Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–1 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3 Indian Religion &

Philosophy

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Pre-Vedic and Vedic ............................. 3–2Q to 3–13Q
Religion, Buddhism,
Jainism, Six System
Indian Philosophy,
Shankaracharya

Part-2 : Various Philosophical ........................ 3–13Q to 3–23Q

Doctrines, other Heterodox
Sects, Bhakti movement,
Sufi Movement, Socio
Religious Reform Movement
of 19th Century,
Modern Religious Practices
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

PART-1
Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System
Indian Philosophy, Shankaracharya.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Explain the meaning of religion.

OR
Write a short note on : Religion.

Answer
1. Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation
on religion.
2. Religion played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the
earliest times.
3. It assumed numerous forms in relation to different groups of people
associated with them.
4. Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an
inherent dynamic strength.
5. Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious
traditions of the land.
6. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and
existence.
7. Philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the
correct way of life.
8. Philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the
fulfillment.
9. Philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice.
10. Thus in ancient India, philosophy and religion complemented each other.

Que 3.2. Give a detail account on the religious traditions of pre-

Vedic (Harappan) period.
OR
Write a note on religious practices of the Harappans.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–3 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Answer
1. The Harappan civilization beginning can be traced in the preceding
rural cultures of Neolithic times which are known as Nal, Kulli, Zhob,
Quetta cultures.
2. This civilization dates back to about 3000 B.C.
3. The Harappan culture matured around 2600 B.C. and it declined around
1700 B.C.
4. From the archaeological findings, it may be presumed that the most
important feature of the pre-Vedic (Harappan) religion was the cult of
Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess.
5. Seals from Harappa show a female figure turned upside down, with
outstretched legs, and a plant emerging from her womb.
6. Another representation of a feroali figure standing in a bifurcated tree
may be interpreted to identify the Mother Goddess with the Nature
Goddess.
7. There are also a few female figures with a number of children which
may connect the Mother Goddess with fertility cult.
8. Among male deities Siva can be identified easily as a principal deity in
Harappan religion.
9. Most remarkable representation of this deity is a three-faced figure
wearing a three-horned head-dress, seated cross-legged on a throne,
the posture being very similar to padmasana, with eyes turned towards
the tip of his nose, as described in Yoga texts.
10. It also appears that Siva was worshipped both in icon and in linga.
11. The pre-Vedic (Harappan) people might have been worshipping animals.
Various types of animals are found depicted on the seals and sealings.
12. In all probability the pre-Vedic (Harappan) people also worshipped natural
objects like water, fire, trees, etc. Various trees, plants and foliage have
been depicted on a number of seals.
13. Some scholars consider the existence of ‘shamanism’ in Harappan
religion. Shamanism is a form of religious practice that exists among
preliterate prehistoric groups, including tribesmen and hunter-gatherers.
14. Being a highly developed urbanized civilization Harappan people also
had developed religious practices and symbolism.

Que 3.3. Give a brief account on Vedic religion.

Answer
1. The Vedic tradition at its early stage was primarily a tradition, by priests
and priest-craft, with a sizable pantheon of nature deities.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–4 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. Sacrifice involving the specialized priests and slaughter of animals was

the chief form of religious practice.
3. Sacrifice was originally a rite of hospitality for the gods and this was
performed to obtain material rewards on earth and in heaven.
4. In the context of the Vedic religion sacrifice needs to be understood with
reference to the inner self of man.
5. Ancient seers have suggested two approaches with reference to the
Vedic religion : Pravrtti Lakshana (characterized by action) and nivrtti-
lakshana (characterized by renunciation).
6. The aim of religion is also twofold : Abhyudaya (prosperity in the life in
this world and enjoyment in heaven in the life after) and Nihsreyasa
(permanent freedom from all bondage and sufferings, state of eternal
bliss).
7. The Mantra and Brahmana parts of the Veda serve the purpose of
Abhyudaya, whereas the Aranyakas and the Upanishads teach the ways
and means for Nihsreyasa.

Que 3.4. What is the source of knowledge of the Vedic religion ?

Answer
1. The Vedic religion emanates from the Veda. The word ‘Veda’ is derived
from the root ‘vid’, ‘to know’ and hence means knowledge.
2. The knowledge contained in and imparted by the Veda is considered to
be the knowledge par excellence.
3. The source of knowledge of the Vedic religion is the corpus of the Vedic
literature which is composed of four great works, the Rig-Veda, the
Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda and the Atharva-Veda.
4. Each of these having fourfold subdivisions : the Samhitas or Mantras,
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
5. Brahmanas are the ritual textbooks intended to guide the priests through
the complicated web of sacrificial rites.
6. The Aranyakas, considered as appendices to the Brahmanas, contain
the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice.
7. The Upanishads deal with metaphysical speculations and spiritual
teachings.
8. These are the texts which help us in formulating our knowledge about
the Vedic religion.

Que 3.5. Give an account of rites and rituals performed in the

Vedic religion.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–5 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Answer
1. The formulation of the rites and rituals presupposes the existence of
deities who are to be propitiated, prayed through the rituals.
2. The Vedas mention quite a good number of deities. The principal deities
are classified as belonging to different regions :
i. terrestrial,
ii. aerial and
iii. celestial.
3. Ritual and prayer are two expressions in act and word of man’s sense of
dependence on divine powers.
4. Rituals were performed to enlist the goodwill of divine powers so that
they may fulfill the wish of the worshipper.
5. Sacrifice was considered as an inherent part of the cosmic order.
6. Sacrifice involved the yajamana, the patron of the offering, the god to
whom the offering is given, the Brahmana who performs the sacrifice
and acts as a link between the yajamana and the god and the bali or the
offering which is gifted to the gods.
7. Vedic rituals are broadly classified into two categories : public rites
(srauta) and domestic rites (grhya or smarta).
A. Public rites (Srauta) :
1. The Srauta sacrifices are primarily classified on the basis of the material
of the offerings, viz., havir-yajna in which ghee is offered as the main
oblation, and Soma-yajna in which the juice of the Soma plant is the
chief oblation.
2. The Srauta rituals require the participation of various types of officiating
priests.
3. Srauta sacrifices are many and varied. A vast literature, known as
Srauta sutras came into being to discuss the details of the performance
of the sacrifice.
4. The Srauta sacrifices may be classified as :
i. periodic or regularly recurring ones (nitya) and
ii. occasional or special (naimittika).
B. Domestic rites (Grhya or Smarta) :
1. A householder belonging to any of the three upper castes is required to
perform quite a good number of personal or family rites - as enjoined by
the ritualistic texts known as grhya karmans.
2. The most important distinction between the public and the domestic
rites is that while the public rites are performed in three sacred fires,
viz., Ahavaniya, Daksinga and Garhapatya, - the domestic rites are
performed only in the Garhapatya fire.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–6 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. The householder is supposed to perform all the Grhya rites himself.

4. The materials used for the oblations in the Grhya rites are generally the
same as those for the srauta rituals, with the exception that Soma is
never offered and animals very rarely.

Que 3.6. Describe in brief the life of Gautama Buddha the founder
of Buddhism.

Answer
1. Siddhartha (Gautama Buddha) was born at Lumbini in present Nepal.
2. He was son of Shuddodana, the King of Shakya gana of Kapilvastu and
Mayadevi, princess of Koliya gana.
3. In his childhood he was taken care by Gautami, hence he is also known
as Gautama. After his enlightenment, he is called as Buddha.
4. Traditions inform us about the effects on Siddhartha of the sight of old
man, a sick man, a dead body and meditative sage.
5. He became restless to seek the cause of such agony and real meaning of
truth. Hence, at 29, he moved to forests to know the real meaning of
truth and reason of sorrow.
6. On the banks of Uruvela, at Gaya, he received enlightenment under
the pipal (bodhi) tree.
7. He became the Buddha-the enlightened one and Tathagath-who knew
the truth.
8. He decided to share his knowledge with the people, based on simple
code of conducts and in the languages of people, i.e., Pali.
9. His knowledgeable, simple and sacrificial character and his teaching in
simple tone impressed people.
10. Buddha organized his disciples into a specific monachism rested on
definite rules and codes of conduct. This is called the Sangha.
11. The Buddhists express their devotions by submitting themselves to
Buddha, his Sangha and his dhamma.
12. At the age of 80, Buddha rested at Kusinagar (Kasaya, dist. Devriya,
present Uttar Pradesh) in peace.

Que 3.7. What was the purpose of Sangha (Buddhist Monastery) ?

How can one obtain membership of Sangha ?

Answer
1. For the propagation of Buddhism, Buddha created a disciplined
mechanism of missionaries, called as Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.
2. He organized the missionaries and his disciples in a specific organization,
called as Sangha.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–7 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. Any person (male or female) who is above 18 and left his possessions
could become member of Sangha based on equality.
4. Initially women were not permitted in Sangha, but later the doors were
opened for women.
5. After the permission of owner, slaves, soldiers and debtors could also
become member of Sangha.
6. However, criminals, lepers and contagious patients were not permitted
into Sangha.
7. At the outset, one has to take oath (loyalty towards Buddha-Dhamma-
Sangha), then shave his head (mundana) and wear yellow dress.
8. Then, after one month, he could take a diksha called as upasampada.
After upasampada he is taken as a member of Sangha.
9. The member is expected to follow the codes of conduct (dasha-shila).
10. The organizational base of Sangha was a democratic one. The monks
are expected to travel for eight months for the propagation of Buddhism.
11. Then, during the four months of rainy season, they gathered at one
place, called as varshavasa.
12. During varshavasa, they discuss, share their experiences, and gave
confessions, take prayashcita (expiation).
13. Due to such a disciplinary and chaste character of monks, they received
a great respect in the society.
14. It helped in increase of Buddhism in large population.

Que 3.8. Write a short note on : Buddhist Scriptures &

Dharmaparishadas.

Answer
1. Buddha’s preaching are collected and classified into three volumes,
collectively called as pitakas.
2. The three volumes are :
a. Sutta-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s preaching in dialogue form, which is
mainly made for common people.
ii. It has five nikayas, in which, the stories of Buddha’s rebirth (the
jatakas) are collected in the fifth nikaya.
b. Vinaya pitaka : It is a collection of rules and codes of conduct for
Buddhist monks and nuns.
c. Abhi-dhamma-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s philosophical thought in the form of
question and answers.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–8 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

ii. It is mainly meant for scholars of Buddhism.

Dharmaparishadas :
1. After the mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Buddhism witnessed the crowd
of various versions of Buddha’s preaching.
2. Hence, to remove such discrepancy and reach to unanimous platform, a
need was felt to rearrange and compile Buddha’s original preaching and
codify them.
3. For this purpose, grand assemblies (dharmaparishadas) of Buddhist
followers were organized from time to time.

Que 3.9. What were the causes of decline in Buddhism ?

Answer
Following were the causes of decline in Buddhism :
1. Shift in king’s favour : The favour and support of rulers were one of
the causes for the spread of Buddhism. However, after the Mauryas,
India was mushroomed with those kings who favoured Vedic religion. It
hampered the support of Buddhism.
2. Introspection of Vedic religion :
i. The speedy growth of non-Vedic religions forced Vedic religion to
introspect within their own belief systems. Thus, they made some
reforms in the erstwhile rigid ritualistic Vedic religion. It became
people oriented.
ii. It introduced concepts like temples for mass-congregation, idol-
worships, devotional mode of prayers, simple code of conducts,
establishment of monasteries, pilgrimages etc.
iii. Hence, crowds of people were attracted to Vedic religion.
3. Dissensions in Buddhism : Immediately after the departure of
Buddha, Buddhism faced with dissensions. To curb such conflicts and
reach to unanimity, contemporary rulers organized grand assemblies
from time to time. However, they proved in vain.
4. Individualistic identity loss of individualistic identity : For the
people orientation, Buddhism also accepted the concepts like idol-worship,
Sanskrit-language, concept of heaven & hell, cycle of birth etc. Such
concepts marred the individualistic identity of Buddhism, which was
originally revolutionary and heterodox in nature.
5. Foreign invasion : Except Menander and Kanishka, almost all foreign
rulers were followers of the Vedic religion. Especially, the aggressive
Huna tribe was the follower of Shaiva cult. It destroyed Buddhist
monastery and learning centres.

Que 3.10. Give a brief account on Jainism.

Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–9 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Answer
1. By tradition, Jainism is an anadi religion, i.e., the all time/ever-existed
religion, and, through tirthankaras, it is retold from time to time.
2. Rishabhdeva was the first among 24 tirthankaras, in which, Neminath
was 22nd, whereas, Parshvanatha was 23rd.
3. Parshvanatha gave stress on four principles, like, Satya, Brahmacharya,
Asteya and Aparigraha.
4. The followers of Parshvanatha, wearing white cloth, consisted of 8 gana,
8 ganadhara and 1000 Shramanas.
5. Vardhaman Mahavir was the 24th tirthankara and most venerated
preacher of Jain religion.
6. Mahavira reinterpreted the then existed philosophy and code of conducts
of Jainism.
7. He contributed a new principle of non-violence (ahimsa) to the four
principles, told by Parshvanatha.
8. He, based on non-violence, framed a new set of philosophy and codes of
conduct.
9. He refreshed Jain monachism and put rules of hierarchy of Jain-
preachers or Shramanas.
10. For the propagation of his religion, he accepted ardha-magadhi, a
language of people, as a medium of preaching.
11. Due to his simple codes of conducts and use of people-language, Mahavira
could successfully propagated Jainism.
12. Hence, Mahavira is considered as an actual founder of Jainism.

Que 3.11. What are the basic principles of Jainism ? Also discuss
about different Vratas.

Answer
Basic Principles of Jainism : The basic principles of Jainism are as
follows :
1. Negations of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its concept of God.
2. To achieve moksha, one should control his own senses instead of
depending on the favours of God.
3. Universe is created due to jiva (soul) which is immortal.
4. To achieve moksha, jiva should be free from actions.
5. Belief in equality.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–10 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

The Vratas :
A. Maha-vrata :
1. Ahimsa : It means to abstain from troubling any living thing with any
sort of violence, like, physical, verbal and mental.
2. Satya : To speak truth and create such a situation in which other would
speak truth.
3. Asteya : Not to possess the thing, which is not belonged to us.
4. Aparigraha : To possess only those things, which are most needed.
5. Brahmacharya : Abstain from sexual relations.
B. Anu-vrata : It is not possible for laymen to follow the strict codes of
conduct of maha-vrata. Hence, Jainism made provision of the same
principles for them but in a soft or limited form. They are called as anu-
vrata.
C. Guna-vrata : To inculcate patience and sacrifice among laymen
following three guna-vrata were provided for them :
1. Dig-vrata : While traveling one should limit his directions and maintain
that limitation.
2. Kal-vrata : While traveling one should limit the duration and maintain
that limitation.
3. Anarth-dandavat : While following ones occupation one should respect
the limits and values of that occupation.
D. Shiksha-vrata : To increase the tendency of detachment from worldly
pleasures and for the social-health, following principles are told :
1. Samayika : To follow habit of seating calmly at one place and meditate.
2. Proshadhopavasa : To observe fast on fifth (panchami), eighth
(ashtami), fourteenth (chaturdashi) day of every fortnight. On the day
of fast one should seat in Jain temples and recite scriptures and follow
meditation.
3. Bhogopabhoga parinama : Decide limitation on food consumption
and pleasure for each day and follow that limitation.
4. Atithi samvibhag : To give part of our cooked food to the truthful and
worthy guest.

Que 3.12. Write a short note on : The spread of Jainism in India.

Answer
1. By tradition, Jainism was existed before Mahavira. However, due to
tenuous efforts of Mahavira he was credited as an actual founder of
Jaina religion.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–11 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. The basic reason of the spread of Jainism was the support and favours
of contemporary rulers. Great rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru,
Chandragupta Maurya accepted Jainism as their personal and royal
religion.
3. They extended their support to Jain for their propagation and consecutive
spread.
4. Apart from rulers, the trader and artisan’s class also accepted Jainism. It
spread on the financial base provided by these classes.
5. Due to the favour of rulers, Jaina literature and art also flourished.
6. Vast collections of Jaina literature was created in the public-language
like ardhamagadhi and then Sanskrit, too.
7. Caves-viharas-temples were constructed to accommodate the worshipers
for large congregations. These places also served as educational centres.

Que 3.13. What are the six systems of ancient Indian philosophy ?

Answer
1. Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and
teachings that emerged in ancient India.
2. Following are the summary on the six philosophical system (Shada
Darsan) of Indian philosophy :
A. Samkhaya :
1. It is one of the oldest Indian philosophies.
2. The term ‘Samkhaya’ means to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate,
deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to
number, rational.
3. It was propounded by an eminent, great sage Kapila.
4. It is a system of dualistic realism.
5. It recognised two ultimate eternal realities i.e., ‘Purusha (Spirit)’ and
‘Prakriti (Nature)’.
6. During embryonic stage, system was atheistic but after the influence of
the ‘Yoga System’ it became theistic.
7. It lost its relevance during the Gupta period because its theism was
absorbed by the epics and its categories of Prakrti, Purusa and Gunas
were taken over by Vedanta.
B. Yoga :
1. It is one of the six major ancient Indian philosophies and it was attributed
by ‘Patanjali’.
2. The eight-limbs of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali highlight how to connect
with the greater cosmic essence and enhance spirituality.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–12 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. These eight-limbs include : Yama (moral conduct), Niyama (Disciple),

Asana (right posture), Pranayama (effective breathing), Pratyahara
(withdrawing the senses), Dharana (to concentrate on one object),
Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi (supreme bliss/salvation).
C. Vaisesika :
1. It was expounded by ‘Kanada’.
2. It was based on the concept that everything in the world is a combination
of atoms which remain after material object has been reduced to its
smallest part.
3. Initially, it was an atheistic system but after merger of Nayaya system,
it became theistic system.
D. Nyaya :
1. It was propounded by ‘Gautama’ rishi.
2. This philosophy believes that the existence of ideas, beliefs, emotions
and visions are all dependent on mind.
3. Its main objective is to help to eliminate ignorance of knowledge. It
enlists four valid (Pramana) and four invalid means of gaining knowledge.
E. Purva Mimansa :
1. The literal meaning of ‘Purva Minansa’ is ‘critical examination’ or ‘solution
of a problem by reflection’.
2. It was attributed by ‘Jaimini’.
3. It considers Veda as eternal and unchanging.
4. According to this philosophy, the world has always existed and is without
beginning or end.
5. It explains the Dharma as a ‘virtue’, ‘morality’ or ‘duty’.
F. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa :
1. It was expounded by ‘Badaryana’.
2. The term ‘Vedanta’ means the culmination of the Vedic speculation.
3. There are two basic text of this system – ‘Vedanta Sutra’ and Brahama
Sutra’.

Que 3.14. Write a short note on : Shankaracharya.

Answer
1. Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian who
consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
2. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of
thought in Hinduism.
3. Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads,
Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–13 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

4. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known

as Advaita Vedanta.
5. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
6. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the
Brahman.
7. According to Vedanta philosophy, Brahman is true, the world is false
and self and Brahman are not different.
8. Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging,
the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
9. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the
self.
10. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate
existence.
11. Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his
philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers.
12. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the
Upanishads and Brahma Sutra.
13. He is reputed to have founded four mathas (monasteries), which helped
in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of
which he is known as the greatest revivalist.

PART-2
Various philosophical doctrines, Other heterodox sects, Bhakti
Movement, Sufi Movement, Socio Religious Reform Movement of
19th Century, Modern Religious Practices.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.15. What are the various philosophical doctrines of ancient

India ?

Answer
1. Indian philosophy doctrines refer to philosophical traditions which
developed in the Indian subcontinent.
2. Modern scholars generally divide the field between Hindu philosophy
and non-Hindu traditions such as Buddhist philosophy and Jain
philosophy.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–14 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

A. Hindu Philosophy (Vedic Philosophy) :

1. Religion of the Rig Vedic people consisted mainly of worship of numerous
deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
2. During the later Vedic period definite ideas and philosophies about the
true nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman were
developed.
3. These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different
schools of philosophies called shada darshana.
Six philosophical system (Shada Darsan) of Indian Philosophy :
Refer Q. 3.13, Page 3–11Q, Unit-3.
B. Charvaka School :
1. Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of
philosophy.
2. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses.
3. It is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical
knowledge.
4. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy.
5. According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end
of humans and pleasure the ultimate object in life.
6. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world. Since
God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by
Charvakas.
7. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas
do not recognise ether as it is not known through perception.
8. The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four elements.
C. Jain Philosophy :
1. The centre of Jainism is the concept of atman; the basic philosophic
approach is the stress on ahimsa, and its foundation is aneka-anta-vada.
2. The concept of Aneka-anta-vada is the foundation of Jaina philosophy,
at the same time; it is an inclusive approach to look at the world.
3. According to this concept, no single definite, decisive or conclusive aspect
(ek-anta) of anything is existed; on the contrary, various kinds of
possibilities or meanings (aneka-anta) were existed when we make a
statement about anything.
4. The Jainas believe that the natural and supernatural things of the
universe can be traced back to seven fundamental elements. They are :
i. Jiva : Jiva means soul, which is different from the body, which is
full of senses. The soul encourages one to engage in activities,
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–15 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

which are good or bad. It also suffers from the effects of its actions,
good or bad.
ii. A-jiva : A-jiva means unconscious and life-less.
iii. A-strava : Various kinds of actions/deeds (karma) flows (strava) to
the soul (jiva) and pollute it. Such flow of activities or pollution is
called as a-strava.
iv. Bandha : Due to the flow of activities or pollution, the soul became
bounded, called as Bandha.
v. Sanvara : To control and stop the flow of such activities which
pollutes and bound the soul is called as Sanvara.
vi. Nirjara : However, by stopping only the flow does not mean that
the soul is freed from any bondage. It should clear those actions,
which was already stored and bounded the soul. This is called as
nirjara. After a great penance, a nirjara can be achieved.
vii. Moksha : After clearing the stored pollution (nirjara) and stopping
the flow of activities or pollution (sanvara), the soul is freed from
the bondage. This stage is called as 'Moksha'.
D. Buddhist Philosophy :
1. Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people
could follow easily.
2. He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the
Vedas.
3. Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of
mind and ultimate liberation from this material world.
Four Noble Truths :
a. There is suffering in human life.
b. There is cause of suffering.
c. There is cessation of suffering.
d. Path of Liberation.
Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana) :
i. Right Vision
ii. Right Resolve
iii. Right Speech
iv. Right Conduct
v. Right Means of Livelihood
vi. Right Effort
vii. Right Mindfulness
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–16 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Que 3.16. Give various causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults

(Heterodox Religious Order).

Answer

Causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults are as follows :

A. Proliferation of Sacrifices :
1. During Later Vedic period, the sacrifices became mandatory for receiving
favour of God or fulfilling any wish.
2. The scriptures suggested various types of sacrifices, which were time-
money consuming and filled with violence.
3. Besides, similar to the sacrifices, various types of specialized priests and
crowd of Gods also emerged in the society.
4. In all, the entire system became very complex and beyond the limits of
common person.
B. Discriminatory Institutions :
1. The later Vedic culture based on rigid caste-system.
2. The Vedic culture represented with the hierarchy of castes, proliferation
of castes and sub castes, humiliating condition of women and Shudras
etc.
3. The non-Kshatriya rulers and economical superior trader class, along
with common person, found no prestigious place or respect in this system.
C. Ambiguous Scriptures :
1. The Vedic literature was varied and specialized. However, it was written
in ambiguous Sanskrit language, which was known to only Brahmans.
2. Hence, it was necessary for the common person to know their religion
in understandable and clear language and literature.
D. Need of New Thoughts :
1. Even among Vedic people, many thinkers were dissatisfied by the ritual
extremity of Later Vedic period. Hence, they created Upanishads.
2. The Upanishads preferred meditation and introspection to the
extravagant sacrifices of Vedic scriptures.
3. However, the meditation of Upanishads was revolving around the
subjects like atman, Brahma, dvait-advait etc.; even more abstract than
the rituals themselves.
4. Hence, people were in need of a new, unambiguous, simple thought or
belief systems.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–17 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Que 3.17. What were the various heterodox sects in ancient India ?

Answer

Sects that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition unorthodox
(nastika) systems. The following sects belong to heterodox schools of Indian
philosophy :
A. Carvaka :
1. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses. Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School
of philosophy.
2. It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought.
3. Accepted direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of
anything.
4. Insists on joyful living.
B. Buddhism :
1. It is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautma.
2. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets are not especially
concerned with the existence or non-existence of God.
C. Jainism :
1. Already in existence by 6th century B.C, it was revived by Mahavira, the
24th Jain Tirthankara.
2. According to Jainism, Nirvana or liberation is obtained through three
jewels: Right Philosophy, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (Tri-
ratna).
3. In Jainism there is negation of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its
concept of God.
D. Ajivika :
1. During the birth of heterodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism, the
cult of Ajivakas was emerged in north India.
2. Ajivaka means one who disregards restrictions, has faith upon destiny,
live by his natural tendencies and thus follows free life.

Que 3.18. Write a short note on : The Bhakti movement.

Answer

1. The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between

7th and 12th centuries.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–18 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of

Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).
3. These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a
loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
4. They wrote in local languages and were therefore able to reach out to
many people.
5. In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North.
6. Sanskrit was given a new form. Bhagavata Purana centered around
Krishna’s childhood and youth, uses Krishna's exploits to explain deep
philosophy in simple terms.
7. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite
movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement.
8. A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the
use of local languages.
9. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also
translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider
audience.
10. The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They
made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God.
11. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked
institutionalised religion.
12. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They
advocated social reforms too.
13. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to
join kirtans.

Que 3.19. Give an account of contribution made by Kabir in Bhakti

movement.

Answer

1. Kabir (1440-1518) believed that the way to God was through personally
experienced bhakti or devotion.
2. He believed that the Creator is One. His God was called by many names
- Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc.
3. Hence the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta
and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in the Adi Granth.
4. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by
him.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–19 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the
easiest way to attain God.
6. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior
reasoning.
7. For him, a man could not achieve success without hard work. He
advocated performance of action rather than renunciation of duty.
8. Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the
narrow thinking of society.
9. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of
it has passed into our everyday language.
10. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become
his disciples.

Que 3.20. Give an account of contribution made by Guru Nanak

in Bhakti movement.

Answer

1. Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib).

2. From an early age, he showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was
helpful to the poor and needy.
3. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya, disciple
or Pali sikkha, instruction).
4. Guru Nanak's objective was to remove the existing corruption and
degrading practices in society.
5. He showed a new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social
order.
6. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a
religious teacher. He called for an improvement in the status of women.
7. His vani (words) along with those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought
together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.

Que 3.21. Write a short note on : The Sufi movement.

Answer

1. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the
degeneration in political and religious life.
2. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life.
3. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–20 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

4. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion.

5. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction.
6. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’
and service of humanity.
7. The Sufis are divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah
having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his
disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice).
8. A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his
work.
9. The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical
ecstasy.
10. The Sufi saints did not set up a new religion, but prepared a more liberal
movement within the framework of Islam.
11. The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the 11th and 12th centuries.
12. In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab.
By the 13th and 14th centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
Bengal and the Deccan.
13. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity
made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.

Que 3.22. Give the importance of the Sufi movement in India.

Answer

1. The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society.

2. Like the Bhakti saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers
within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook within
Islam.
3. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation
for more liberal movements of the 15th century.
4. The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being)
which opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religions
were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in India.
5. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian
yogis.
6. A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and
downtrodden sections of society. The Sufi saints maintained close contact
with the common people.
7. The Sufi saints tried to bring about social reforms too.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–21 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

8. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth
of a rich regional literature.
9. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages.

Que 3.23. Identify some of the common characteristics of religious

and social reform movement of 19th century.

Answer

1. From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars
started the study of ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions
and literature.
2. This growing knowledge of India’s past glory provided to the Indian
people a sense of pride in their civilization.
3. It also helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reform
for their struggle against all type of inhuman practices, superstitions
etc.
4. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most
of the movements of social reform were of a religious character.
5. These social and religious reform movements arose among all
communities of the Indian people.
6. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class.
7. They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system,
sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy.
8. Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the
British officials.
9. Some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations
framed by the British Government.

Que 3.24. Mention some of the famous personalities associated

with the religious and social reform movement of 19th century.

Answer

Following are some the famous personalities associated with the religious
and social reform movement :
1. Raja Rammohan Roy : Raja Rammohan Roy can be regarded as the
central figure of India’s awakening for championing the spread of modern
education, science and technology and for his relentless fight against
many social evils.
Indian Religion & Philosophy 3–22 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. R.G Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade : R.G Bhandarkar and M.G.

Ranade carried out their work of religious reforms in Maharashtra
through the Prarthana Samaj by propagating inter-caste marriages,
freedom from priestly domination and improvement of the lot of women.
3. Swami Dayananda Saraswati : Swami Dayananda Saraswati
founded the Arya Samaj and pleaded for the right of individuals to
interpret Vedas and free themselves from the tyranny of priests. Besides
all this, the organisation fought against untouchability and caste rigidity
as well as worked for promoting modern education.
4. Swami Vivekananda : Swami Vivekananda, a great humanist, through
his Ramakrishna Mission condemned religious narrow mindedness,
advocated free thinking and emphasised on service for the poor.
5. The Theosophical Society : The Theosophical Society, under the
guidance of Annie Besant, promoted studies of ancient Indian religions,
philosophies and doctrines.
6. Sayyid Ahmad Khan : Religious reforms among the Muslims were
carried out by Sayyid Ahmad Khan who encouraged Muslims to adopt
modern education; denounced polygamy, purdah system and spoke
against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationlism.

Que 3.25. Mention the modern religious practices in India.

Answer

Throughout India’s history, religion has been an important part of the

country’s culture. According to the 2011 census, 79.8 % of the population of
India practices Hinduism, 14.2 % adheres to Islam, 1.72 % adheres to Sikhism,
2.3 % adheres to Christianity, 0.7 % adheres to Buddhism and 0.37 % adheres
to Jainism.
1. Hinduism in India : Hinduism – the most widely followed religion in
India – can be interpreted diversely. Pinpointing what constitutes
Hinduism is difficult, with some suggesting that it is an umbrella term
that encompasses various religions and traditions within it. Nonetheless,
Hinduism in all its forms has been particularly influential in Indian
society.
2. Islam in India : Islam is the second most followed religion in India,
influencing the country's society, culture, architecture and artistry.
3. Sikhism in India : Originating in India, Sikhism is a monotheistic
religion that promotes devotion to a formless God. The religion is centred
on a tenet of service, humility and equality, encouraging its followers to
seek to help those less fortunate or in need.
4. Buddhism in India : Buddhism originated as a countermovement to
early Hinduism by presenting a universal ethic rather than basing ethical
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 3–23 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

codes on an individual’s caste. The core doctrine of Buddhism, known as

the ‘Four Noble Truths’, teaches that one can be liberated from the
suffering that underpins the cycle of death and rebirth by practising the
‘Noble Eightfold Path’.
5. Jainism in India : Jainism also originated as a countermovement that
opposed some of the teachings and doctrines of early Hinduism. In
modern-day India, Jains usually uphold the ethical principle of ‘ahimsa’
(‘non-harm’ or ‘non-violence’). As such, Jains tend to promote
vegetarianism and animal welfare.
6. Christianity in India : Christianity is the third most followed religion
in India, mostly concentrated in the far south and Mumbai. The most
prominent denomination of Christianity in India is Roman Catholicism,
but there are also localised Christian churches.

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