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    Stored Program Organization

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    misushil55

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Stored Program Organization

    Uploaded by

    misushil55
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    2 views13 pages

    Stored Program Organization

    Uploaded by

    misushil55

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    of 13

    Instruction Codes

    A computer instruction is a binary code that specifies a sequence of microoperations for the computer.
    Instruction code together with data are stored in the memory.
    An instruction code is a group of bits that instructs the computer to perform a specific operation. It is
    usually divided into parts, each having its own particular interpretation. The most basic part of an
    instruction code is its operation part. The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that define
    such operation as add, subtract, multiply, shift and complement.
    • Stored Program Organization
    The simplest way to organize a computer is to have one process register and an instruction code format
    with two parts. The first part specifies the operation to be performed and the second specifies an
    address. The memory address tells the control unit where to find an operand in memory. This operand
    is read from memory and used as the data to be operated on together with the data stored in the
    processor register.
    • Indirect Address
    One bit of the instruction code can be used to distinguish between a direct and an indirect address.
    When I = 0 (Direct address) and when I = 1 (Indirect address)
    ▪ When address of an instruction code specifies an operand – immediate operand
    ▪ When address specifies address of operand – direct address
    ▪ Else, address specifies an address of memory word where address of operand is found – indirect address.
    Computer Registers
    • Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that
    are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
    • A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual
    characters).
    • The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a memory address. The
    register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of the next instruction after the execution of
    the current instruction is completed.

    Register Symbol No. Function


    of
    bits
    Data DR 16 Holds memory operand
    register

    Address AR 12 Holds address for the


    register memory

    Accumulator AC 16 Processor register

    Instruction IR 16 Holds instruction code


    register

    Program PC 12 Holds address of the


    counter instruction

    Temporary TR 16 Holds temporary data


    register

    Input INPR 8 Carries input character


    register

    Output OUTR 8 Carries output character


    register
    Computer Instructions
    Computer instructions are a set of machine language instructions that a particular processor
    understands and executes. A computer performs tasks on the basis of the instruction provided.
    An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:
    • The Operation code (Opcode) field which specifies the operation to be performed.
    • The Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or memory
    location.
    • The Mode field which specifies how the operand will be located.
    A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:
    • Memory - reference instruction
    • Register - reference instruction
    • Input-Output instruction
    Timing and Control
    The timing for all registers in the basic
    computer is controlled by a master clock
    generator. The clock pulses are applied to all
    flip flops and registers both in system and in
    the control unit. The clock pulses do not
    change the state of a register unless the
    register is enabled by a control signal. The
    control signals are generated in the control
    unit and provide control inputs for
    multiplexers and process registers.
    There are two major types of control
    organization ; hardwired control and
    microprogrammed control.
    In microprogrammed control, the control
    information is stored in a control memory. The
    control memory is programmed to initiate the
    required sequence of micro operations.
    In hardwired control, the control logic is
    implemented with gates, flip flops, decoders
    and other digital circuits. It can be optimized
    to produce a fast mode of operation.
    • A Hard-wired Control consists of two
    decoders, a sequence counter, and a
    number of logic gates.
    • An instruction fetched from the
    memory unit is placed in the instruction
    register (IR).
    • The component of an instruction
    register includes; I bit, the operation
    code, and bits 0 to 11.
    • The operation code in bits 12 through
    14 are coded with a 3 x 8 decoder.
    • The outputs of the decoder are
    designated by the symbols D0 through
    D7.
    • The operation code at bit 15 is
    transferred to a flip-flop designated by
    the symbol I.
    • The operation codes from Bits 0 to 11
    are applied to the control logic gates.
    • The Sequence counter (SC) can count in
    binary from 0 to 15.
    Instruction Cycle
    A program in memory unit is
    executed in the computer by going
    through a cycle for instruction. In
    the basic computer each
    instruction cycle consists of
    following phases:
    1. Fetch an instruction form
    memory.
    2. Decode the instruction.
    3. Read the effective address from
    memory if the instruction has
    an indirect address.
    4. Execute the instruction.
    This process continues indefinitely
    until HALT instruction is
    encountered.
    Memory-Reference Instructions
    In order to specify the
    microoperations needed for the
    execution of each instruction, it
    is necessary that the function
    that they are intended to
    perform be defined precisely.
    Some instructions have an
    ambiguous description. This is
    because the explanation of an
    instruction in words is usually
    lengthy, and not enough space is
    available in the table for such a
    lengthy explanation.
    Input Output Interrupt

    PSW : Program Status Word


    Questions
    • What are instruction codes and how do they relate to computer instructions?
    • What are computer registers and what role do they play in a computer system?
    • Can you provide an overview of the different types of computer instructions?
    • How do timing and control mechanisms work in a computer system?
    • What is the instruction cycle and what are its main stages?
    • Can you explain memory reference instructions and their role in computer
    operations?
    • What is the purpose of input and output interrupts in a computer system?
    • How do interrupts improve the efficiency of input and output operations?
    • What are the key differences between memory reference instructions and
    input/output instructions?
    • How do modern computer architectures handle timing and control to optimize
    performance and power consumption?

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