Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–1 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

1 Society State & Polity

in India

CONTENTS
Part-1 : State in Ancient India : .......................... 1–2Q to 1–4Q
Evolutionary Theory,
Force theory, Mystical
Theory, Contract Theory,
Stages of State Formation
in Ancient India

Part-2 : Kingship, Council of Ministers, ........... 1–5Q to 1–10Q

Administration, Political Ideals
in Ancient India, Conditions
of the Welfare of Societies, the
Seven Limbs of the State

Part-3 : Society in Ancient India, .................... 1–10Q to 1–18Q

Purusartha, Varnashrama
System, Ashrama or the
Stages of Life, Marriage,
Understanding Gender
as a Social Category, the
Representation of Women
in Historical Traditions,
Challenges Faced by Women,
Four-class Classification, Slavery
Society State & Polity in India 1–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

PART-1
State in Ancient India : Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical
Theory, Contract theory, Stages of state formation in ancient India.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Give an account into the origin and evolution of the
state in ancient India.
OR
Write a short note on : Evolutionary theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Force theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Mystical theory.
OR
Write a short note on : Contract theory.

Answer
1. To look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the
greatest issues in political science.
2. Ancient Indian thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya,
Kamandaka also have looked at the problem.
3. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect following 4
important theories regarding the origin of the state in ancient India :
A. Evolutionary theory :
1. This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been
mentioned in the Atharva Veda.
2. According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress
and it didn’t originate at a fixed time.
3. On the basis of Atharva Veda several stages of the evolution of the state
can be traced.
4. According to Atharva Veda the earliest phase of human life was the
stage of vairajya or stateless state. It was a state of complete anarchy.
5. Subsequently, with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became
possible.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–3 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

6. To fulfill the needs of agricultural society the family emerged and the
head of the family became the first wielder of authority.
7. Further, the need of co-operation in the different realms of society led
to the emergence of sabha and samiti.
8. With the emergence of sabha and samiti organised political life began
which finally culminated in the emergence of the state.
B. Force theory :
1. Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory
in a systematic way, force was considered to be an important factor in
the evolution of the state in India.
2. Earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (especially
for the cow), pastureland, settlements and sources of drinking water.
3. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such wars. So he
was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him.
4. This tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the
leader became king.
C. Mystical theory :
1. This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India.
2. Kingship was given divine sanction and the king was considered not to
be the representative of God but himself a God.
3. It appears first in the epics and the law books of Manu, the king was
exalted far above ordinary mortals, through the magical powers of the
great royal sacrifices.
4. The magical power which pervaded the king at his consecration was
restored and strengthened in the course of his reign by further rites,
such as the ceremonial rejuvenation of the Vajapeya and the horse-
sacrifice (Asvamedha).
5. The viewpoint which supports the theory of divine origin of state in
ancient India has been widely criticised by Western as well as Indian
scholars.
D. Contract theory :
1. Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of
the state in ancient India.
2. The reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist and
brahmanical texts and Arthashastra of Kautilya.
3. Many scholars accept only the Buddhist sources as the authentic source
of contract theory.
4. According to them the brahmanical texts have a mixture of contract and
divine origin whereas Buddhist sources give a clear cut account of
contract theory.
Society State & Polity in India 1–4 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. Also in the Arthashastra contractual origin of kingship is not intended

to impose limitations on royal power. On the contrary, the obligation put
upon the people are burdensome and are designed to strengthen royal
authority.
6. This point is clearly brought out towards the close of the passage which
describes the contract theory of the origin of kingship.
7. It is argued that the king, who assures security and well-being to his
subjects by eliminating wrongful acts through coercion and taxes should
never be disregarded.
8. Hence Kautilya’s contract theory is purported to buttress royal power.

Que 1.2. Describe the stages of state formation in ancient India.

Answer
1. Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified.
2. The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal
assemblies, which had some place for women were mainly pre-occupied
with war. The age of Rig Veda was primarily a period of assemblies.
3. The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress
of constant conflicts between the rajanyakshatriya and the ordinary
businessman called the vis. The chiefs were helped by the priesthood
called the brahmins. This stage saw the beginning of taxes and classes or
varnas which came to be firmly established in the third stage.
4. The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged
state. There arose large territorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha
and tribal oligarchies in North-Western India and at the foot of the
Himalayas. For the first time large standing armies and organised
machinery were used for the collection of land revenue.
5. The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralisation
based on the expanding economic activities of the state. The state with
the help of its bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its
subjects.
6. The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralised
administration in which towns, feudatories and military elements came
to the forefront in both the Deccan and North India. This was partly
neutralised by the emphasis on the divinity of the king.
7. The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the
period of proto-feudal polity. Land grants now played an important
part in the formation of the political structure and those made by the
Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal and administrative privileges on
priestly beneficiaries.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–5 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

PART-2
Kingship, Council of Ministers, Administration, Political Ideals in
Ancient India, Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies, the
Seven Limbs of the State.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.3. Describe Kingship in ancient India.

Answer
1. The king was the most important figure in the body politic.
2. In the Saptanga theory of the state, developed by Kautilya the king has
been described as the head or the most important organ of the state.
3. The king’s functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom
against external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional
custom against internal foes.
4. He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who
challenged the system were excommunicated.
5. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring the
fair inheritance of family property. He protected widows and orphans by
making them his wards.
6. He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he
protected the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and oppression.
7. Religion was protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples
and frequently to heterodox sects also.
8. The ideal set before the king was one of energetic beneficence.
9. The Arthashastra puts forward the kingly duty in simple and forceful
language, setting an ideal which few ancient civilizations can boast of.
10. The ideal before the king in ancient India was that of being a chakravarti
meaning a king who ruled over the united vast territory of the Indian
subcontinent.
11. With the Mauryas this possibility was substantially realised, and was
incorporated into the Buddhist tradition and blended with later Vedic
imperialist ideas, then taken over by orthodox Hinduism.
Society State & Polity in India 1–6 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

12. The concept of the universal emperor was also known to the Jainas, and
in the epics numerous kings of legend, such as Yudhisthira and Rama,
are said to have been digvijayins or conquerors of all the four quarters.
13. The universal emperor was a divinely ordained figure with a special
place in the cosmic scheme, and as such was exalted to semi-divine
status.

Que 1.4. Write a short note on : Council of Ministers.

Answer
1. Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient Indian
political thinkers as a very vital organ of the body politic.
2. The Ministerial Council was the chief administrative authority in the
kingdom. The king was supposed not to do anything without the consent
of the council.
3. Only men who possessed wisdom, purity of purpose, bravery and loyalty
were appointed as ministers. These ministers were no yes-men but
known for their integrity, leadership qualities and concern for the welfare
of the kingdom.
4. The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied in the
figures ranging from seven to thirty-seven.
5. The body was divided into two parts mantrina and mantriparishad.
6. Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of
ministers. It consisted of all the ministers.
7. Mantrina was a smaller body or a core organisation within the
mantriparishad largely resembling the modern cabinet.
8. It included the few most important ministers like the purohita (priest),
senapati (supreme commander of army) and yuvaraja (the crown prince).
9. During the Mauryan period, the council’s purpose was primarily to advise
the king, and not to govern, but it was no mere rubber stamping body.
10. In fact, the council often exerted great powers. It might transact business
in the king’s absence.

Que 1.5. Give an account on administration in ancient India.

Answer
1. With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India,
bureaucracy developed as a well organised, hierarchical, cadre-based
administrative system.
2. This establishment of a large and complex bureaucracy was a
remarkable feature of the Mauryan government.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–7 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are probably

called mahamatras or high functionaries.
4. In addition to the 18 trithas Kautilya provides in some detail accounts
of 27 superintendents (adhyaksas) concerned mostly with economic
functions and some military duties.
5. The Mauryas developed a well organised bureaucracy. With the help
of this centralised bureaucratic structure not only did the government
regulate the economic life of the country, but it also took an important
part in it.
6. All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by
the state, and were either worked directly with the labour of criminals
or serfs, or let out to entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a
percentage of their output as royalty.

Que 1.6. Write a short note on : Political ideas in ancient India.

Answer
1. Though India had no formal political philosophy, the science of
statecraft was much cultivated and a number of important textbooks
on this topic have survived.
2. In ancient India the political science was known by several terms like
the Rajadharma, Rajyasastra, Dandniti, Nitisastra and Arthasastra.
3. Monarchy was the normal form of the state and the science of politics
and government was therefore naturally called Rajadharma (duties of
the king) or Rajyasastra (science of the state).
4. Dandaniti explain that the ultimate sanction behind the state is force.
If it is not used, the alternative is the law of the jungle (matsyanyaya).
5. It is Danda (physical force or physical punishment) which rules over all
the subjects, it is Danda which protects them; when all else are sleeping,
Danda keeps awake; law is nothing but Danda itself. But it should be
wielded with discretion.
6. In Nitishastra, the term Niti is derived from the root ni meaning to
lead; Niti therefore means proper guidance or direction.
7. It was held that this would become possible by following ethical course
of conduct. Therefore one connotation of the term Nitishastra was the
science of ethics.
8. Thus it can be said that in the early stages of the development of the
science of polity, it was known as Rajadharma; Dandaniti became a
more popular term later and Arthasastra was suggested as an
alternative to it.
9. In course of time, however, the word Rajniti-sastra, abridged into
Nitisastra and became most popular.
Society State & Polity in India 1–8 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

10. From the Gupta period and the Middle Ages a number of political texts
survive, the most important of which are the Nitisara of Kamandaka,
the Nitivakyamrta of Somadeva Suri, and the Nitisaraattributed to the
ancient sage Shukra, but evidently of later medieval origin.
11. Besides these sources, there is a tremendous amount of Brahmin,
Jaina and Buddhist literature which deals on occasions with the politics
of the time.

Que 1.7. Write a short note on : Conditions of the welfare of

societies.

Answer
1. According to the Hindu thought the purpose of government was not to
legislate, but only to administer the eternal law (sanatana dharma).
2. Buddha adapted the list of following conditions of the welfare of
republics to the circumstances of the Buddhist order :
i. Call frequent public assemblies.
ii. Meet in concord, conclude meetings in concord, and carry out
policies in concord.
iii. Make no laws not already promulgated, and set aside nothing
enacted in the past.
iv. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the elders, and look on it
as a duty to heed their words.
v. No women or girls should be held by force or abducted.
vi. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the shrines, whether in
town or country, and do not neglect the proper offerings and rites
laid down and practised in the past.
vii. Give due protection, deference, and support to the perfected beings
among them so that such perfected beings may come to the land
from afar and live comfortably.

Que 1.8. Write a short note on : Kautilya’s saptanga (The seven

limbs) theory of state.
OR
Write a short note on : The seven limbs of the state.

Answer
Kautilya’s saptanga (seven organs) theory of state illustrates a novel dimension
of state power that dialectically engages artha and dharma respectively.
Kautilya enumerated seven prakritis or essential organs of the state. They
are as follow :
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–9 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

i. Swami (The Ruler) :

1. Swami means the monarch. He should be a native of the soil and born in
a noble family. He should be brave and well learned.
2. He makes all the important appointments and supervises the
government.
3. He has to be virtuous and should treat his subjects like his own children.
4. Kautilya has given extensive powers to the monarch but those powers
are meant for the welfare of them subjects.
ii. Amatya (The Minister) :
1. It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials and
subordinate staffs.
2. They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the
state.
3. Amatya gives suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages
and cities, ensures defense of the state and all other tasks as assigned by
the king.
iii. Janpada (The Population) :
1. It refers to territory and people of the state.
2. The territory of the state should be fertile and should have abundance
of forest, rivers, mountains, minerals, wild life etc. It should have good
climate.
3. People should be loyal to their king, hard working, disciplined, religious,
ready to fight for their motherland, should pay taxes regularly and
happily.
iv. Durga (The Fortified Capital) :
1. The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at
strategic locations for ensuring defense against foreign invasions.
2. Forts should be built near hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and
big water bodies.
3. They garrison soldiers, store food grains for emergency and also serve
as a hideout for the king when his life in danger.
v. Kosha (The Treasury) :
1. Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost impossible to
run it.
2. Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc.
3. The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems.
4. It can be increased through taxation and plundering enemy states in
war.
Society State & Polity in India 1–10 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

vi. Danda (The Army) :

1. The state should have a regular, large, disciplined and well trained
military. It is crucial for the security of the state.
2. The soldiers should be recruited from those families which are
traditionally associated with military.
3. The soldiers should be paid well and their families should be taken care
of in most suitable way.
4. Proper training and equipment should be made available.
5. The king should take care of the soldiers and the soldiers will be ready
to sacrifice even their life for him.
vii. Mitra (Ally and Friend) :
1. The monarch should maintain friendly relationship with traditional
friends of his forefathers. He should also make new friendships.
2. He should send gifts and other pleasantries for his friends.
3. They should be helped in times of emergency. They should be loyal.
4. Friends add to the power of the state.
5. They are also important from foreign trade view point.

PART-3
Society in Ancient India, Purusartha, Varnashrama System,
Ashrama or the Stages of Life, Marriage, Understanding Gender
as a Social Category, the Representation of Women in Historical
Traditions, Challenges Faced by Women, Four-class
Classification, Slavery.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.9. Give a brief account on society in ancient India. Also

explain what do you mean by purusartha ?

Answer
1. Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features. It was
arranged in the form of four varnas.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–11 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. The life of individual was divided into four stages or ashramas. There
were rules regarding marriage, family etc.
3. The purpose of life was to attain four goals called purusarthas.
4. The concept of purusarthas is the fundamental principle of Indian social
ethics.
5. The word purusartha means “attainments” or “life purposes”.
6. The aim of every person is to attain the four noble ends or purusartha.
These four purusarthas are :
A. Dharma :
1. Dharma or the principle of righteousness is considered to be the supreme
of the purusarthas.
2. Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, which connotes to sustain,
support or uphold. Dharma has a wide range of meaning.
3. It is the essential foundation of something or of things in general, and
thus signifies ‘truth’.
4. It is that which is established, customary, proper and therefore, means
‘traditional’ or ceremonial.
5. It is one’s duty, responsibility, imperative and thereby ‘moral obligation’.
6. It is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly ethical.
7. It is that which is required, precepted, or permitted through religious
authority, and thus legal.
8. Hence, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of
the society.
B. Artha :
1. Artha is the second purusartha.
2. The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth. It includes all the
material means of life.
3. Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and
that social well-being depends ultimately on material prosperity.
4. Indian thinkers had recognised the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate
human aspiration. But artha must be acquired by right means.
C. Kama :
1. Kama means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures.
2. It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in human beings.
3. In the narrow sense kama means sexual pleasure but in the wider
sense it involves sexual, emotional and aesthetic life all together.
Society State & Polity in India 1–12 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

D. Moksha :
1. It is the ultimate purusartha.
2. Moksha means salvation or liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
3. It is the summum bonum of human existence.

Que 1.10. Discuss the Varnashrama system of ancient India.

Answer

1. Various texts talk of varnashrmadharma or the dharma of different

classes and dharma in the different stages of life.
2. In ancient India there was a common dharma for all members of society
which must be followed by all equally.
3. At the same time there were different codes of conduct for different
classes or varnas called varna-dharma.
4. First reference of varna is seen in the Rig Veda. According to which
varnas originated from the different organs of the Prajapati or the
creator.
5. This varna hierarchy system was divided as follow :
A. Brahmins :
1. Brahmins were at the top of varna hierarchy.
2. They were believed to possess great spiritual powers. Thus they had a
divine existence.
3. In law, they claimed great privileges. Normally brahmins were exempt
from execution, torture and corporal punishment.
4. The main functions prescribed for brahmins were learning, teaching
and priesthood.
B. Kshatriya :
1. The second class was the ruling class described as kshatriya.
2. Kshatriyas represented heroism, courage and strength. They constituted
the warrior class.
3. The duty of kshatriyas was protection which had both internal and
external aspects.
4. External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion
where as internal protection meant governance in peace and protection
from anarchy.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–13 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. Kshatriyas had the right to possess arms.

C. Vaishyas :
1. Vaishyas represented the trading and commercial class.
2. Though they were entitled to the services of the priesthood and to the
ceremony of yajñopavita, they were third in the social hierarchy.
3. The ideal vaishya possessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals,
cloth, threads, spices, perfumes etc.
4. In this sense vaishyas were the ancient Indian businessmen.
D. Shudras :
1. Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
2. They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas.
3. They were not twice born. They were deprived of various rights.
4. They were in fact second class citizens, on the fringes of Aryan society.

Que 1.11. Discuss ashrama or the stages of life according to

Indian philosophy.

Answer

1. The ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed

in Indian texts of the ancient and medieval eras.
2. The average life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and
it is divided into four stages each stage having a time span of 25 years.
These four ashramas are :
A. Brahmacharyashrama or the Stage of Studentship :
1. This is the first stage of life. It is meant for acquiring knowledge,
developing discipline and moulding character.
2. This stage starts with the ceremony called upanayanama or investiture
with the sacred thread.
3. Now the person became a brahmacharina, leading a celibate and
austere life as a student at the home of his teacher.
B. Grihasthashrama or the Stage of Householder :
1. This stage starts at marriage when the student has completed his
studentship and is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of
household life.
2. In this stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets
children.
Society State & Polity in India 1–14 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. The individual pursues wealth (artha) and pleasure (kama) within the
limits of the moral law (dharma).
C. Vanaprasthasharma or the Stage of Retirement from Active
Life :
1. After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the
individual enters into the Vanaprastha stage.
2. It consists of the third quarter of person’s life.
3. In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates
himself to a life of spiritual contemplation.
4. He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit.
D. Sanyasashrama or the Stage of Renunciation :
1. This is the last stage of life.
2. Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless
wanderer (sanyasin) with all his earthly ties broken.
3. The sanyasin aspires and acts to attain liberation only.

Que 1.12. Give a brief account on marriage in ancient India.

Answer

1. Marriage or vivaha was a very important samskara in ancient India.

2. Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes :
i. Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.
ii. Progency or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and
continuation of family line or kula.
iii. Rati or sexual pleasure.
3. Manu and other law givers have mentioned about eight forms of
marriage :
i. Brahma Vivaha : This is considered to be the purest form of
marriage. In this form of marriage the father offers his daughter
who is decked with ornaments and richly dressed as a gift to a man
of good character and high learning.
ii. Daiva Vivaha : In the daiva form of marriage the father offers her
daughter as a dakshina (sacrificial fee) to a young priest who
officiates the yajña which is arranged by him.
iii. Arsa Vivaha : In arsa vivaha father of the bride gives his daughter
to the bridegroom after receiving a cow and a bull or two pairs of
these animals from the bridegroom.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–15 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

iv. Prajapatya Vivaha : In this type of marriage, the father offers

the girl to the bridegroom. But neither does he offer any dowry nor
does he demand bride-price.
v. Asura Vivaha : This is a form of marriage by purchase in which
the bridegroom has to give money to the father or kinsman of the
bride.
vi. Gandharva Vivaha : This was a marriage by consent of the boy
and the girl. Mutual love and consent of the bride and bridegroom
was the only condition required to bring about the union.
vii. Rakshasa Vivaha : This was marriage by capture in which the
girl was forcibly abducted from her home.
viii. Paishacha Vivaha : The abduction of a maiden while she is asleep
and in intoxication is called paishacha vivaha.

Que 1.13. Write a short note on : Understanding gender as a social

category.

Answer

1. Gender studies was very much part of ancient India.

2. The unique feature was the acknowledgement of the third sex: one that
is neither male nor female.
3. Charaka in his medical treatise speaks of ‘tritiya prakriti’ or the third
naturally occurring gender.
4. In the Mahabhasya composed in Sanskrit 2,300 years ago, everything is
seen in physical tangible terms: male is one who has hair all over body,
woman is one with breasts and long hair, and one who is neither the
‘napumsaka’.
5. In Buddhist literature, greater importance is given to behaviour, rather
than to biological markings.
6. In Jain scripture, we see a far more refined understanding of gender
and sexuality. One recognises that the body can be male (purusha),
female (stri) or queer (napunsaka).
7. Further, there is a classification based on the object of attraction: male,
female or queer. This can be seen in all three types of genders.
8. There is separation of physical body (dravya-purusha) from the
psychological body (bhava-purusha).
9. There is also reference to active (padisevati) and passive (padisevavati)
homosexual acts in Buddhist literature.
Society State & Polity in India 1–16 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

10. All these ideas emerged between 5th century BCE and 5th century CE,
and were explored in the following centuries.
11. Ancient Indian gender studies were designed to appreciate the diversity
of nature, as well as to identify those who could become monks, outgrow
sexual desire and liberate themselves from all karma.

Que 1.14. Write a short note on : The representation of women in

historical traditions & Challenges faced by Women.

Answer

1. Indian tradition has generally respected womanhood.

2. Of the several factors that justify the greatness of India’s ancient
culture, one of the greatest is the honoured place ascribed to women.
3. In ancient India women in many places occupied an equal position to
men. Many Hindu religious books like the Vedas; Ramayana, etc.,
have mentioned the names of several women who were great scholars,
poets and philosophers of the time.
4. According to ancient Hindu scriptures, a man without his wife cannot
participate in any essential religious rites. Wives are thus befittingly
called ‘Ardhangini’.
5. However, in the medieval period, the status of women went down
considerable. Women were considered to be inferior to men.
6. Customs of purdah, Sati, child marriage, restrictions on widow marriage,
and the prevalence of joint family systems have been the factors
responsible for the injustice done towards women.

Que 1.15. Write a short note on : Four-class classification.

Answer

1. The four-class classification is found in Abu’l Fazl, A’in-i-Akbari.

2. According to Abu’l Fazl the people of the world may be divided into
following four classes :
A. Warriors : Warriors who in the political body have the nature of fire.
Their flames; directed by understanding, consume the straw and rubbish
of rebellion and strife, but kindle also the lamp of rest in this world of
disturbances.
B. Artificers and merchants : Artificers and merchants, who hold the
place of air. From their labours and travels, God’s gifts become universal,
and the breeze of contentment nourishes the rose-tree of life.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 1–17 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

C. The learned : The learned, such as the philosopher, the physician, the
arithmetician, the geometrician, the astronomer, who resemble water.
From their pen and their wisdom, a river rises in the drought of the
world, and the garden of the creation receives from their irrigating
powers, a peculiar freshness.
D. Husbandmen and labourers : Husbandmen and labourers, who
may be compared to earth. By their exertions, the staple of life is
brought to perfection, and strength and happiness flow from their
work.
3. It is obligatory for a king to put each of these in its proper place, and by
uniting personal ability with due respect for others, to cause the world
to flourish.

Que 1.16. Give a brief account on slavery in ancient India.

Answer

1. The term that is most often used to refer to a slave in ancient Indian
texts is dasa.
2. This term may have been derived from the word “das” which means to
finish or terminate something.
3. It was associated with slaves because their work was to finish various
jobs.
4. During the Rig Vedic Period, the word dasa did not have the same
connotation. However, the term was used to denote a slave by the Later
Vedic Age.
5. Slaves were considered to be some form of objects and there were
instances where they were listed as gift items.
6. Their work was primarily associated with domestic chores but they
could also be used as helpers for agriculture.
7. Since they were normally equated with other objects that were used
communally, they could have also been viewed as property of the whole
tribe.
8. Slaves are believed to have held a lower position than even the Shudras.
9. In the Mauryan Empire slavery was a well-established and accepted
institution.
10. It had approximately eight or nine categories of slaves.
Society State & Polity in India 1–18 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

11. Slaves brought from another country, children of women slaves, slaves
who were purchased, prisoners of war, slaves who were inherited, slaves
received as presents, those who sold themselves as slaves, those who
were mortgaged and criminals whose punishment for their offence was
to serve as a slave.
12. Debts continued to remain one of the reasons behind slavery.
13. Complexities in the types of slaves only grew with the Gupta Period.
There were fifteen types of slaves present.
14. However, the slaves were not exploited and there were chances for a
slave to get manumission.

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