Course: Road Safety Engineering

(OE 801 CE)

Prepared by,
Mr. D Bharath Naik
Assistant Professor
CE, MCET

Course Outcomes:
CO1 Recall the road safety scenario in India and the world, understand the basic characteristics of
motor-vehicle traffic, and explain the fundamentals of traffic engg. & statistical methods in
traffic safety analysis.
CO2 Comprehend the concepts of accident analysis, including accident investigations, risk
management, collection, and analysis of accident data, and determine possible causes of crashes
and crash reduction capabilities.
CO3 Apply road safety principles in planning and geometric design, including considerations for
vehicle and human characteristics, road design, road equipment, junction redesigning, and
cross-section improvements.
CO4 Comprehend the traffic signals and road signs, including factors affecting signal design,
provisions for non-motorized vehicles, safety provisions for pedestrians and cyclists, and road
signs and pavement markings.
CO5 Apply traffic management safety audit techniques, tools for safety management systems, and
road safety audit processes, and develop road safety improvement strategies.
CO6 Comprehend the role of ITS in road safety, including their applications and benefits in traffic
management systems and safety provisions at construction sites.

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 Unit I
 Introduction
 Road Safety scenario in India
 Road Safety scenario in world
 Road Accident Characteristics.
 Traffic Safety Analysis:
o Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering –
o Basic Characteristics of Motor-Vehicle Traffic
o Highway Capacity,
o Applications of Traffic Control Devices,
o Design of Parking Facilities,
o Traffic Engineering Studies
 Statistical Methods in Traffic Safety Analysis –
o Regression Method
o Poisson Distribution,
o Chi- Squared Distribution.
o Statistical Comparisons
Introduction:
The concept of road safety has gained significant attention in recent years, as road traffic
accidents continue to be a major public health problem in India. In order to address this issue, a
Five Pillars of Road Safety Systems Approach has been adopted, which includes the following
components:
1. Road Infrastructure: The quality and design of road infrastructure play a crucial role in
ensuring road safety. Proper road design, construction, and maintenance can prevent
accidents caused by poor road conditions, inadequate signage, and lack of pedestrian
facilities.
2. Safe Vehicles: Ensuring that vehicles on the road are safe and well-maintained is another
important pillar of road safety. Regular vehicle inspections, adherence to emission
standards, and promoting the use of safety features like seat belts, airbags, and helmets can
significantly reduce the risk of accidents.
3. Road User Behavior: Educating road users, including drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists,
about safe road behavior is crucial for preventing accidents. Promoting responsible driving
practices such as obeying traffic laws, avoiding drunk driving, and using mobile phones
responsibly while driving is essential.
4. Emergency Medical Services: Prompt medical care is critical in reducing the severity of
injuries in road traffic accidents. Establishing efficient emergency medical services and
trauma care facilities can save lives and minimize the long-term impact of road accidents.

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 5. Enforcement: Strict enforcement of traffic rules and regulations is necessary to ensure
compliance and deter dangerous driving behaviors. Implementation of traffic laws,
monitoring of traffic violations, and imposing penalties for offenders can help promote
responsible road use.
Overview of Safety Scenario in India & world:
Road safety is a significant public health problem in India, affecting individuals, families,
and communities. Road safety in India has been a growing concern due to the high rate of accidents
and fatalities on the country's roads. The government of India has implemented various measures
to address this issue, including stricter laws and regulations, increased public awareness
campaigns, and improvements to road infrastructure.
According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), the road safety
scenario in India during 2021 was as follows:
1. Number of Road Accidents: In 2021, a total of 4,15,333 road accidents were reported,
which is a decrease of 9.9% compared to 2019 when 4,64,910 accidents were reported.
2. Number of Persons Killed: A total of 1,41,526 people were killed in road accidents in 2021,
which is a decrease of 5.5% compared to 2019 when 1,49,123 people were killed.
3. Number of Persons Injured: In 2021, a total of 4,19,643 people were injured in road
accidents, which is a decrease of 10.3% compared to 2019 when 4,67,044 people were
injured.
4. Road Accidents by Type: The majority of road accidents in 2021 were caused by driver's
fault (84.8%) followed by road condition (4.7%) and vehicle condition (2.2%).
5. Road Accidents by State: Uttar Pradesh recorded the highest number of road accidents
(24.3%) followed by Tamil Nadu (11.8%) and Maharashtra (9.4%).
6. Road Accidents by Time: Maximum accidents occurred during the day (between 6 am to
6 pm) accounting for 70.3% of all accidents.
7. Age-wise Casualty: Majority of casualties (62.2%) were in the age group of 18-45 years,
followed by age group of 45-60 years (23.8%).
8. Vehicle-wise Casualty: Two-Wheeler vehicles accounted for the highest share (35.6%) in
the total number of road accident deaths followed by cars, jeeps and taxis (21.2%).
9. Road Safety Measures: To address this issue, the Government of India has implemented
various measures, including the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019, which
introduced stricter penalties for traffic violations, including higher fines and imprisonment
for repeat offenders. The government has also launched various public awareness

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 campaigns, such as the National Road Safety Month, which aims to educate people about
safe driving practices and reduce the number of accidents on the country's roads.
10. In addition, the government has invested in improving road infrastructure, including the
construction of new highways and the implementation of Intelligent Transport Systems
(ITS) to improve traffic management and reduce accidents.
11. Despite these efforts, there is still a long way to go in ensuring road safety in India. It is
crucial for all stakeholders, including the government, road users, and vehicle
manufacturers, to work together to reduce the number of accidents and fatalities on the
country's roads.

Main Reasons for Unsafe Roads: Several factors contribute to the unsafe roads in India. These
include inadequate road infrastructure, poorly designed roads, lack of pedestrian facilities,
inadequate enforcement of traffic laws, inadequate driver training and licensing, lack of awareness
about road safety, and non-compliance with vehicle safety standards.
Lessons to be learned from Actions Taken in Other Countries: Several countries around the world
have successfully reduced road traffic accidents and improved road safety through comprehensive
measures. For example, countries like Sweden, the UK, the Netherlands, Japan, the USA,
Australia, and New Zealand have adopted a multi-sectoral approach to road safety, which includes
strong road infrastructure, safe vehicle standards, and strict enforcement of traffic laws, public
awareness campaigns, and efficient emergency medical services. Lessons can be learned from their
experiences in implementing effective road safety strategies, including improving road design,
promoting responsible road user behavior, ensuring safe vehicles, and implementing strict
enforcement mechanisms.
Road Safety scenario in the world:
 Global Road Traffic Deaths: According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
approximately 1.35 million people die each year in road traffic crashes, making it a leading

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 cause of death globally. Low- and middle-income countries account for more than 90% of
these deaths, with vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists
being at higher risk.
 Regional Disparities: There are significant regional disparities in road traffic deaths. Africa
has the highest road traffic fatality rate at 26.6 deaths per 100,000 population, followed by
Southeast Asia at 20.7 deaths per 100,000 population, compared to Europe at 9.3 deaths
per 100,000 population.
 Impact of Speeding: Speeding is a major risk factor for road traffic crashes. WHO estimates
that for every 1% increase in speed, there is a 4% increase in the risk of a fatal crash. Yet,
many countries lack effective speed management measures, leading to preventable crashes
and fatalities.
 Vulnerable Road Users: Vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians and cyclists, are at
higher risk of road traffic crashes. WHO estimates that pedestrians and cyclists account for
26% of global road traffic deaths. Lack of adequate infrastructure, such as sidewalks,
crosswalks, and cycling lanes, contributes to their vulnerability.
 Distracted Driving: Distracted driving, including the use of mobile phones while driving,
is a growing concern. WHO estimates that using a mobile phone while driving increases
the risk of a crash by four times. Despite awareness campaigns, distracted driving continues
to be a significant challenge to road safety.
 Alcohol and Drug Impairment: Alcohol and drug impairment continue to be major risk
factors for road traffic crashes. WHO estimates that globally, about 29% of road traffic
deaths are attributed to alcohol impairment. Effective enforcement of laws related to
impaired driving, along with education and awareness campaigns, are crucial to addressing
this issue.
 Seat Belt and Helmet Use: Proper use of seat belts and helmets can significantly reduce the
risk of fatal injuries in road traffic crashes. However, many countries still have low rates
of seat belt and helmet use, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, leading to
preventable deaths and injuries.
 Road Infrastructure: Safe road infrastructure plays a critical role in preventing road traffic
crashes. Lack of proper road design, maintenance, and safety features, such as guardrails
and pedestrian facilities, can increase the risk of crashes. Investing in safe road
infrastructure is essential to improving road safety.
 Road Safety Policies and Interventions: Many countries have implemented road safety
policies and interventions to reduce road traffic crashes and fatalities. These include
measures such as speed limits, traffic enforcement, public awareness campaigns, and road
safety education. However, there is a need for sustained efforts and multi sectoral
collaboration to address the road safety challenges effectively.
 Importance of Road Safety Engineering: Road safety engineering plays a crucial role in
designing, implementing, and managing road safety measures. It involves identifying and
mitigating road safety risks through measures such as road design improvements, traffic
management, and safety audits. Road safety engineering can significantly contribute to
reducing road traffic crashes and saving lives.
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 Traffic Safety Analysis
Basic characteristics of Motor-Vehicle:
Broadly two types of vehicular categories are there:
1. Static characteristics: These are the characteristics of vehicles observed when the vehicle
is in the static state.
2. Dynamic characteristics: These are the characteristics of vehicles observed when the
vehicle is in the motion.

Motor-vehicle characteristics include dimensions, weight, and speed limits. In this article, we will
discuss these characteristics in detail.
1. Dimensions: MoRTH has set certain limits on the dimensions of motor-vehicles to ensure
that they can move smoothly on roads without causing any inconvenience to other road
users. The following are the maximum dimensions allowed for different categories of
vehicles:
 Length: 18.75 meters for single-unit vehicles and 25 meters for articulated vehicles
 Width: 2.6 meters for all vehicles
 Height: 4.3 meters for all vehicles
2. Weight: The weight of a vehicle plays a crucial role in determining its stability and
maneuverability on the road. MoRTH has set the following weight limits for different
categories of vehicles:
 Maximum permissible weight for a single-axle vehicle: 7.5 tonnes
 Maximum permissible weight for a two-axle vehicle: 18.5 tonnes
 Maximum permissible weight for a three-axle vehicle: 28 tonnes
 Maximum permissible weight for a four-axle vehicle: 36 tonnes
 Maximum permissible weight for a five-axle vehicle: 45 tonnes
 Maximum permissible weight for a six-axle vehicle: 75 tonnes
3. Speed Limits: Speed limits are an important factor in ensuring road safety. The following
are the maximum permissible speed limits for different categories of vehicles:
 Cars and other light motor-vehicles: 70 km/h in urban areas and 100 km/h on
highways.
 Medium and heavy vehicles: 60 km/h in urban areas and 80 km/h on highways
 Trucks, trailers, and buses: 50 km/h in urban areas and 70 km/h on highways
In addition to the above characteristics, MoRTH also specifies the safety features that must
be present in motor-vehicles, such as seat belts, airbags, and anti-lock braking systems (ABS).

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Basic characteristics of Driver:

These driver characteristics include:

1. Visual Acuity: The driver should have a minimum visual acuity of 6/12 in the better eye
without correction. If correction is required, the visual acuity should be at least 6/6 with
corrective lenses.
2. Field of Vision: The driver should have a field of vision of at least 120 degrees horizontally
and 40 degrees vertically.
3. Reaction Time: The driver should have a reaction time of less than one second. This means
that the driver should be able to react to a stimulus within one second of its occurrence.

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 4. Hearing Acuity: The driver should have a hearing acuity of at least 6/9 in the better ear
without correction. If correction is required, the hearing acuity should be at least 6/6 with
corrective aids.
5. Physical Fitness: The driver should be physically fit and should not suffer from any medical
condition that can affect his or her ability to drive safely.
6. Knowledge of Traffic Rules: The driver should have a good knowledge of traffic rules and
should be able to understand and follow traffic signs and signals.
7. Skill in Driving: The driver should have the necessary skills to handle the vehicle and
should be able to operate it safely in different traffic conditions.
These characteristics are essential for safe driving, and any deficiency in any of these areas can
lead to accidents on the road. To ensure that drivers meet these requirements, MoRTH has set
certain standards for driver testing and licensing. For example, the visual acuity of the driver is
tested using a Snellen chart, and the reaction time is tested using a standard reaction time test.

Stopping Sight Distance:

Stopping sight distance refers to the minimum distance required by a driver to stop their vehicle
after they have spotted an obstacle or hazard on the road ahead. This distance is influenced by
several factors, including the speed of the vehicle, the reaction time of the driver, and the braking
ability of the vehicle.
The formula for calculating stopping sight distance (SSD) is:
SSD = (V²/2gf) + Vt
Where:
V = design speed of the road in km/h
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)

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f = coefficient of friction between the tires and road surface (typically assumed to be 0.4 for dry
conditions)
t = driver's perception and reaction time (usually assumed to be 2.5 seconds)

Example problem: Suppose we want to calculate the stopping sight distance for a road with a
design speed of 80 km/h. Assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.4 and a driver's perception and
reaction time of 2.5 seconds, what is the stopping sight distance?

Using the formula, we have:

SSD = (V²/2gf) + Vt
SSD = [(80 km/h)² / (2 × 9.81 m/s² × 0.4)] + (80 km/h × 2.5 s)
SSD = 92.8 meters + 200 meters
SSD = 292.8 meters
Therefore, the stopping sight distance for this road is 292.8 meters. This means that a driver
traveling at 80 km/h will need at least 292.8 meters of clear sight distance to be able to stop
safely in case of an emergency.
Intermediate sight distance refers to the minimum distance required for a driver to see and safely
react to an object or obstruction in the road ahead. This distance is typically measured in feet or
meters and is dependent on factors such as the speed limit, road conditions, and the height of the
driver's eye above the road surface. Intermediate sight distance is essential for ensuring safe
driving, particularly in areas where there are curves or hills that limit visibility.

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Overtaking sight distance, on the other hand, is the minimum distance required for a driver to
safely overtake a slower vehicle without causing a collision with oncoming traffic. This distance
is calculated based on the speed of the overtaking vehicle, the speed of oncoming traffic, and the
time required for the overtaking vehicle to safely complete the maneuver. Overtaking sight
distance is crucial for avoiding head-on collisions and other types of accidents that can result from
unsafe passing maneuvers.
In general, it is important for drivers to be aware of both intermediate and overtaking sight
distances, and to adjust their driving behavior accordingly to ensure their safety and the safety of
other road users.

Basic Characteristics of Traffic:

Traffic characteristics are essential to consider in the design and operation of roads, highways, and
other transportation systems. Details are as follows:
1. Volume: Volume of traffic refers to the number of vehicles passing a particular point on a
road during a specific period. It is expressed in terms of vehicles per hour (vph) or vehicles
per day (vpd). The volume of traffic determines the capacity of the road, and it is essential
to design and manage roads to accommodate the projected traffic volume.

2. Speed: The speed of traffic is the rate at which vehicles travel on a particular road. It is
expressed in km/hour or miles/hour. The speed of traffic depends on several factors,

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 including the type of road, the volume of traffic, the geometric design of the road, and
weather conditions. The speed of traffic is an important determinant of road safety, as
higher speeds increase the risk of accidents and their severity.

3. Density: The density of traffic refers to the number of vehicles occupying a specific length
of the road. It is expressed in terms of vehicles per km. The density of traffic affects the
flow of traffic, and higher density results in slower traffic speeds and increased congestion.

4. Composition: The composition of traffic refers to the types of vehicles on the road,
including cars, buses, trucks, two-wheelers, and pedestrians. The composition of traffic
affects the design and operation of roads, as different types of vehicles have different needs
and requirements.

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 5. Flow: The flow of traffic refers to the rate at which vehicles move past a particular point
on a road. It is expressed in terms of vehicles per hour (vph) or vehicles per day (vpd). The
flow of traffic is affected by the volume, speed, and density of traffic.
6. Accidents: Accidents are an important characteristic of traffic, as they can cause injury or
loss of life, damage to vehicles and property, and economic losses. The frequency and
severity of accidents are affected by several factors, including road design, vehicle speed,
driver behavior, and weather conditions.

Highway Capacity:
Highway capacity refers to the maximum number of vehicles that can travel on a highway
during a given time period, while maintaining an acceptable level of service. It is expressed in
terms of the number of vehicles per hour that can pass through a given section of the road. The
capacity of a highway is affected by several factors, such as the number of lanes, the width of the
lanes, the presence of intersections, and the characteristics of the traffic flow.
The level of service is a measure of the quality of traffic flow on a highway, based on
several performance indicators, such as speed, travel time, and delay. The level of service is
expressed on a scale from A to F, with A being the highest level of service and F being the lowest.
The level of service is determined based on the speed, density, and flow rate of traffic on the
highway.
MoRTH has established guidelines for determining the capacity and level of service of
highways, based on the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) developed by the Transportation
Research Board (TRB) of the United States. According to these guidelines, the capacity of a two-
lane highway with a width of 7.0 meters and no shoulder is 900 vehicles per hour, while the
capacity of a four-lane divided highway with a width of 24.0 meters and a 3.0 meter shoulder is
3,600 vehicles per hour.
The Indian Road Congress has also established guidelines for determining the capacity and
level of service of highways, based on the Indian Roads Congress Capacity Guide (IRCCG).
According to these guidelines, the capacity of a two-lane highway with a width of 7.0 meters and
no shoulder is 1,500 vehicles per hour, while the capacity of a four-lane divided highway with a
width of 24.0 meters and a 3.0 meter shoulder is 6,000 vehicles per hour.
In addition to these guidelines, several factors can affect the capacity and level of service
of highways, such as the presence of heavy vehicles, the occurrence of accidents, and the level of
maintenance of the road infrastructure. Therefore, it is important for road safety engineers to
conduct regular assessments of highway capacity and level of service, in order to identify areas
where improvements can be made to enhance the safety and efficiency of the road network.

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Applications of Traffic Control Devices:
Traffic control devices are essential elements of road safety engineering that help regulate, guide,
and control the movement of vehicular and pedestrian traffic on roads. Here is a detailed note on
various traffic control devices:
1. Traffic Signals: Traffic signals are used to regulate the movement of vehicular and
pedestrian traffic at intersections, crossroads, and other locations where traffic volumes are
high. MoRTH and IRC recommend the use of three-phase traffic signals, which have green,
yellow, and red lights. The green light indicates the go-ahead, yellow light indicates
caution, and red light indicates stop. The duration of each phase depends on the traffic
volume and the time of day.

2. Speed Breakers: Speed breakers, also known as speed bumps, are used to slow down
vehicles at specific locations, such as schools, hospitals, residential areas, and other
sensitive locations. IRC recommend the use of standard size and shape of speed breakers,
with a maximum height of 100mm and a length of 3-4 meters.

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3. Road Markings: Road markings are used to guide vehicular traffic and indicate the
permissible speed, lane allocation, and other traffic rules. MoRTH and IRC recommend
the use of thermoplastic paint for road markings, which provides good visibility and
durability. The minimum width of lane marking is 100mm, while the width of center lines
should be at least 150mm.

4. Signages: Signages are used to convey essential information to drivers and pedestrians
about the road ahead, such as speed limits, lane directions, parking restrictions, and other
traffic rules. MoRTH and IRC recommend the use of reflective sheeting for signages,
which provides better visibility during night-time. The height and size of the signboards
depend on their location and the speed limit of the road.

5. Pedestrian Crossing: Pedestrian crossings are used to allow pedestrians to cross the road
safely. MoRTH and IRC recommend the use of zebra crossings, which have white stripes
across the road surface. The width of the stripes should be at least 300mm, and the gap
between them should not exceed 600mm. Pedestrian crossings should be marked with
adequate signage and lighting for better visibility.

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 Traffic control devices play a crucial role in ensuring road safety and reducing accidents. It is
essential to follow the guidelines and standards set by MoRTH while designing, installing, and
using these devices on Indian roads. Proper implementation and maintenance of these devices can
significantly improve road safety and reduce fatalities.

Design of Parking Facilities:

MoRTH has developed guidelines for the design of parking facilities that prioritize road safety.
These guidelines are meant to ensure that parking facilities are designed to minimize the risk of
accidents and injuries, while also promoting efficient use of space.
1. Design Standards: The guidelines specify the minimum dimensions for different types of
parking spaces. For example, a standard car parking space should be at least 2.4 meters
wide and 5 meters long, while a truck parking space should be at least 3.5 meters wide and
10 meters long. In addition, the guidelines specify the minimum height clearance for
parking structures, which is usually 2.1 meters.
2. Location: Parking facilities should be located in areas that are easily accessible and visible
to drivers. The guidelines recommend that parking facilities be located near the main
entrance of a building, and that they be clearly marked with signs and pavement markings.
3. Lighting: Proper lighting is essential for parking facilities, both for visibility and security
reasons. The guidelines recommend that parking facilities be well-lit with high-quality
lighting fixtures that provide even illumination throughout the parking area.
4. Traffic Flow: Efficient traffic flow is important for reducing the risk of accidents and
minimizing congestion. The guidelines recommend that parking facilities be designed with
one-way traffic flow, with clear signage and pavement markings to guide drivers.
5. Pedestrian Safety: Pedestrian safety is another important consideration in parking facility
design. The guidelines recommend that pedestrian paths be clearly marked and separated
from vehicle traffic, and that they be well-lit with high-quality lighting fixtures.

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 6. Drainage: Proper drainage is essential for parking facilities, as it helps to prevent flooding
and erosion. The guidelines recommend that parking facilities be designed with appropriate
drainage systems, such as swales and storm water retention basins.
7. Accessibility: Parking facilities should be designed to be accessible to people with
disabilities. The guidelines recommend that a minimum number of parking spaces be
designated for people with disabilities, and that these spaces be located near the main
entrance of a building.
8. Security: Security is also an important consideration in parking facility design. The
guidelines recommend that parking facilities be equipped with surveillance cameras, and
that they be monitored by security personnel.
9. Maintenance: Regular maintenance is essential for ensuring the safety and usability of
parking facilities. The guidelines recommend that parking facilities be regularly inspected
and maintained, with repairs and upgrades made as needed.
MoRTH has developed comprehensive guidelines for the design of parking facilities that prioritize
road safety. These guidelines provide a framework for designing parking facilities that minimize
the risk of accidents and injuries, while also promoting efficient use of space. By following these
guidelines, designers and engineers can help to create safe, functional, and accessible parking
facilities that meet the needs of drivers and pedestrians alike.

Types of parking:
The MoRTH in India has classified parking into four types: on-street parking, off-street parking,
multi-level parking, and automated parking. Here is a detailed note on each type of parking:
1. On-street Parking: On-street parking refers to parking facilities provided on public roads,
where vehicles are parked parallel to the curb or at an angle to the direction of traffic. On-
street parking can be free or paid, and the fees may be collected by the local municipality
or a private operator. This type of parking is suitable for short-term parking and is typically
used for shopping, dining, or other activities that require quick access to businesses and
services.

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 2. Off-street Parking: Off-street parking refers to parking facilities provided off the public
roads, such as parking lots and garages. Off-street parking is typically provided by private
operators or businesses, and it may be free or paid. This type of parking is suitable for long-
term parking and is typically used by commuters, residents, or visitors who need to park
for an extended period.
3. Multi-level Parking: Multi-level parking refers to parking facilities that are constructed
vertically, with multiple levels of parking spaces. Multi-level parking can be on-street or
off-street and is suitable for areas with limited space. This type of parking is typically used
in densely populated areas such as cities and is designed to accommodate a large number
of vehicles in a small space.
4. Automated Parking: Automated parking refers to parking facilities that use automated
systems to park and retrieve vehicles. Automated parking can be on-street or off-street and
is suitable for areas with limited space. This type of parking is typically used in high-
density areas such as cities and is designed to optimize space utilization and reduce parking
congestion.

Traffic Engineering Studies:

Traffic engineering studies play a crucial role in road safety engineering. These studies involve
analyzing traffic flow and developing solutions to improve the safety and efficiency of roadways.
The goal of traffic engineering studies is to reduce the number of accidents, injuries, and fatalities
on the road.
One important aspect of traffic engineering studies is the analysis of traffic flow. Engineers use
various tools and techniques to gather data on traffic volume, speed, and patterns. This data is then
analyzed to identify problem areas where accidents are likely to occur.
Another important aspect of traffic engineering studies is the design and implementation of traffic
control measures. This includes traffic signals, signs, and markings, as well as speed limits and
other regulations. Traffic engineers must carefully balance the need for safety with the need for
efficient traffic flow.
In addition to these measures, traffic engineering studies also consider the impact of road design
on safety. This includes the layout of intersections, the design of medians and barriers, and the
placement of pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
To conduct traffic engineering studies, engineers use a variety of tools and techniques. This
includes traffic simulation software, traffic cameras, and traffic counters. They also work closely
with local government agencies, law enforcement, and community groups to gather feedback and
identify areas for improvement.

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Overall, traffic engineering studies are essential to road safety engineering. By analyzing traffic
flow, designing and implementing traffic control measures, and considering the impact of road
design on safety, traffic engineers can help reduce the number of accidents, injuries, and fatalities
on our roadways.

Statistical methods used in road safety analysis:

1. Descriptive statistics: This method involves the use of summary statistics such as mean,
median, mode, standard deviation, and percentiles to describe the characteristics of traffic
safety data. This method helps to identify patterns and trends in the data.
2. Inferential statistics: This method involves making inferences about the population based
on a sample of data. This method includes hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and
regression analysis.
3. Time series analysis: This method involves the analysis of data collected over time to
identify trends and patterns. Time series analysis is used to predict future trends and can
help in identifying seasonal patterns in traffic safety data.
4. Cluster analysis: This method involves grouping similar data points into clusters. This
method is useful for identifying clusters of high accident areas, which can help in
developing targeted interventions to improve traffic safety.
5. Spatial analysis: This method involves the analysis of traffic safety data in a spatial context.
This method includes mapping and spatial regression analysis. Mapping can help in
identifying spatial patterns of traffic accidents, and spatial regression analysis can help in
identifying the factors that contribute to accidents in specific areas.
6. Multivariate analysis: This method involves the analysis of multiple variables
simultaneously. This method is useful for identifying the factors that contribute to traffic
accidents and for predicting the likelihood of future accidents based on these factors.
Multivariate analysis includes techniques such as factor analysis and principal component
analysis.

Regression Method:
Regression methods are commonly used in road safety analysis to model the relationship
between various factors and road safety outcomes. In particular, multiple regression analysis is
frequently employed to identify the key factors that influence crash frequency or severity.
The regression method involves estimating a linear or non-linear model that can explain the
variation in the response variable (such as the number of crashes) using one or more predictor
variables (such as traffic volume, speed limit, road width, etc.). The regression coefficients provide
an estimate of the impact of each predictor variable on the response variable.

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Regression analysis can be used to identify which factors have the greatest impact on road safety
and to quantify the relationship between these factors and crash frequency or severity. This
information can be used to develop interventions and countermeasures that address the specific
risk factors in a particular area.
However, it is important to note that regression analysis does not establish causality. Other
methods, such as randomized controlled trials, are necessary to establish causal relationships
between interventions and road safety outcomes.

Regression method steps:

Regression analysis is a statistical method commonly used in road safety analysis to identify
relationships between different variables and predict outcomes. The following are the steps
involved in regression analysis in road safety analysis:
1. Identify the problem: The first step in regression analysis is to identify the problem you
want to solve. This could be anything from predicting the number of accidents on a
particular road to identifying factors that contribute to accidents.
2. Gather data: Once you have identified the problem, you need to gather data related to the
variables that could be affecting the outcome. This could include information on road
geometry, traffic volume, weather conditions, and other relevant factors.
3. Analyze the data: The next step is to analyze the data using regression analysis. This
involves fitting a regression model to the data to identify relationships between different
variables and estimate the effect of each variable on the outcome.
4. Validate the model: After fitting the model, it is important to validate its accuracy by
comparing its predictions to actual outcomes. This can be done by comparing the predicted
number of accidents to the actual number of accidents for a given period.
5. Interpret the results: Once the model has been validated, the results can be interpreted to
identify the factors that are most strongly associated with the outcome. This can help in
developing targeted interventions to improve road safety.
6. Communicate the findings: Finally, the findings of the regression analysis should be
communicated to relevant stakeholders, such as policy-makers, road engineers, and law
enforcement officials, to inform decision-making and improve road safety.

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Poisson distribution:
The Poisson distribution is a statistical model that is often used in road safety analysis to
describe the probability of rare events, such as the occurrence of accidents or crashes on a road
segment.
In road safety analysis, the Poisson distribution is used to model the number of accidents that occur
in a given time period, given a certain level of traffic and other relevant factors. This model
assumes that accidents occur randomly and independently of each other, and that the probability
of an accident occurring is constant over time and across different road segments.
The Poisson distribution can be used to calculate the expected number of accidents in a given time
period, and to determine whether the actual number of accidents observed is significantly higher
or lower than expected. This can help identify areas where additional safety measures may be
needed.
Overall, the Poisson distribution is a useful tool in road safety analysis for predicting and analyzing
accident rates, and can help inform decisions related to road design, traffic management, and other
safety interventions.

Steps in Poisson distribution:

Poisson distribution is often used in road safety analysis to model the number of accidents that
occur on a road segment or at an intersection. The following are the steps involved in using Poisson
distribution in road safety analysis:
1. Define the study area: The first step in using Poisson distribution is to define the study area,
which could be a road segment or an intersection. This step involves identifying the
boundaries of the study area and the time period over which the accidents will be analyzed.
2. Collect data: The next step is to collect data on the number of accidents that have occurred
in the study area over the specified time period. This data should include the location, time,
and type of accident.
3. Calculate the mean: Once the data has been collected, the mean number of accidents per
unit of time (e.g., per month or per year) is calculated. This is done by dividing the total
number of accidents by the length of the time period.
4. Verify the assumptions: Poisson distribution assumes that the accidents are independent
events and that the mean number of accidents is constant over time. These assumptions
should be verified before proceeding with the analysis.
5. Fit the Poisson distribution: The next step is to fit the Poisson distribution to the data. This
involves calculating the probability of observing a certain number of accidents given the
mean number of accidents.
6. Analyze the results: Once the Poisson distribution has been fitted to the data, the results
can be analyzed to determine the probability of observing a certain number of accidents in

20 OE821CE: Road Safety Engineering

 the study area over a specified time period. This information can be used to identify areas
that are at a higher risk for accidents and to develop strategies for reducing the number of
accidents in those areas.

Chi-Square distribution:
The Chi-square distribution is a statistical distribution commonly used in road safety
analysis to test the significance of observed differences between expected and observed crash
frequencies. In road safety, it is often used to evaluate the effectiveness of safety interventions
such as road engineering improvements or traffic law enforcement.
The chi-square distribution is based on the chi-square test, which is used to compare two
categorical variables. In road safety analysis, these variables might include the number of crashes
that occurred at a particular location or on a specific roadway segment and the expected number
of crashes based on historical crash data or other factors.
The chi-square distribution provides a way to calculate the probability of observing a particular
difference between the expected and observed crash frequencies if there is no true difference
between them. This probability is known as the p-value, and if it is sufficiently small, it is
considered evidence that the observed difference is statistically significant.
In road safety analysis, the chi-square distribution can be used to identify locations or roadway
segments that have a higher than expected number of crashes, which can then be targeted for safety
improvements. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of safety interventions by
comparing crash frequencies before and after the intervention and using the chi-square test to
determine if any observed differences are statistically significant.

Steps in Chi-Square distribution:

The chi-square distribution is commonly used in road safety analysis to determine whether there
is a significant difference between observed and expected crash counts. The following are the steps
involved in conducting a chi-square analysis for road safety:
1. Determine the expected crash counts: The expected crash counts are calculated based on
the historical data of crash counts and traffic volume.

21 OE821CE: Road Safety Engineering

 2. Determine the observed crash counts: The observed crash counts are obtained from the
actual crash data.
3. Calculate the chi-square statistic: The chi-square statistic is calculated by summing the
squared differences between the observed and expected crash counts, divided by the
expected crash counts.
4. Determine the degrees of freedom: The degrees of freedom are calculated by subtracting 1
from the number of categories (e.g., the number of roadway segments or the number of
time periods) used in the analysis.
5. Determine the critical value: The critical value is obtained from a chi-square distribution
table using the degrees of freedom and the desired level of significance (e.g., 0.05 or 0.01).
6. Compare the calculated chi-square statistic with the critical value: If the calculated chi-
square statistic is greater than the critical value, the difference between the observed and
expected crash counts is considered significant.
7. Interpret the results: The results of the chi-square analysis can be used to identify high-risk
locations or time periods and to develop effective countermeasures to improve road safety.

Statistical Comparison:
In road safety analysis, statistical comparison is a valuable tool used to identify and analyze
differences in crash data. Here are some short notes on statistical comparison in road safety
analysis:
1. Types of statistical tests: There are various statistical tests that can be used to compare
crash data, such as t-tests, chi-square tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. The choice
of test depends on the type of data and research question being investigated.
2. Data requirements: Statistical tests require large enough sample sizes to ensure that the
results are reliable and accurate. Additionally, the data must be representative of the
population being studied and must meet certain assumptions for the chosen statistical test.

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 3. Comparing crash data: Statistical comparison can be used to analyze differences in crash
data between different geographic regions, time periods, or demographic groups. This
information can help identify high-risk areas and populations that require targeted safety
interventions.
4. Limitations: It is important to recognize the limitations of statistical comparison in road
safety analysis. For example, statistical tests can only identify correlations, not causation.
Additionally, the results may be influenced by other factors not accounted for in the
analysis.
Overall, statistical comparison is a powerful tool for analyzing crash data in road safety analysis.
However, it is important to use appropriate statistical tests and to interpret the results carefully,
taking into account the limitations of the analysis.

23 OE821CE: Road Safety Engineering

 Question Bank
Short answer questions:
1. What is the current road safety scenario in India?
2. How does the road safety scenario in India compare to the rest of the world?
3. What are the characteristics of road accidents?
4. What are the fundamentals of traffic engineering?
5. Name one basic characteristic of motor-vehicle traffic.
6. What is highway capacity in traffic engineering?
7. What are traffic control devices and their applications in road safety?
8. What is the design of parking facilities in traffic engineering?
9. What are traffic engineering studies and their purpose in road safety?
10. What is regression analysis in statistical methods for traffic safety analysis?
11. Define Poisson distribution and its relevance in traffic safety analysis.
12. What is the significance of Chi-Squared distribution in traffic safety analysis?
13. What are statistical methods used for comparing road safety data?
14. Explain the concept of statistical comparisons in traffic safety analysis.
15. Name one statistical method used to analyze traffic safety data.

Long answer questions:

1. Discuss the current road safety scenario in India, including key challenges and initiatives
for improving road safety.
2. Compare and contrast the road safety scenario in India with the rest of the world,
highlighting similarities and differences.
3. Describe the characteristics of road accidents, including common contributing factors and
types of crashes.
4. Explain the fundamentals of traffic engineering, including key principles, concepts, and
applications in road safety.
5. Discuss the basic characteristics of motor-vehicle traffic, including traffic flow parameters
and their significance in road safety.
6. Explain the concept of highway capacity in traffic engineering and its importance in
ensuring safe and efficient traffic flow.
7. Discuss the applications of traffic control devices in road safety, including their types,
placement, and effectiveness.
8. Describe the design considerations for parking facilities in traffic engineering, including
safety features and accessibility requirements.
9. Discuss the different types of traffic engineering studies conducted for analyzing road
safety data and their role in informing safety measures.

24 OE821CE: Road Safety Engineering

10. Explain the regression analysis method in statistical methods for traffic safety analysis,
including its applications and limitations.
11. Describe the Poisson distribution and its relevance in analyzing traffic safety data,
including crash frequency modeling.
12. Discuss the significance of Chi-Squared distribution in traffic safety analysis, including its
use for testing hypotheses and analyzing categorical data.
13. Explain the concept of statistical comparisons in traffic safety analysis, including different
methods used for comparing road safety data.
14. Discuss the statistical methods used for comparing road safety data, including their
applications and interpretation.
15. Describe how statistical methods are used in traffic safety analysis, including their role in
identifying trends, patterns, and evaluating the effectiveness of safety measures.

25 OE821CE: Road Safety Engineering