BK. Therefore, the
total path difference between the reflected rays,
D = 2mt cos(r + q) + l/2 (viii)
Equation (viii) shows that the path difference D depends on the thickness t. However, t is not uniform and it
is different at different positions.
At t = 0, Eq. (viii) reads
D = l/2
which is the condition for darkness. Therefore, the edge of the film appears to be dark. This is called zero
order band.
For normal incidence, i = 0 and r = 0. Then, the path difference
D = 2mt cos q + l/2 (ix)
Condition for Maxima: As explained earlier, the constructive interference takes place when
D = nl where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... (x)
From Eqs. (ix) and (x), we get
2mt cos q + l/2 = nl
2mt cos q = (2n – 1) l/2 (xi)
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³ In Joshua xxi. 18, Almon.
60. of Benjamin; Geba] In Joshua xxi. 17 Gibeon and her suburbs

is inserted before Geba. Compare the Critical Note above. Geba was
situated by the pass of Michmash, some six miles from Jerusalem;
compare 1 Samuel vi. 9 ff.
Allemeth] In Joshua xxi. 18, Almon.
thirteen cities] Compare the Critical Note above.
61‒65 (compare Joshua xxi. 26, 33, 40).

Distribution of thirty-five other cities to the rest of the
Levites.
⁶¹And unto the rest of the sons of Kohath were

given by lot, out of the family of the tribe, out
of the half tribe, the half of Manasseh, ten
cities.
61. the rest of the sons of Kohath] i.e. the Kohathites who were
not sons of Aaron (verse 54).
out of the family ... Manasseh] read out of the families of the
tribe of Ephraim and out of the tribe of Dan and out of the half
tribe of Manasseh. See the Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
⁶²And to the sons of Gershom, according to

their families, out of the tribe of Issachar, and
out of the tribe of Asher, and out of the tribe of
Naphtali, and out of the tribe of Manasseh in
Bashan, thirteen cities.
62. the tribe of Manasseh in Bashan] i.e. the half tribe of
Manasseh beyond Jordan.
⁶³Unto the sons of Merari were given by lot,

according to their families, out of the tribe of
Reuben, and out of the tribe of Gad, and out
of the tribe of Zebulun, twelve cities. ⁶⁴And the
children of Israel gave to the Levites the cities
with their suburbs.
63. twelve cities] The total number of Levitic cities (verse 60
thirteen, verse 61 ten, verse 62 thirteen, verse 63 twelve) was forty-
eight (so Joshua xxi. 41), of which the Kohathites, as the largest
division (compare xv. 5, note), received twenty-three or nearly half.
⁶⁵And they gave by lot out of the tribe of the

children of Judah, and out of the tribe of the
children of Simeon, and out of the tribe of the
children of Benjamin, these cities which are
mentioned by name.
65. by lot] as a means of gaining Divine sanction for the
assignment of cities. This verse (= Joshua xxi. 9) is plainly
unsuitable in its present context. In Joshua it is the introduction to
the list of Aaronic cities (here verses 54‒60). The Chronicler, having
rearranged the material of his source, nevertheless preferred to
transcribe this verse, despite the lack of harmony with the context; or
possibly, if verses 66‒81 are an addition to the original text of
Chronicles (see the head-note on verses 54‒81), verse 65 may also
be a later insertion intended to help as a connecting link between
verses 64 and 66 ff.
66‒81.
Cities of the Levites.
66‒70 (= Joshua xxi. 20‒25).
The [ten] cities of the non-Aaronite Kohathites.
⁶⁶And some of the families of the sons of

Kohath had cities of their borders out of the
tribe of Ephraim.
66. of their borders] rather, as Joshua xxi. 20, of their lot (the
difference in Hebrew is very slight).
⁶⁷And they gave unto them the cities of refuge,

Shechem in the hill country of Ephraim with
her suburbs; Gezer also with her suburbs;
67. the cities of refuge, Shechem] Read (a slight change in
Hebrew) the city of refuge, Shechem. Compare verse 57, note.
Shechem] Genesis xii. 6, xxxiii. 18; Joshua xxiv. 1; Judges ix. 1; 1

Kings xii. 1. Shechem is the modern Nabulus, situated almost in the
middle of Palestine.
Gezer] Joshua xvi. 3; Judges i. 29; 1 Kings ix. 16. It is the

modern Tell Jezer about 18 miles north-west of Jerusalem. The site
has recently been excavated with excellent results—see Macalister,
The Excavation of Gezer, or Driver, Modern Research Illustrating the
Bible (Schweich Lectures, 1908).
⁶⁸and ¹ Jokmeam with her suburbs, and Beth-

horon with her suburbs;
¹ See Joshua xxi. 22‒39, where some of the names are
different.
68. Jokmeam] In Joshua xxi. 22, Kibzaim. The two words

resemble one another more closely in Hebrew, and are to be taken
as various readings of the same name. Nothing is known of a
Kibzaim in Ephraim. A Jokmeam is mentioned 1 Kings iv. 12.
Beth-horon] Joshua x. 10, 11, xvi. 3, 5; 1 Maccabees iii. 24.

There were two cities, a lower and an upper Beth-horon, the modern
Beitur, “near the head and the foot respectively of the ascent from
the Maritime Plain to the plateau of Benjamin.”
⁶⁹and Aijalon with her suburbs, and Gath-

rimmon with her suburbs:
69. and Aijalon] Aijalon and Gath-rimmon were in Dan near the
Jaffa road some 13 miles from Jerusalem; compare Joshua xxi. 23,
24. See also the Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
⁷⁰and out of the half tribe of Manasseh; Aner

with her suburbs, and Bileam with her
suburbs, for the rest of the family of the sons
of Kohath.
70. the half tribe of Manasseh] the western half tribe; the eastern
is mentioned verse 71.
Aner] Read probably Taanach, as in vii. 29; Joshua xxi. 25;

Judges v. 19. Taanach was situated in the plain of Esdraelon, some
four miles south of Megiddo.
Bileam] read Ibleam, compare Judges i. 27; 2 Kings ix. 27. In

Joshua xxi. 25, Gath-rimmon, an error of dittography.
for the rest ... Kohath] a fragment of Joshua xxi. 26.
71‒76 (= Joshua xxi. 27‒32).

The thirteen cities of the sons of Gershom.
⁷¹Unto the sons of Gershom were given, out of
the family of the half tribe of Manasseh, Golan
in Bashan with her suburbs, and Ashtaroth
with her suburbs:
71. Golan] a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 27. The name of this city
is still preserved in Jolan (Jaulan), the name of a district east of
Jordan extending from Hermon to the Jarmuk.
Ashtaroth] mentioned with Edrei in Joshua ix. 10 as the capital of

Og, king of Bashan. The name testifies to the worship of Ashtoreth.
⁷²and out of the tribe of Issachar; Kedesh with

her suburbs, Daberath with her suburbs;
72. Kedesh] Read Kishion with Joshua xxi. 28 (so Joshua xix.
20).
Daberath] the modern Dabūriyeh at the foot of Mount Tabor.
⁷³and Ramoth with her suburbs, and Anem

with her suburbs:
73. Ramoth] Jarmuth, Joshua xxi. 29; or perhaps Remeth,
Joshua xix. 21.
Anem] Read En-gannim with Joshua xxi. 29. Probably the

modern large village of Jenîn on the edge of the plain of Esdraelon.
⁷⁴and out of the tribe of Asher; Mashal with her

suburbs, and Abdon with her suburbs;
74. Mashal] Mishal, Joshua xxi. 30 (compare Joshua xix. 26,
Revised Version).
⁷⁵and Hukok with her suburbs, and Rehob with
her suburbs:
75. Hukok] Read Helkath with Joshua xxi. 31 (compare Joshua
xix. 25).
⁷⁶and out of the tribe of Naphtali; Kedesh in

Galilee with her suburbs, and Hammon with
her suburbs, and Kiriathaim with her suburbs.
76. Kedesh in Galilee] called Kedesh-naphtali in Judges iv. 6; it is
the modern Kedes, situated on a lofty plateau overlooking the waters
of Ḥūleh (Merom). It was a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 32.
Hammon ... Kiriathaim] In Joshua xxi. 32, Hammoth-dor ...

Kartan.
77‒81 (= Joshua xxi. 34‒39).

The [twelve] cities of the sons of Merari.
⁷⁷Unto the rest of the Levites, the sons of

Merari, were given, out of the tribe of Zebulun,
Rimmono with her suburbs, Tabor with her
suburbs:
77. Rimmono ... Tabor] Read Rimmon or Rimmonah. Against
these two names there are four in Joshua xxi. 34, 35; Jokneam,
Kartah, Dimnah and Nahalal. As regards the number of the cities the
text of Joshua is certainly right. See Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
Tabor] No city, but only a mountain named Tabor is known to us,

as having certainly existed in Old Testament times. A city however
named Tabor existed on the mountain as early as 218 b.c., and it
may have been as old as the times of the Chronicler. Mount Tabor
was in Issachar near the border of Zebulun. For Nahalal, the reading
in Joshua, compare Joshua xix. 15; Judges i. 30. Compare Bädeker,
Palestine⁵, p. 250.
⁷⁸and beyond the Jordan at Jericho, on the

east side of Jordan, were given them, out of
the tribe of Reuben, Bezer in the wilderness
with her suburbs, and Jahzah with her
suburbs, ⁷⁹and Kedemoth with her suburbs,
and Mephaath with her suburbs:
78. at Jericho] The crossing-place of the Jordan nearest to
Reuben was at Jericho. For the phrase Jordan at Jericho compare
Joshua xvi. 1.
in the wilderness] further defined by the addition in the table-land

(Deuteronomy iv. 43, Revised Version margin). Bezer was among
the high pasture lands of Reuben. It was a city of refuge.
Jahzah] also called Jahaz. Compare Judges xi. 20; Isaiah xv. 4.
⁸⁰and out of the tribe of Gad; Ramoth in Gilead

with her suburbs, and Mahanaim with her
suburbs,
80. Ramoth in Gilead] a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 38. See 1
Kings xxii. 3; 2 Kings ix. 1.
Mahanaim] Genesis xxxii. 2.
⁸¹and Heshbon with her suburbs, and Jazer

with her suburbs.
81. Heshbon] Numbers xxi. 25, 26; Isaiah xv. 4.
Jazer] Numbers xxi. 32 (Revised Version); Isaiah xvi. 8.

Note on the Levites.
The priestly organisation known to the Chronicler represents the

latest stage of a system, the development of which can to some
extent be traced in the Old Testament records. (1) It appears from
the earliest sources that the great “priestly” duty of sacrifice at one
period did not require a priest for its due performance but might be,
and was, undertaken by any responsible male. For example in
Exodus xxiv. 5, an occasion of the deepest solemnity, sacrifices are
spoken of as offered by “young men of the children of Israel.” In
Exodus xxxiii. 7‒11 it is clear that the other great function of early
religion, charge of the responses given by the Divine oracle, is
regarded as being under the control of Moses. In fact it would seem
that in the earlier period there were neither priests nor Levites as a
religious order; at any rate, as an order exercising a monopoly in the
religious functions which they afterwards claimed the sole right of
discharging. (2) In course of time those who administered the oracle
and offered sacrifices at the manifold shrines and high places of
Palestine gained importance and were recognised as a distinct
religious class, priests; and persons claiming descent from Levi were
numerous or prominent among them. But the right of offering
sacrifices was still by no means confined to these priests of the
shrines. The priesthood of the various shrines was often hereditary,
passing on from father to son; and, even apart from that fact, it was
most natural that members of this religious order, or perhaps one
should say “profession,” should be thought of as connected by
blood-relationship. Eventually they were all reckoned descendants of
Levi. (3) After the exile and the suppression of the local shrines of
Judah, the pre-eminence of the priests or Levites of Jerusalem was
definitely established, and (as Ezekiel had suggested) such priests
of the local shrines as were satisfied to migrate to Jerusalem
became subordinate to the original ministers of the Temple there. All
were accounted sons of Levi; but only the original Jerusalem priests,
who traced their descent through the Levitical family of Aaron, were
entitled to rank as priests: the rest were Levites but not priests. Thus
there arose a distinction in the ranks of the religious officials.
(4) Finally, the functions and privileges of priests as distinct from
Levites were carefully discriminated, and the tradition that their origin
as a religious order was due to Moses became firmly established,
whilst the complex system of their organisation, in particular the
subdivisions of the Levites as singers and doorkeepers, was
confidently ascribed to David. Chronicles consistently represents this
latest stage of development. For a concise statement of the facts see
MᶜNeile, Numbers, pp. xiv ff. in the present series; and for further
discussion the appropriate articles in the Dictionaries; especially
Cook in Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, s.v. Levites.
Chapter VII.
1‒40.
Genealogies of Six Remaining Tribes.
The treatment of the several tribes in this chapter is very unequal.

In the case of Issachar (1‒5), Zebulun (6‒12, see note verse 6), and
Asher (30‒40), genealogies are given and the number of fighting-
men of each tribe is stated. To Naphtali is devoted a single verse
(13), giving only the names of his sons. For Manasseh and Ephraim
(14‒29) genealogies are given and their possessions are shortly
enumerated. The mention of Dan is obliterated, owing to the state of
the text of verse 12.
1‒5.
The Genealogy of Issachar.
¹And of the sons of Issachar; Tola, and

Puah ¹, Jashub, and Shimron, four.
¹ In Genesis xlvi. 13, Puvah, and Iob.
1. the sons of Issachar] Genesis xlvi. 13; Numbers xxvi. 23, 24.
verses 2‒5 are from an unknown source, or from the Chronicler
himself.
Tola] the name of one of the minor Judges (Judges x. 1). He is

there described as “Tola the son of Puah, dwelling [Hebrew josheb]
in Shamir.” No descendants are mentioned from Puah, Jashub, and
Shimron, but only from Tola; and it has been suggested that these
four sons of Issachar are imaginary, being simply deduced from the
statement in Judges—Jashub = josheb, and Shimron = Shamir. This
is very ingenious but by no means convincing.
Puah] In Genesis and Numbers Puvah (Revised Version).
Jashub] So in Numbers, but in Genesis Iob.
²And the sons of Tola; Uzzi, and Rephaiah,

and Jeriel, and Jahmai, and Ibsam, and
Shemuel, heads of their fathers’ houses, to
wit, of Tola; mighty men of valour in their
generations: their number in the days of David
was two and twenty thousand and six
hundred.
2. of their fathers’ houses] i.e. clans or families; see note on v. 13.
in their generations] Render, after (or according to) their

generations, the rendering given to the same phrase in Genesis x.
32, xxv. 13.
their number] i.e. of the divisions which claimed Tola as ancestor.
in the days of David] xxi. 1 ff. (= 2 Samuel xxiv. 1 ff.).
³And the sons of Uzzi; Izrahiah: and the sons

of Izrahiah; Michael, and Obadiah, and Joel,
Isshiah, five: all of them chief men.
3. five] i.e. reckoning the four grandsons as sons.
⁴And with them, by their generations, after

their fathers’ houses, were bands of the host
for war, six and thirty thousand: for they had
many wives and sons.
4. by their generations] i.e. according to descent. Each head
commanded men that were his kinsfolk.
⁵And their brethren among all the families of

Issachar, mighty men of valour, reckoned in all
by genealogy, were fourscore and seven
thousand.
5. fourscore and seven thousand] In Numbers ii. 6 Issachar is
reckoned at 54,400, and in Numbers xxvi. 25 at 64,300.
6‒12.
The Genealogy of Zebulun.
6‒12. According to the existing text these verses are a genealogy

of Benjamin; but, as such, they present most serious difficulties.
Notice (1) that the customary “sons of” is lacking in the Hebrew text
before Benjamin: (2) that the sons of Benjamin here number three,
whereas in Numbers xxvi. 38, 39, they are five (five also in 1
Chronicles viii. 2!), and in Genesis xlii. 21 ten; and further that one of
the sons here mentioned, Jediael, is nowhere else referred to as a
Benjamite: (3) that the sons of Bela (verse 7) are entirely different in
viii. 3: and (4) that in general the names in the list (with only three
certain exceptions and two of them place-names) are not elsewhere
found in lists of Benjamite names—a startling fact. (5) Finally and
most important of all, a genealogy of Benjamin is given in chapter
viii., exactly where we might expect to find it according to the order in
which the Chronicler describes the tribes.
The first of these points could be (and has usually been)

explained by the elision of some letters; for the words “the sons of”
(Bᵉnê) in Hebrew writing most closely resemble “Ben” the first
syllable of Benjamin. For a few other minor difficulties tentative
suggestions have been put forward, but are very unsatisfying, whilst
for most of the features noted above, and especially for the most
important of them, no proper explanation can be given on the
supposition that the list really is a genealogy of Benjamin. It is
therefore most probable that the view urged by Curtis, Chronicles, p.
127, should be adopted. He finds in these verses the genealogy of
Zebulun, the absence of which otherwise is a striking feature of the
genealogies in these chapters. The letters which are now taken to be
the first part of the word Benjamin should be read Bᵉnê (i.e. the sons
of), and the following letters are a corruption of Zebulun, which was
originally followed by the names of Zebulun’s three sons, Sered and
Elon and Jahleel, as given in Genesis xlvi. 14. The changes involved
by this suggestion may seem violent in English, but they are by no
means so in the Hebrew, and moreover it must be understood that
they all follow inevitably or at least most naturally upon the slight
initial error whereby “the sons of Zebulun” was corrupted into
“Benjamin.” The development and details of Curtis’ reasoning cannot
be set forth except in connection with the Hebrew text, and it must
therefore suffice here to indicate the one essential point, and to
remark that the convincing feature of his hypothesis is that it
furnishes a clear and natural explanation of all the difficulties noted
above.
⁶The sons of Benjamin; Bela, and Becher,

and Jediael, three.
6. Bela, and Becher, and Jediael] Contrast viii. 2. Read, following
Genesis xlvi. 14, Sered and Elon and Jahleel.
⁷And the sons of Bela; Ezbon, and Uzzi, and

Uzziel, and Jerimoth, and Iri, five; heads of
fathers’ houses, mighty men of valour; and
they were reckoned by genealogy twenty and
two thousand and thirty and four.
7. the sons of Bela] Contrast viii. 3; and read instead the sons of
Sered. These are differently stated in viii. 3‒5.
⁸And the sons of Becher; Zemirah, and Joash,

and Eliezer, and Elioenai, and Omri, and
Jeremoth, and Abijah, and Anathoth, and
Alemeth. All these were the sons of Becher.
⁹And they were reckoned by genealogy, after
their generations, heads of their fathers’
houses, mighty men of valour, twenty
thousand and two hundred.
8. Becher] Read Elon.
Anathoth, and Alemeth] both names of places in Benjamin; vi. 60

(45, Hebrew, “Allemeth”); Jeremiah i. 1. These are the only place-
names in the list, and they are admittedly Benjamite: as to the
significance of this fact see note on Ehud, verse 10.
¹⁰And the sons of Jediael; Bilhan: and the

sons of Bilhan; Jeush, and Benjamin, and
Ehud, and Chenaanah, and Zethan, and
Tarshish, and Ahishahar.
10. Jediael] or rather Jahleel.
Benjamin, and Ehud] The error in verse 6 by which this

Zebulunite list becomes ostensibly Benjamite must have been very
early. When once it had arisen, the tendency to introduce names
which were to be expected in a Benjamite genealogy was inevitably
strong. This is the ground on which the names Anathoth and
Alemeth (verse 8) are to be explained, as also Shuppim and Huppim
(verse 12). Most clearly, however, is the tendency illustrated by the
present verse, where the reading Benjamin and Ehud most probably
has its origin in a marginal addition “and Ehud the Benjamite” (from
Judges iii. 15) which was later inserted in the text as two separate
names.
Tarshish] It is said of Zebulun in Genesis xlix. 13 that he shall be

“a haven for ships,” and Tarshish, absolutely unknown as a Hebrew
personal name, is regularly used in the Old Testament in connection
with ships and commerce by sea. It would be astonishingly out of
place in a genealogy of Benjamin, but is appropriate in one of
Zebulun (compare Genesis xlix. 13 “Zebulun shall dwell at the haven
of the sea”).
¹¹All these were sons of Jediael, according to

the heads of their fathers’ houses, mighty men
of valour, seventeen thousand and two
hundred, that were able to go forth in the host
for war.
11. able to go forth] the total number of warriors is here 59,434;
compare 50,000 in xii. 33; and compare Numbers i. 37, xxvi. 41.
¹²Shuppim ¹ also, and Huppim, the sons of Ir ²,

Hushim, the sons of Aher ³.
¹ In Numbers xxvi. 39, Shephupham and Hupham.
² In verse 7, Iri. ³ In Numbers xxvi. 38, Ahiram.
12. Shuppim also, and Huppim] for the spelling compare viii. 5,
Numbers xxvi. 39, and Genesis xlvi. 21. These Benjamite names are
an addition, and illustrate the tendency referred to above in the note
on Benjamin and Ehud, verse 10.
12b.
The Genealogy of Dan.
Ir] compare verse 7, Iri. But see following note.
Hushim, the sons of Aher] In Aher (literally “another”) some

commentators find the word Dan. More probably Ir is a corruption for
Dan, and the word Aher an error for “one” (the differences are small
in Hebrew). Following the indication of Genesis xlvi. 23 and the
LXX., read therefore the sons of Dan, Hushim his son, one.
13. (= Genesis xlvi. 24).

The Genealogy of Naphtali.
¹³The sons of Naphtali; Jahziel ¹, and Guni,

and Jezer, and Shallum ², the sons of Bilhah.
¹ In Genesis xlvi. 24, Jahzeel.
² In Genesis xlvi. 24, Shillem.
13. Jahziel ... Shallum] In Genesis Jahzeel ... Shillem.
14‒19.
The Genealogy of Manasseh.
A difficult section. The text is much disturbed in verses 14, 15;

and there is hardly any material available for the illustration of verses
16, 17.
¹⁴The sons of Manasseh; Asriel, whom ¹ his

wife bare: (his concubine the Aramitess bare
Machir the father of Gilead:
¹ Or, according to the Septuagint, whom his concubine the
Aramitess bare; she bare &c.
14. Asriel, whom his wife bare: (his concubine the Aramitess
bare] Compare Numbers xxvi. 31. Probably, however, the name is
due to an error of dittography. Read simply as margin, following
LXX., whom his concubine the Aramitess bare; she bare, etc.
his concubine the Aramitess] The inhabitants of Gilead were thus

in part Arameans (Syrians) by descent. A different tradition is
preserved in Genesis 1. 23.
¹⁵and Machir took a wife of ¹ Huppim and

Shuppim, whose ² sister’s name was Maacah;)
and the name of the second was Zelophehad:
and Zelophehad had daughters.
¹ Or, for. ² Or, and his.
15. took a wife of Huppim and Shuppim] i.e. allied himself by

marriage to these two families.
whose sister’s name] Render, and his (Machir’s) sister’s name.

The statement regarding Maacah is ethnographical, and means that
the people of Maacah (a district at the foot of Hermon) were related
by blood to Machir (the Eastern Manassites).
Zelophehad had daughters] Numbers xxvii. 1‒11.
¹⁶And Maacah the wife of Machir bare a son,

and she called his name Peresh; and the
name of his brother was Sheresh; and his
sons were Ulam and Rakem.
16. wife of] But in verse 15, Maacah is sister of Machir. The text
of verses 15, 16 has probably suffered some disturbance.
¹⁷And the sons of Ulam; Bedan. These were
the sons of Gilead the son of Machir, the son
of Manasseh.
17. the sons of Ulam] Sons of Ulam are mentioned (viii. 40)
among the descendants of Benjamin: a variation in the tradition of
their descent.
¹⁸And his sister Hammolecheth bare Ishhod,

and Abiezer ¹, and Mahlah.
¹ In Numbers xxvi. 30, Iezer.
18. Abiezer] Gideon’s family; Judges vi. 11; compare Joshua xvii.
2.
¹⁹And the sons of Shemida were Ahian, and

Shechem, and Likhi, and Aniam.
19. Shechem] This name represents the Israelite portion of the
inhabitants of Shechem: the rest of the inhabitants were Hivites or
Canaanites. See Judges ix.
20‒27.
The Line of Ephraim to Joshua.
20‒27. The section presents several difficulties, arising either

from the attempt to combine various threads of traditions or possibly
from textual corruption. Note that Ezer and Elead, who in verse 21
are removed by several generations from Ephraim, are in verse 22 f.
treated as his immediate sons.
²⁰And the sons of Ephraim; Shuthelah, and

Bered his son, and Tahath his son, and
Eleadah his son, and Tahath his son,
20. Shuthelah ... Bered ... Tahath ... Eleadah] These four names
appear to correspond with Shuthelah ... Becher ... Tahan ... Eran in
Numbers xxvi. 35, 36.
²¹and Zabad his son, and Shuthelah his son,

and Ezer, and Elead, whom the men of Gath
that were born in the land slew, because they
came down to take away their cattle.
21. the men of Gath that were born in the land] i.e. the Philistine
population.
they came down] This phrase suits a descent from the hills of
Ephraim into the Philistine lowlands. The raid presumably took place
after the period of the Exodus and the settlement of Israel in
Canaan. Yet it is also possible that the story should be classed with
certain traditions which ignore the narrative of the Egyptian sojourn
and the Exodus—see Cook, Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, s.v. Genesis,
p. 584, col. 2.
²²And Ephraim their father mourned many

days, and his brethren came to comfort him.
22. And Ephraim their father] i.e. the tribe, or district, to which the
clans, Ezer and Elead, belonged.
²³And he went in to his wife, and she

conceived, and bare a son, and he called his
name Beriah, because it went evil with his
house.
23. Beriah, because it went evil] Hebrew Beri‘ah because it
went berā‘ah, a play on the sound of the name. This is a feature
characteristic of the patriarchal narratives in Genesis, compare
Genesis xxx. 11, etc. It is interesting to find it in the tradition upon
which the Chronicler here depends. Compare also iv. 9 (note).
²⁴And his daughter was Sheerah, who built

Beth-horon the nether and the upper, and
Uzzen-sheerah. ²⁵And Rephah was his son,
and Resheph, and Telah his son, and Tahan
his son; ²⁶Ladan his son, Ammihud his son,
Elishama his son; ²⁷Nun ¹ his son, Joshua his
son.
¹ Hebrew Non.
24. Beth-horon] See vi. 68, note.
28, 29.
Settlements of the Sons of Joseph.
The writer of these verses does not intend to give a full list of the
seats of Ephraim (verse 28) and Manasseh (verse 29); but
apparently to indicate the area and position of their territory by the
mention of towns on the borders.
²⁸And their possessions and habitations were

Beth-el and the towns ¹ thereof, and eastward
Naaran ², and westward Gezer, with the towns
thereof; Shechem also and the towns thereof,
unto Azzah ³ and the towns thereof:

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22. Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 751

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Professor Prem Vrat

Preface to the Second Edition

1.1 YOung’s DOubLe sLit experiment LO1

1.2 COnCept Of Waves anD HuYgens’ prinCipLe LO2

In order to demonstrate the Huygens’ principle, we consider P1 P2 P P1

1.3 pHase DifferenCe anD patH DifferenCe LO3

1.3.1 phase Difference

1.3.2 path Difference

1.3.3 Relation between Path Difference and

1.4 COHerenCe LO4

1.4.1 Temporal Coherence

1.4.2 Spatial Coherence

1.4.3 Coherence Time and Coherence Length

1.5 COHerent sOurCes LO4

1.5.1 Production of Coherent Light from Incoherent Sources

Pinhole Wavelength Filter

1.6 anaLYtiCaL treatment Of interferenCe LO5

According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement (yR) is given by

1.6.1 Condition for Constructive Interference

1.6.2 Condition for Destructive Interference

If a1 π a2, then Imin π 0

I min < a12 + a22

–7p –6p –5p –4p –3p –2p –p 0 p 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

1.6.3 Conservation of Energy

Therefore, average intensity (Iav) will be obtained as

1.7 COnDitiOns fOr sustaineD interferenCe LO5

1.7.1 Condition of Relative Phase Shift

1.8 muLtipLe beam superpOsitiOn LO6

1.9 interferenCe bY DivisiOn Of WavefrOnt LO6

1.9.1 Fresnel’s Biprism

1.9.1.3 Determination of Distance between Two Virtual Coherent Sources

Then from Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

1.10 interferenCe bY DivisiOn Of ampLituDe LO6

1.10.1 Interference Due to Thin Films