Magnetic Circuits

• Become aware of the similarities between the

Objectives analysis of magnetic circuits and electric circuits.
• Develop a clear understanding of the important
parameters of a magnetic circuit and how to find
each quantity for a variety of magnetic circuit
configurations.
• Begin to appreciate why a clear understanding of
magnetic circuit parameters is an important
component in the design of electrical/electronic
systems.

1 INTRODUCTION
Magnetic and electromagnetic effects play an important role in the design of a wide variety of
electrical/electronic systems in use today. Motors, generators, transformers, loudspeakers, re-
lays, medical equipment and movements of all kinds depend on magnetic effects to function
properly. The response and characteristics of each have an impact on the current and voltage
levels of the system, the efficiency of the design, the resulting size, and many other important
considerations.
Fortunately, there is a great deal of similarity between the analyses of electric circuits and
magnetic circuits. The magnetic flux of magnetic circuits has properties very similar to the
current of electric circuits. It has a direction and a closed path. The magnitude of the established
flux is a direct function of the applied magnetomotive force, resulting in a duality with electric
circuits, where the resulting current is a function of the magnitude of the applied voltage. The
flux established is also inversely related to the structural opposition of the magnetic path in the
same way the current in a network is inversely related to the resistance of the network. All of
these similarities are used throughout the analysis to clarify the approach.
One of the difficulties associated with studying magnetic circuits is that three different sys-
tems of units are commonly used in the industry. The manufacturer, application, and type of
component all have an impact on which system is used. To the extent practical, the SI system
is applied throughout the chapter.

2 MAGNETIC FIELD
The magnetic field distribution around a permanent magnet or electromagnet is not covered
in detail here, but know that flux lines strive to be as short as possible and take the path with
the highest permeability. The flux density is defined as follows:

B  Wb/m2  teslas (T)

£
B £  webers (Wb) (1)
A A  m2

The “pressure” on the system to establish magnetic lines of force is determined by the ap-
plied magnetomotive force, which is directly related to the number of turns and current of the

From Chapter 12 of Introductory Circuit Analysis, Twelfth Edition, Robert L. Boylestad.

Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 517
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

magnetizing coil as appearing in the following equation:

f  ampere-turns (At)
f  NI N  turns (t) (2)
I  amperes (A)
The level of magnetic flux established in a ferromagnetic core is a di-
rection function of the permeability of the material. Ferromagnetic mate-
rials have a very high level of permeability, while nonmagnetic materials
such as air and wood have very low levels. The ratio of the permeability of
the material to that of air is called the relative permeability and is defined
by the following equation:

m
mr  mo  4p  10 7 Wb/A # m (3)
mo

The values of mr are not provided in a table format because the value
is determined by the other quantities of the magnetic circuit. Change the
magnetomotive force, and the relative permeability changes.

3 RELUCTANCE
The resistance of a material to the flow of charge (current) is determined
for electric circuits by the equation

1ohms, 2
l
Rr
A
The reluctance of a material to the setting up of magnetic flux lines
in the material is determined by the following equation:

1rels, or At/Wb2
l
r (4)
mA

where r is the reluctance, l is the length of the magnetic path, and A is

the cross-sectional area. The t in the units At/Wb is the number of turns
of the applied winding. More is said about ampere-turns (At) in the next
section. Note that the resistance and reluctance are inversely propor-
tional to the area, indicating that an increase in area results in a reduction
in each and an increase in the desired result: current and flux. For an in-
crease in length, the opposite is true, and the desired effect is reduced.
The reluctance, however, is inversely proportional to the permeability,
while the resistance is directly proportional to the resistivity. The larger
the m or the smaller the r, the smaller are the reluctance and resistance,
respectively. Obviously, therefore, materials with high permeability,
such as the ferromagnetics, have very small reluctances and result in an
increased measure of flux through the core. There is no widely accepted
unit for reluctance, although the rel and the At/Wb are usually applied.

4 OHM’S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Recall the equation.
cause
Effect 
opposition

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 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

For magnetic circuits, the effect desired is the flux £ . The cause is the
magnetomotive force (mmf) f, which is the external force (or
“pressure”) required to set up the magnetic flux lines within the mag-
netic material. The opposition to the setting up of the flux £ is the
reluctance r.
Substituting, we have

f I
£ (5) N turns
r
I
Since f  NI, Eq. (5) clearly reveals that an increase in the number of
turns or the current through the wire in Fig. 1 results in an increased FIG. 1
“pressure” on the system to establish the flux lines through the core. Defining the components of a magnetomotive force.
Although there is a great deal of similarity between electric and mag-
netic circuits, you must understand that the flux £ is not a “flow” vari-
able such as current in an electric circuit. Magnetic flux is established in
the core through the alteration of the atomic structure of the core due to
external pressure and is not a measure of the flow of some charged parti-
cles through the core.

5 MAGNETIZING FORCE
The magnetomotive force per unit length is called the magnetizing
force (H). In equation form,

f
H (At/m) (6)
l

Substituting for the magnetomotive force results in

NI
H (At/m) (7)
l

For the magnetic circuit in Fig. 2, if NI  40 At and l  0.2 m, then


NI 40 At
H   200 At/m
l 0.2 m
In words, the result indicates that there are 200 At of “pressure” per
I
meter to establish flux in the core.
Note in Fig. 2 that the direction of the flux £ can be determined by N turns
I
placing the fingers of your right hand in the direction of current around
Mean length l = 0.2 m
the core and noting the direction of the thumb. It is interesting to realize
that the magnetizing force is independent of the type of core material—it FIG. 2
is determined solely by the number of turns, the current, and the length Defining the magnetizing force of a magnetic circuit.
of the core.
The applied magnetizing force has a pronounced effect on the resulting
permeability of a magnetic material. As the magnetizing force increases,
the permeability rises to a maximum and then drops to a minimum, as
shown in Fig. 3 for three commonly employed magnetic materials.
The flux density and the magnetizing force are related by the follow-
ing equation:

B  mH (8)

519
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

µ (permeability) × 10–3

10

1 Cast steel
Sheet steel
Cast iron
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900 4200 4500 H (At/m)

FIG. 3
Variation of m with the magnetizing force.

This equation indicates that for a particular magnetizing force, the

greater the permeability, the greater is the induced flux density.
Since henries (H) and the magnetizing force (H) use the same capital
letter, it must be pointed out that all units of measurement in the text,
such as henries, use roman letters, such as H, whereas variables such as
 A the magnetizing force use italic letters, such as H.

I 6 HYSTERESIS
N turns
I A curve of the flux density B versus the magnetizing force H of a material
Steel is of particular importance to the engineer. Curves of this type can usually
FIG. 4 be found in manuals, descriptive pamphlets, and brochures published by
Series magnetic circuit used to define the manufacturers of magnetic materials. A typical B-H curve for a ferromag-
hysteresis curve. netic material such as steel can be derived using the setup in Fig. 4.
The core is initially unmagnetized, and the current I  0. If the cur-
rent I is increased to some value above zero, the magnetizing force H in-
creases to a value determined by
NI c
Hc
l
The flux f and the flux density B (B  f/A) also increase with the cur-
rent I (or H). If the material has no residual magnetism, and the magnet-
izing force H is increased from zero to some value Ha, the B-H curve
follows the path shown in Fig. 5 between o and a. If the magnetizing
force H is increased until saturation (Hs) occurs, the curve continues as
shown in the figure to point b. When saturation occurs, the flux density
has, for all practical purposes, reached its maximum value. Any further
increase in current through the coil increasing H  NI>l results in a very
small increase in flux density B.
If the magnetizing force is reduced to zero by letting I decrease to
zero, the curve follows the path of the curve between b and c. The flux

520
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

b Saturation
B (T)
a
c
BR
Bmax

– Hs d
o H (NI/l)
– Hd Ha Hs

– Bmax
– BR
f
e
Saturation

FIG. 5
Hysteresis curve.

density BR, which remains when the magnetizing force is zero, is called
the residual flux density. It is this residual flux density that makes it pos-
sible to create permanent magnets. If the coil is now removed from the
core in Fig. 4, the core will still have the magnetic properties determined
by the residual flux density, a measure of its “retentivity.” If the current I
is reversed, developing a magnetizing force, H, the flux density B de-
creases with an increase in I. Eventually, the flux density will be zero
when Hd (the portion of curve from c to d) is reached. The magnetiz-
ing force Hd required to “coerce” the flux density to reduce its level to
zero is called the coercive force, a measure of the coercivity of the mag-
netic sample. As the force H is increased until saturation again occurs
and is then reversed and brought back to zero, the path def results. If the
magnetizing force is increased in the positive direction (H), the curve
traces the path shown from f to b. The entire curve represented by bcdefb
is called the hysteresis curve for the ferromagnetic material, from the
Greek hysterein, meaning “to lag behind.” The flux density B lagged be-
hind the magnetizing force H during the entire plotting of the curve.
When H was zero at c, B was not zero but had only begun to decline.
Long after H had passed through zero and had become equal to Hd did
the flux density B finally become equal to zero.
If the entire cycle is repeated, the curve obtained for the same core
will be determined by the maximum H applied. Three hysteresis loops
for the same material for maximum values of H less than the saturation
value are shown in Fig. 6. In addition, the saturation curve is repeated for
comparison purposes.

B (T )

H (At/m)
H1 H2 H3 HS
Hx

FIG. 6
Defining the normal magnetization curve.

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 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

B (T)
2.0

1.8

1.6 Sheet steel

Cast steel
1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6
Cast iron

0.4

0.2

H(At/m)
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900 4200 4500

FIG. 7
Normal magnetization curve for three ferromagnetic materials.

Note from the various curves that for a particular value of H, say, Hx,
the value of B can vary widely, as determined by the history of the core.
In an effort to assign a particular value of B to each value of H, we com-
promise by connecting the tips of the hysteresis loops. The resulting
curve, shown by the heavy, solid line in Fig. 6 and for various materials
in Fig. 7, is called the normal magnetization curve. An expanded view of
one region appears in Fig. 8.
A comparison of Figs. 3 and 7 shows that for the same value of H, the
value of B is higher in Fig. 7 for the materials with the higher m in Fig. 3.
This is particularly obvious for low values of H. This correspondence
between the two figures must exist since B  mH. In fact, if in Fig. 7 we
find m for each value of H using the equation m  B>H, we obtain the
curves in Fig. 3.
It is interesting to note that the hysteresis curves in Fig. 6 have a point
symmetry about the origin; that is, the inverted pattern to the left of the ver-
tical axis is the same as that appearing to the right of the vertical axis. In ad-
dition, you will find that a further application of the same magnetizing
forces to the sample results in the same plot. For a current I in H  NI>l that
moves between positive and negative maximums at a fixed rate, the same
B-H curve results during each cycle. Such will be the case when you exam-
ine ac (sinusoidal) networks in later studies. The reversal of the field (f)
due to the changing current direction results in a loss of energy that can best
be described by first introducing the domain theory of magnetism.
Within each atom, the orbiting electrons are also spinning as they
revolve around the nucleus. The atom, due to its spinning electrons, has
a magnetic field associated with it. In nonmagnetic materials, the net

522
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

B (T)

1.4

1.3

Sheet steel
1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

Cast steel
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

Cast iron
0.2

0.1

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 H (At/m)

FIG. 8
Expanded view of Fig. 7 for the low magnetizing force region.

523
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

magnetic field is effectively zero since the magnetic fields due to the
atoms of the material oppose each other. In magnetic materials such as
iron and steel, however, the magnetic fields of groups of atoms numbering
in the order of 1012 are aligned, forming very small bar magnets. This
group of magnetically aligned atoms is called a domain. Each domain is
a separate entity; that is, each domain is independent of the surrounding
domains. For an unmagnetized sample of magnetic material, these do-
mains appear in a random manner, such as shown in Fig. 9(a). The net
magnetic field in any one direction is zero.

S N
(a) (b)

FIG. 9
Demonstrating the domain theory of magnetism.

When an external magnetizing force is applied, the domains that are

nearly aligned with the applied field grow at the expense of the less favor-
ably oriented domains, such as shown in Fig. 9(b). Eventually, if a suffi-
ciently strong field is applied, all of the domains have the orientation of the
applied magnetizing force, and any further increase in external field will
not increase the strength of the magnetic flux through the core—a condition
referred to as saturation. The elasticity of the above is evidenced by the fact
that when the magnetizing force is removed, the alignment is lost to some
measure, and the flux density drops to BR. In other words, the removal of
the magnetizing force results in the return of a number of misaligned do-
mains within the core. The continued alignment of a number of the do-
mains, however, accounts for our ability to create permanent magnets.
At a point just before saturation, the opposing unaligned domains are
reduced to small cylinders of various shapes referred to as bubbles.
These bubbles can be moved within the magnetic sample through the ap-
plication of a controlling magnetic field. These magnetic bubbles form
the basis of the recently designed bubble memory system for computers.

TABLE 1 7 AMPÈRE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

Electric Magnetic As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, there is a broad similar-
Circuits Circuits ity between the analyses of electric and magnetic circuits. This has al-
ready been demonstrated to some extent for the quantities in Table 1.
If we apply the “cause” analogy to Kirchhoff’s voltage law 1© AV  02,
Cause E f
Effect I £
Opposition R r
we obtain the following:

兺A f  0 (for magnetic circuits) (9)

which, in words, states that the algebraic sum of the rises and drops of
the mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero; that
is, the sum of the rises in mmf equals the sum of the drops in mmf
around a closed loop.
Eq. (9) is referred to as Ampère’s circuital law. When it is applied to
magnetic circuits, sources of mmf are expressed by the equation

f  NI (At) (10)

524
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

The equation for the mmf drop across a portion of a magnetic circuit can
be found by applying the relationships listed in Table 1; that is, for elec-
tric circuits,
V  IR
resulting in the following for magnetic circuits:

f  £r (At) (11)

where f is the flux passing through a section of the magnetic circuit and
r is the reluctance of that section. The reluctance, however, is seldom
calculated in the analysis of magnetic circuits. A more practical equation
for the mmf drop is

f  Hl (At) (12)

as derived from Eq. (6), where H is the magnetizing force on a section of

a magnetic circuit and l is the length of the section.
As an example of Eq. (9), consider the magnetic circuit appearing in a

Fig. 10 constructed of three different ferromagnetic materials. Iron Steel
I
Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we have
N turns b
 0
NI  Hablab  Hbclbc  Hcalca  0 I Cobalt
Rise Drop Drop Drop c

NI  Hablab  Hbclbc  Hcalca FIG. 10

Impressed mmf drops Series magnetic circuit of three different materials.
mmf

All the terms of the equation are known except the magnetizing force for
each portion of the magnetic circuit, which can be found by using the
B-H curve if the flux density B is known.

a
8 FLUX ≥
a c
If we continue to apply the relationships described in the previous sec- I b
tion to Kirchhoff’s current law, we find that the sum of the fluxes enter-
N
ing a junction is equal to the sum of the fluxes leaving a junction; that is,
for the circuit in Fig. 11, I
a c
£a  £b  £c (at junction a) b
or £b  £c  £a (at junction b) FIG. 11
which are equivalent. Flux distribution of a series-parallel
magnetic network.

9 SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUITS:

DETERMINING NI
We are now in a position to solve a few magnetic circuit problems,
which are basically of two types. In one type, £ is given, and the im-
pressed mmf NI must be computed. This is the type of problem encoun-
tered in the design of motors, generators, and transformers. In the other
type, NI is given, and the flux £ of the magnetic circuit must be found.
This type of problem is encountered primarily in the design of magnetic
amplifiers and is more difficult since the approach is “hit or miss.”

525
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

As indicated in earlier discussions, the value of m varies from point to

point along the magnetization curve. This eliminates the possibility of
finding the reluctance of each “branch” or the “total reluctance” of a net-
work, as was done for electric circuits, where r had a fixed value for any
applied current or voltage. If the total reluctance can be determined, £ can
then be determined using the Ohm’s law analogy for magnetic circuits.
For magnetic circuits, the level of B or H is determined from the other
using the B-H curve, and m is seldom calculated unless asked for.
An approach frequently used in the analysis of magnetic circuits is
the table method. Before a problem is analyzed in detail, a table is pre-
pared listing in the far left column the various sections of the magnetic
circuit (see Table 2). The columns on the right are reserved for the quan-
tities to be found for each section. In this way, when you are solving a
problem, you can keep track of what the next step should be and what is
required to complete the problem. After a few examples, the usefulness
of this method should become clear.
This section considers only series magnetic circuits in which the flux
f is the same throughout. In each example, the magnitude of the magne-
A = 2  10–3 m2
I 
tomotive force is to be determined.
N = 400 turns Cast-steel core
EXAMPLE 1 For the series magnetic circuit in Fig. 12:
I l = 0.16 m
(mean length) a. Find the value of I required to develop a magnetic flux of £  4 ×
104 Wb.
FIG. 12 b. Determine m and mr for the material under these conditions.
Example 1.
Solutions: The magnetic circuit can be represented by the system shown
in Fig. 13(a). The electric circuit analogy is shown in Fig. 13(b). Analo-
 gies of this type can be very helpful in the solution of magnetic circuits.
Table 2 is for part (a) of this problem. The table is fairly trivial for this ex-
  ample, but it does define the quantities to be found.
a. The flux density B is
£ 4  104 Wb
B   2  101 T  0.2 T
(a) A 2  103 m2
Using the B-H curves in Fig. 8, we can determine the magnetizing
I force H:
H 1cast steel2  170 At/m
+
E R
–
Applying Ampère’s circuital law yields
NI  Hl
(b) Hl 1170 At/m2 10.16 m2
and I   68 mA
N 400 t
FIG. 13
(a) Magnetic circuit equivalent and (Recall that t represents turns.)
(b) electric circuit analogy. b. The permeability of the material can be found using Eq. (8):
B 0.2 T
m   1.176  103 Wb/A # m
H 170 At/m

TABLE 2

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

4 3
One continuous section 4  10 2  10 0.16

526
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

and the relative permeability is

m 1.176  103
mr    935.83
mo 4p  107

EXAMPLE 2 The electromagnet in Fig. 14 has picked up a section of N = 50 turns

cast iron. Determine the current I required to establish the indicated flux I I Sheet steel
in the core.
Solution: To be able to use Figs. 7 and 8, we must first convert to the f a
metric system. However, since the area is the same throughout, we can
determine the length for each material rather than work with the individ-
ual sections: 

lefab  4 in.  4 in.  4 in.  12 in. Cast iron

e b
lbcde  0.5 in.  4 in.  0.5 in.  5 in.
d c
12 in. a b  304.8  103 m
1m
39.37 in. lab = lcd = lef = lfa = 4 in.
lbc = lde = 0.5 in.
5 in. a b  127  103 m
1m
Area (throughout) = 1 in.2
39.37 in.
 = 3.5 × 10–4 Wb

1 in.2 a ba b  6.452  104 m2

1m 1m
FIG. 12
39.37 in. 39.37 in.
Electromagnet for Example 2.
The information available from the efab and bcde specifications of
the problem has been inserted in Table 3. When the problem has been
completed, each space will contain some information. Sufficient data to
complete the problem can be found if we fill in each column from left to
right. As the various quantities are calculated, they will be placed in a
similar table found at the end of the example.

TABLE 3

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

4 4 3
efab 3.5  10 6.452  10 304.8  10
bcde 3.5  104 6.452  104 127  103

The flux density for each section is

£ 3.5  104 Wb
B   0.542 T
A 6.452  104 m2
and the magnetizing force is
H (sheet steel, Fig. 8) ⬵ 70 At/m
H (cast iron, Fig. 7) ⬵ 1600 At/m
Note the extreme difference in magnetizing force for each material for
the required flux density. In fact, when we apply Ampère’s circuital law,
we find that the sheet steel section can be ignored with a minimal error
in the solution.
Determining Hl for each section yields
Hefablefab  170 At/m2 1304.8  10 3 m 2  21.34 At
Hbcdelbcde  11600 At/m2 1127  10 3 m 2  203.2 At

527
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Inserting the above data in Table 3 results in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

efab 3.5  104 6.452  104 0.542 70 304.8  103 21.34

bcde 3.5  104 6.452  104 0.542 1600 127  103 203.2

The magnetic circuit equivalent and the electric circuit analogy for
 the system in Fig. 14 appear in Fig. 15.
Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we obtain
efab
NI  Hefablefab  Hbcdelbcde
 21.34 At  203.2 At  224.54 At

bcde
and (50 t)I  224.54 At
(a) 224.54 At
so that I  4.49 A
E 50 t

– +
EXAMPLE 3 Determine the secondary current I2 for the transformer in
Refab Fig. 16 if the resultant clockwise flux in the core is 1.5 × 105 Wb.

Rbcde
a b I2
(b)  Sheet steel
I1 (2 A) N2 = 30 turns
FIG. 15 N1 = 60 turns
(a) Magnetic circuit equivalent and (b) electric I2
circuit analogy for the electromagnet in Fig. 14. I1 d c
Area (throughout) = 0.15 × 10–3 m2
labcda = 0.16 m

FIG. 16
Transformer for Example 3.

Solution: This is the first example with two magnetizing forces to con-
sider. In the analogies in Fig. 17, note that the resulting flux of each is
opposing, just as the two sources of voltage are opposing in the electric
circuit analogy.

abcda Rabcda

 I
+ +
1 2 E1 E2
– –

(a) (b)

FIG. 17
(a) Magnetic circuit equivalent and (b) electric circuit analogy for the
transformer in Fig. 16.

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 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

The abcda structural data appear in Table 5.

TABLE 5

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

5 3
abcda 1.5  10 0.15  10 0.16

The flux density throughout is

f 1.5  105 Wb
B   10  102 T  0.10 T
A 0.15  103 m2
and

H 1from Fig. 12.8 2 ⬵ 1100 At/m2  20 At/m

1
5
Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we obtain
N1I1  N2I2  Habcdalabcda
160 t212 A)  130 t21I2)  120 At/m210.16m)
120 At  130 t2I2  3.2 At
and 130 t2I2  120 At  3.2 At
116.8 At
or I2   3.89 A
30 t

For the analysis of most transformer systems, the equation N1I1 

N2I2 is used. This results in 4 A versus 3.89 A above. This difference is
normally ignored, however, and the equation N1I1  N2I2 considered
exact.
Because of the nonlinearity of the B-H curve, it is not possible to
apply superposition to magnetic circuits; that is, in Example 3, we can-
not consider the effects of each source independently and then find the
total effects by using superposition.

10 AIR GAPS
Before continuing with the illustrative examples, let us consider the
c
effects that an air gap has on a magnetic circuit. The spreading of
the flux lines outside the common area of the core for the air gap in Air gap
Fig. 18(a) is known as fringing. For our purposes, we shall ignore this ef-
fect and assume the flux distribution to be as in Fig. 18(b). fringing c
The flux density of the air gap in Fig. 18(b) is given by
(a)
£g
Bg  (13) c
Ag
c
where, for our purposes,
c
£ g  £ core
(b)
and Ag  Acore
FIG. 18
Air gaps: (a) with fringing; (b) ideal.

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 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

For most practical applications, the permeability of air is taken to be

equal to that of free space. The magnetizing force of the air gap is then
determined by

Bg
Hg  (14)
mo

and the mmf drop across the air gap is equal to HgLg. An equation for Hg
is as follows:
Bg Bg
Hg  
mo 4p  107

and Hg  17.96  105 2Bg (At/m) (15)

EXAMPLE 4 Find the value of I required to establish a magnetic flux

of f  0.75  104 Wb in the series magnetic circuit in Fig. 19.

All cast steel

Area (throughout)
= 1.5 × 10–4 m2
f  a
b Air gap
c

I  = 0.75 × 10–4 Wb

N = 200 turns
I
e  d

lcdefab = 100 × 10–3 m

lbc = 2 × 10–3 m
core
FIG. 19
 Relay for Example 4.

 gap
Solution: An equivalent magnetic circuit and its electric circuit anal-
ogy are shown in Fig. 20.
The flux density for each section is
(a)
£ 0.75  104 Wb
Rcdefab B   0.5 T
A 1.5  104 m2
I From the B-H curves in Fig. 8,
+
E Rbc H 1cast steel2 ⬵ 280 At/m
–
Applying Eq. (15),
Hg  17.96  105 2Bg  17.96  105 2 10.5 T2  3.98  105 At/m
(b)
The mmf drops are
Hcorelcore  1280 At/m2 1100  10 3 m 2  28 At
FIG. 20
(a) Magnetic circuit equivalent and (b) electric
circuit analogy for the relay in Fig. 19. Hglg  13.98  105 At/m2 12  10 3 m2  796 At

530
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we obtain

NI  Hcorelcore  Hglg
 28 At  796 At
1200 t2I  824 At
I  4.12 A
Note from the above that the air gap requires the biggest share (by
far) of the impressed NI because air is nonmagnetic.

11 SERIES-PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

As one might expect, the close analogies between electric and magnetic
circuits eventually lead to series-parallel magnetic circuits. In fact, the
electric circuit analogy will prove helpful in defining the procedure to
follow toward a solution.

EXAMPLE 5 Determine the current I required to establish a flux of 1.5

 104 Wb in the section of the core indicated in Fig. 21.

Sheet steel
a b c
T
I 1
1 2 2 = 1.5 × 10–4 Wb
N = 50 turns
I
f e d
lbcde = lefab = 0.2 m
lbe = 0.05 m
Cross-sectional area = 6 × 10–4 m2 throughout
efab
FIG. 21
Example 5.
T 1 2

Solution: The equivalent magnetic circuit and the electric circuit analogy  1 be 2 bcde
appear in Fig. 22. We have
£2 1.5  104 Wb
B2    0.25 T
A 6  104 m2 (a)

From Fig. 8,
Refab
Hbcde ⬵ 40 At/m
Applying Ampère’s circuital law around loop 2 in Figs. 21 and 22, IT I1 I2
+
兺A f  0 E
–
1 Rbe 2 Rbcde

Hbe lbe  Hbcde l bcde  0

Hbe 10.05 m2  140 At/m2 10.2m2  0
8 At (b)
Hbe   160 At/m
0.05 m FIG. 22
From Fig. 8, (a) Magnetic circuit equivalent and (b) electric
circuit analogy for the series-parallel system in
B1 ⬵ 0.97 T Fig. 21.

531
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

and

£ 1  B1A  10.97 T2 16  10 4 m2 2  5.82  10 4 Wb

The results for bcde, be, and efab are entered in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

bcde 1.5  104 6  104 0.25 40 0.2 8

be 5.82  104 6  104 0.97
. 160 0.05 8
efab 6  104 0.2

Table 6 reveals that we must now turn our attention to section efab:

£ T  £ 1  £ 2  5.82  104 Wb  1.5  104 Wb

 7.32  104 Wb
£T 7.32  104 Wb
B 
A 6  104 m2
 1.22 T

From Fig. 7,

Hefab ⬵ 400 At

Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we find

NI  Hefab lefab  Hbe l be  0
NI  1400 At/m210.2 m2  1160 At/m210.05 m2
150 t2I  80 At  8 At
88 At
I  1.76 A
50 t

To demonstrate that m is sensitive to the magnetizing force H, the per-

meability of each section is determined as follows. For section bcde,
B 0.25 T
m   6.25  103
H 40 At/m
m 6.25  103
and mr    4972.2
mo 12.57  107

For section be,

B 0.97 T
m   6.06  103
H 160 At/m
m 6.06  103
and mr    4821
mo 12.57  107

For section efab,

B 1.22 T
m   3.05  103
H 400 At/m
m 3.05  103
and mr    2426.41
mo 12.57  107

532
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

12 DETERMINING ≥
The examples of this section are of the second type, where NI is given
and the flux £ must be found. This is a relatively straightforward prob-
lem if only one magnetic section is involved. Then
NI
H HSB (B-H curve)
l
and £  BA
For magnetic circuits with more than one section, there is no set order
of steps that lead to an exact solution for every problem on the first at-
tempt. In general, however, we proceed as follows. We must find the im-
pressed mmf for a calculated guess of the flux £ and then compare this
with the specified value of mmf. We can then make adjustments to our
guess to bring it closer to the actual value. For most applications, a value
within 5% of the actual £ or specified NI is acceptable.
We can make a reasonable guess at the value of £ if we realize that the
maximum mmf drop appears across the material with the smallest perme-
ability if the length and area of each material are the same. As shown in
Example 4, if there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit, there will be a
considerable drop in mmf across the gap. As a starting point for problems
of this type, therefore, we shall assume that the total mmf (NI) is across
the section with the lowest m or greatest r (if the other physical dimen-
sions are relatively similar). This assumption gives a value of £ that will
produce a calculated NI greater than the specified value. Then, after con-
sidering the results of our original assumption very carefully, we shall cut
£ and NI by introducing the effects (reluctance) of the other portions of
the magnetic circuit and try the new solution. For obvious reasons, this
approach is frequently called the cut and try method.

EXAMPLE 6 Calculate the magnetic flux £ for the magnetic circuit in A (throughout) = 2 × 10–4 m2
Fig. 23.
I = 5A a
 b
Solution: By Ampère’s circuital law,
N = 60 turns
NI  Habcdalabcda
NI 160 t2 15 A2
or Habcda   I d c
labcda 0.3 m
labcda = 0.3 m Cast iron
300 At
  1000 At/m
0.3 m FIG. 23
and Babcda (from Fig. 7) ⬵ 0.39 T Example 6.

Since B  £ /A, we have

£  BA  10.39 T2 12  10 4 m2 2  0.78 ⫻ 10 ⴚ4 Wb Cast iron

EXAMPLE 7 Find the magnetic flux £ for the series magnetic circuit in
Φ Air gap
Fig. 24 for the specified impressed mmf. 1 mm
Solution: Assuming that the total impressed mmf NI is across the air I = 4A
gap, we obtain Area = 0.003 m2

NI  HgIg N = 100 turns lcore = 0.16 m

NI 400 At FIG. 24
or Hg    4  105 At/m
lg 0.001 m Example 7.

533
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

and Bg  µoHg  (4p  107)(4  105 At/m)

 0.503 T
The flux is given by
£ g  £ core  BgA
 10.503 T2 10.003 m2 2
£ core  1.51  10 3 Wb
Using this value of £ , we can find NI. The core and gap data are in-
serted in Table 7.

TABLE 7

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

3
Core 1.51  10 0.003 0.503 1500 (B-H curve) 0.16
Gap 1.51  103 0.003 0.503 4  105 0.001 400

Hcorelcore  11500 At/m2 10.16 m2  240 At

Applying Ampère’s circuital law results in
NI  Hcorelcore  Hglg
 240 At  400 At
400 At 640 At
Since we neglected the reluctance of all the magnetic paths but the air
gap, the calculated value is greater than the specified value. We must
therefore reduce this value by including the effect of these reluctances.
Since approximately (640 At  400 At)/640 At  240 At/640 At ⬵
37.5% of our calculated value is above the desired value, let us reduce £
by 30% and see how close we come to the impressed mmf of 400 At:
£  11  0.32 11.51  10 3 Wb2
 1.057  10 3 Wb
See Table 8. We have

TABLE 8

Section ≥ (Wb) A (m2) B (T) H (At/m) l (m) Hl (At)

3
Core 1.057  10 0.003 0.16
Gap 1.057  103 0.003 0.001

£ 1.057  103 Wb
B  ⬵ 0.352 T
A 0.003 m3
HgIg  17.96  105 2BgIg
 17.96  105 2 10.352 T2 10.001 m2
⬵ 280.19 At
From the B-H curves,
Hcore ⬵ 850 At/m
Hcorelcore  (850 At/m)(0.16 m)  136 At

534
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Applying Ampère’s circuital law yields

NI  Hcorelcore  Hglg
 136 At  280.19 At
400 At  416.19 At (but within 5% and therefore acceptable)
The solution is, therefore,
£ ⬵ 1.057 ⫻ 10 ⴚ3 Wb

13 APPLICATIONS Flexible cone

Speakers and Microphones Electromagnet

Electromagnetic effects are the moving force in the design of speakers i
such as the one shown in Fig. 25. The shape of the pulsating waveform
of the input current is determined by the sound to be reproduced by the
i
speaker at a high audio level. As the current peaks and returns to the val- Sound
leys of the sound pattern, the strength of the electromagnet varies in ex-
i
actly the same manner. This causes the cone of the speaker to vibrate at
Magnetic sample
a frequency directly proportional to the pulsating input. The higher the (free to move)
pitch of the sound pattern, the higher is the oscillating frequency be-
tween the peaks and valleys and the higher is the frequency of vibration FIG. 25
of the cone. Speaker.
A second design used more frequently in more expensive speaker
systems appears in Fig. 26. In this case, the permanent magnet is fixed,
and the input is applied to a movable core within the magnet, as shown
in the figure. High peaking currents at the input produce a strong flux
pattern in the voice coil, causing it to be drawn well into the flux pat-
tern of the permanent magnet. As occurred for the speaker in Fig. 25,
the core then vibrates at a rate determined by the input and provides
the audible sound.

Magnetized
ferromagnetic Lead terminal
material

Magnet

Magnetic gap
Cone
i i Voice coil

Magnet

(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 26
Coaxial high-fidelity loudspeaker: (a) construction: (b) basic operation; (c) cross section of actual unit.
(Courtesy of Electro-Voice, Inc.)

Microphones also employ electromagnetic effects. The incoming

sound causes the core and attached moving coil to move within the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Through Faraday’s law

535
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

(e  N df/dt), a voltage is induced across the movable coil proportional

B
to the speed with which it is moving through the magnetic field. The re-
sulting induced voltage pattern can then be amplified and reproduced at
I a much higher audio level through the use of speakers, as described ear-
(conventional
lier. Microphones of this type are the most frequently employed,
flow) + although other types that use capacitive, carbon granular, and piezoelec-
tric* effects are available. This particular design is commercially referred
to as a dynamic microphone.

VH
Hall Effect Sensor
The Hall effect sensor is a semiconductor device that generates an output
– voltage when exposed to a magnetic field. The basic construction con-
sists of a slab of semiconductor material through which a current is
(a) passed, as shown in Fig. 27(a). If a magnetic field is applied, as shown in
the figure, perpendicular to the direction of the current, a voltage VH is
generated between the two terminals, as indicated in Fig. 27(a). The dif-
+
Magnetic field ference in potential is due to the separation of charge established by the
into page
Lorentz force first studied by Professor Hendrick Lorentz in the late
I ++++++++++++++++ I 1800s. He found that electrons in a magnetic field are subjected to a
VH force proportional to the velocity of the electrons through the field and
e– e– e– e–
–––––––––––––––– the strength of the magnetic field. The direction of the force is deter-
mined by the left-hand rule. Simply place the index finger of your left
– hand in the direction of the magnetic field, with the second finger at right
angles to the index finger in the direction of conventional current
(b) through the semiconductor material, as shown in Fig. 27(b). The thumb,
FIG. 27
if placed at right angles to the index finger, will indicate the direction of
Hall effect sensor: (a) orientation of controlling the force on the electrons. In Fig. 27(b), the force causes the electrons to
parameters; (b) effect on electron flow. accumulate in the bottom region of the semiconductor (connected to the
negative terminal of the voltage VH), leaving a net positive charge in the
upper region of the material (connected to the positive terminal of VH).
The stronger the current or strength of the magnetic field, the greater is
the induced voltage VH.
In essence, therefore, the Hall effect sensor can reveal the strength of
a magnetic field or the level of current through a device if the other de-
termining factor is held fixed. Two applications of the sensor are there-
fore apparent—to measure the strength of a magnetic field in the vicinity
of a sensor (for an applied fixed current) and to measure the level of cur-
rent through a sensor (with knowledge of the strength of the magnetic
field linking the sensor). The gaussmeter uses a Hall effect sensor. Inter-
nal to the meter, a fixed current is passed through the sensor with the
voltage VH indicating the relative strength of the field. Through amplifi-
cation, calibration, and proper scaling, the meter can display the relative
strength in gauss.
The Hall effect sensor has a broad range of applications that are
often quite interesting and innovative. The most widespread is as a trig-
ger for an alarm system in large department stores, where theft is often
a difficult problem. A magnetic strip attached to the merchandise
sounds an alarm when a customer passes through the exit gates without
paying for the product. The sensor, control current, and monitoring system
are housed in the exit fence and react to the presence of the magnetic

*Piezoelectricity is the generation of a small voltage by exerting pressure across certain

crystals.

536
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

VH
–
+

I I
I (from battery)
I Hall effect sensor
+
Permanent
magnet VH

Hall –
Time
effect B for one
sensor rotation

N
S Motion

Spoke

(a) (b)

FIG. 28
Obtaining a speed indication for a bicycle using a Hall effect sensor: (a) mounting the
components; (b) Hall effect response.

field as the product leaves the store. When the product is paid for, the
cashier removes the strip or demagnetizes the strip by applying a mag-
netizing force that reduces the residual magnetism in the strip to essen-
tially zero.
The Hall effect sensor is also used to indicate the speed of a bicycle
on a digital display conveniently mounted on the handlebars. As shown
in Fig. 28(a), the sensor is mounted on the frame of the bike, and a small
permanent magnet is mounted on a spoke of the front wheel. The magnet
must be carefully mounted to be sure that it passes over the proper re-
gion of the sensor. When the magnet passes over the sensor, the flux pat-
tern in Fig. 28(b) results, and a voltage with a sharp peak is developed by
the sensor. For a bicycle with a 26-in.-diameter wheel, the circumference
will be about 82 in. Over 1 mi, the number of rotations is

5280 ft a ba b ⬵ 773 rotations

12 in. 1 rotation
1 ft 82 in.
If the bicycle is traveling at 20 mph, an output pulse occurs at a rate
of 4.29 per second. It is interesting to note that at a speed of 20 mph, the
wheel is rotating at more than 4 revolutions per second, and the total
number of rotations over 20 mi is 15,460.

Magnetic Reed Switch

Reeds
One of the most frequently employed switches in alarm systems is the Embedded
magnetic reed switch shown in Fig. 29. As shown by the figure, there permanent N
magnet
are two components of the reed switch—a permanent magnet embed- Sealed
ded in one unit that is normally connected to the movable element Plastic capsule
S
(door, window, and so on) and a reed switch in the other unit that is housing
connected to the electrical control circuit. The reed switch is con-
structed of two iron-alloy (ferromagnetic) reeds in a hermetically
sealed capsule. The cantilevered ends of the two reeds do not touch FIG. 29
but are in very close proximity to one another. In the absence of a Magnetic reed switch.

537
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

magnetic field, the reeds remain separated. However, if a magnetic

Permanent field is introduced, the reeds are drawn to each other because flux
magnet lines seek the path of least reluctance and, if possible, exercise every
alternative to establish the path of least reluctance. It is similar to
Reed switch placing a ferromagnetic bar close to the ends of a U-shaped magnet.
The bar is drawn to the poles of the magnet, establishing a magnetic
Control
flux path without air gaps and with minimum reluctance. In the open-
circuit state, the resistance between reeds is in excess of 100 M,
while in the on state it drops to less than 1 .
FIG. 30 In Fig. 30 a reed switch has been placed on the fixed frame of a win-
Using a magnetic reed switch to monitor the state dow and a magnet on the movable window unit. When the window is
of a window. closed as shown in Fig. 30, the magnet and reed switch are sufficiently
close to establish contact between the reeds, and a current is established
through the reed switch to the control panel. In the armed state, the
alarm system accepts the resulting current flow as a normal secure re-
sponse. If the window is opened, the magnet leaves the vicinity of the
reed switch, and the switch opens. The current through the switch is in-
terrupted, and the alarm reacts appropriately.
One of the distinct advantages of the magnetic reed switch is that
the proper operation of any switch can be checked with a portable
magnetic element. Simply bring the magnet to the switch and note the
output response. There is no need to continually open and close win-
dows and doors. In addition, the reed switch is hermetically enclosed
so that oxidation and foreign objects cannot damage it, and the result is
a unit that can last indefinitely. Magnetic reed switches are also avail-
able in other shapes and sizes, allowing them to be concealed from ob-
vious view. One is a circular variety that can be set into the edge of a
door and door jam, resulting in only two small visible disks when the
door is open.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides quality cross-sectional im-
ages of the body for medical diagnosis and treatment. MRI does not ex-
pose the patient to potentially hazardous X-rays or injected contrast
materials such as those used to obtain computerized axial tomography
(CAT) scans.
The three major components of an MRI system are a strong mag-
net, a table for transporting the patient into the circular hole in the
magnet, and a control center, as shown in Fig. 31. The image is ob-
tained by placing the patient in the tube to a precise depth depending
on the cross section to be obtained and applying a strong magnetic
field that causes the nuclei of certain atoms in the body to line up.
Radio waves of different frequencies are then applied to the patient in
the region of interest, and if the frequency of the wave matches the
natural frequency of the atom, the nuclei is set into a state of reso-
nance and absorbs energy from the applied signal. When the signal is
removed, the nuclei release the acquired energy in the form of weak
but detectable signals. The strength and duration of the energy emis-
sion vary from one tissue of the body to another. The weak signals are
FIG. 31 then amplified, digitized, and translated to provide a cross-sectional
Magnetic resonance imaging equipment. image such as the one shown in Fig. 32. For some patients the claus-
(Courtesy of Siemens Medical Systems, Inc.) trophobic feeling they experience while in the circular tube is difficult

538
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

FIG. 32 FIG. 33
Magnetic resonance image. Magnetic resonance imaging equipment (open variety).
(Courtesy of Siemens Medical Systems, Inc.) (Courtesy of Siemens Medical Systems, Inc.)

to contend with. A more open unit has been developed, as shown in

Fig. 33, that has removed most of this discomfort.
Patients who have metallic implants or pacemakers or those who have
worked in industrial environments where minute ferromagnetic particles
may have become lodged in open, sensitive areas such as the eyes, nose,
and so on, may have to use a CAT scan system because it does not em-
ploy magnetic effects. The attending physician is well trained in such
areas of concern and will remove any unfounded fears or suggest alter-
native methods.

PROBLEMS 3. For the electromagnet in Fig. 34:

SECTION 2 Magnetic Field a. Find the flux density in the core.
b. Sketch the magnetic flux lines and indicate their direction.
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table. Indicate the units c. Indicate the north and south poles of the magnet.
for each quantity.

≥ B A = 0.01 m2

SI 5  104 Wb 8  104 T Φ = 4 × 10–4 Wb

CGS ____________ ____________
English ____________ ____________ I N turns I

FIG. 34
2. Repeat Problem 1 for the following table if area  2 in.2: Problem 3.

≥ B
SECTION 3 Reluctance
SI ____________ ____________
CGS 60,000 maxwells ____________ 4. Which section of Fig. 35—(a), (b), or (c)—has the largest
English ____________ ____________ reluctance to the setting up of flux lines through its longest
dimension?

539
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

3 in. 10. Find the current necessary to establish a flux of £  3 

104 Wb in the series magnetic circuit in Fig. 37.
1 cm Iron

2 cm 6 cm
1 in.
Iron 2 Cast iron
(a) (b) Sheet steel
I
0.01 m
N
0.01 m
Iron
0.1 m liron core = lsteel core = 0.3 m
(c) Area (throughout) = 5  10–4 m2
N = 100 turns
FIG. 35
Problem 4. FIG. 37
Problem 10.

SECTION 4 Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuits

5. Find the reluctance of a magnetic circuit if a magnetic flux 11. a. Find the number of turns N1 required to establish a flux £
£  4.2  104 Wb is established by an impressed mmf of  12  104 Wb in the magnetic circuit in Fig. 38.
400 At. b. Find the permeability m of the material.
6. Repeat Problem 5 for £  72,000 maxwells and an im-
pressed mmf of 120 gilberts.

Cast steel
SECTION 5 Magnetizing Force
Φ
7. Find the magnetizing force H for Problem 5 in SI units if
the magnetic circuit is 6 in. long. I = 1A
I =
8. If a magnetizing force H of 600 At/m is applied to a magnetic 2A N2 = 30 turns
circuit, a flux density B of 1200  104 Wb/m2 is estab- N1
lished. Find the permeability m of a material that will produce lm
twice the original flux density for the same magnetizing Area = 0.0012 m2
force. lm (mean length) = 0.2 m

FIG. 38
SECTIONS 6–9 Hysteresis through Series Magnetic Problem 11.
Circuits
9. For the series magnetic circuit in Fig. 36, determine the cur-
rent I necessary to establish the indicated flux. 12. a. Find the mmf (NI) required to establish a flux £ 
80,000 lines in the magnetic circuit in Fig. 39.
b. Find the permeability of each material.
Area (throughout)
= 3 × 10–3 m2

Φ Cast steel

I NI Sheet steel

N = 75 turns Cast iron Uniform area

I Φ (throughout)
= 1 in.2
Φ = 10 × 10–4 Wb lcast steel = 5.5 in.
Mean length = 0.2 m lsheet steel = 0.5 in.

FIG. 36 FIG. 39
Problem 9. Problem 12.

540
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

*13. For the series magnetic circuit in Fig. 40 with two im- 4 cm
pressed sources of magnetic “pressure,” determine the cur-
rent I. Each applied mmf establishes a flux pattern in the
clockwise direction. Chime
f

Cast steel I
Plunger I = 900 mA
N = 80 turns

FIG. 42
I Door chime for Problem 15.
–4
I
Φ = 0.8  10 Wb N1 = 20 turns N2 = 30 turns
16. Determine the current I1 required to establish a flux of £ 
lcast steel = 5.5 in. I 2  104 Wb in the magnetic circuit in Fig. 43.
lcast iron = 2.5 in. Cast iron
I1 Sheet steel
Area (throughout) = 0.25 in. 2 0.002 m
N1 = 200 turns
FIG. 40
Problem 13.
I1 0.3
m
Φ

SECTION 10 Air Gaps

14. a. Find the current I required to establish a flux £  I2 = 0.3 A
N2 = 40 turns
2.4  104 Wb in the magnetic circuit in Fig. 41.
b. Compare the mmf drop across the air gap to that across Area (throughout) = 1.3 × 10–4 m2
the rest of the magnetic circuit. Discuss your results
FIG. 43
using the value of m for each material.
Problem 16.

*17. a. A flux of 0.2  104 Wb will establish sufficient at-

Sheet steel tractive force for the armature of the relay in Fig. 44 to
close the contacts. Determine the required current to
establish this flux level if we assume that the total mmf
a Φ b drop is across the air gap.
0.003 m
I
N = c b. The force exerted on the armature is determined by the
100
turns d equation
I
f e 1 B2g A
F1newtons2  #
Area (throughout) = 2 × 10–4 m2
2 mo
lab = lef = 0.05 m where Bg is the flux density within the air gap and A is
laf = lbe = 0.02 m the common area of the air gap. Find the force in new-
lbc = lde tons exerted when the flux £ specified in part (a) is
established.
FIG. 41
Problem 14. Spring
Armature Air gap = 0.2 cm
Contacts

*15. The force carried by the plunger of the door chime in

Fig. 42 is determined by Coil
N = 200 turns
1 df Diameter of core = 0.01 m
f NI (newtons)
2 dx

where df/dx is the rate of change of flux linking the coil as Solenoid
I
the core is drawn into the coil. The greatest rate of change
of flux occurs when the core is 1>4 to 3>4 the way through. In
this region, if £ changes from 0.5  104 Wb to 8  104 FIG. 44
Wb, what is the force carried by the plunger? Relay for Problem 17.

541
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

SECTION 11 Series-Parallel Magnetic Circuits *21. Note how closely the B-H curve of cast steel in Fig. 7
matches the curve for the voltage across a capacitor as it
*18. For the series-parallel magnetic circuit in Fig. 45, find the
charges from zero volts to its final value.
value of I required to establish a flux in the gap of £ g  2
a. Using the equation for the charging voltage as a guide,
 104 Wb.
write an equation for B as a function of H [B  f(H)] for
cast steel.
Sheet steel throughout b. Test the resulting equation at H  900 At/m, 1800
At/m, and 2700 At/m.
a T b 1 c 0.002 m c. Using the equation of part (a), derive an equation for H
I in terms of B [H  f(B)].
N = 1 2
2 d
d. Test the resulting equation at B  1 T and B  1.4 T.
200 turns Area =
2 × 10–4 m2 e. Using the result of part (c), perform the analysis
e
of Example 1, and compare the results for the
h g f current I.

Area for sections other than bg = 5 × 10–4 m2

lab = lbg = lgh = lha = 0.2 m
lbc = lfg = 0.1 m, lcd = lef = 0.099 m
GLOSSARY
FIG. 45
Ampère’s circuital law A law establishing the fact that the alge-
Problem 18.
braic sum of the rises and drops of the mmf around a closed
loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero.
SECTION 12 Determining ≥ Domain A group of magnetically aligned atoms.
19. Find the magnetic flux £ established in the series magnetic Electromagnetism Magnetic effects introduced by the flow of
circuit in Fig. 46. charge or current.
Ferromagnetic materials Materials having permeabilities
hundreds and thousands of times greater than that of free
Φ space.
Flux density (B) A measure of the flux per unit area perpendicu-
I = 2A 8m lar to a magnetic flux path. It is measured in teslas (T) or
0.0
webers per square meter (Wb/m2).
N = 100 turns
Hysteresis The lagging effect between the flux density of a ma-
Area =
0.009 m2 terial and the magnetizing force applied.
Magnetic flux lines Lines of a continuous nature that reveal the
Cast steel strength and direction of a magnetic field.
FIG. 46 Magnetizing force (H) A measure of the magnetomotive force
Problem 19. per unit length of a magnetic circuit.
Magnetomotive force (mmf) (f) The “pressure” required to es-
tablish magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material. It is meas-
*20. Determine the magnetic flux £ established in the series
ured in ampere-turns (At).
magnetic circuit in Fig. 47.
Permanent magnet A material such as steel or iron that will re-
main magnetized for long periods of time without the aid of
Cast steel external means.
a b Permeability (M) A measure of the ease with which magnetic
Φ
I = 2A flux can be established in a material. It is measured in
c Wb/Am.
N = 150 turns Relative permeability (Mr) The ratio of the permeability of a
d
material to that of free space.
Reluctance () A quantity determined by the physical charac-
f e
teristics of a material that will provide an indication of the “re-
lcd = 8 × 10 – 4 m luctance” of that material to the setting up of magnetic flux
lab = lbe = lef = lfa = 0.2 m lines in the material. It is measured in rels or At/Wb.
Area (throughout) = 2 × 10 – 4 m2
lbc = lde

FIG. 47
Problem 20.

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 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

ANSWERS TO SELECTED ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS

1. £ : CGS : 5  104 maxwells; 15. 1.35 N (c) H  700 loge 11  1.5B T 2
English : 5  104 lines 17. (a) 2.02 A (b) 2 N (d) 1 T: graph  750 At/m, Eq. 
B: CGS: 8 gauss; English : 19. 6.12 mWb 769.03 At/m; 1.4 T: graph 
51.62 lines/in.2 21. (a) B  1.5 T 11  eH>700 At/m 2 1920 At/m, Eq.  1895.64 At/m
3. (a) 0.04 T (b) 900 At/m: graph  1.1 T, (e) 40.1 mA vs. 44 mA in
5. 952.4  103 At/Wb Eq.  1.09 T; 1800 At/m: graph  Example 1
7. 2624.67 At/m 1.38 T, Eq.  1.39 T; 2700 At/m:
9. 2.13 A graph  1.47 T, Eq.  1.47 T
11. (a) 60 t (b) 13.34  104 Wb/Am Excellent results
13. 2.70 A

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