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NANOPARTICLES: CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR DIVERSE

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Chapter 14 Ranjini et al., 2024
NANOPARTICLES: CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR DIVERSE

APPLICATIONS
Ranjini H.K 1, Syed Baker 2, Niranjan Raj 2. S, Apeksha. V 1, Kripali. K.P

1
, Shreya Vinayak Hegde 1, Akhila 1, Ashwini Prasad1*
1
Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, JSS Academy of
Higher Education and Research, Mysuru, Karnataka 570 015, India
2
Department of Studies in Microbiology, Karnataka State Open
University, Mukthagangotri, Mysuru, Karnataka
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The present chapter provides a concise exploration of
nanoparticles, encompassing their characteristics, types, physicochemical
properties, synthesis methods, and applications. Nanoparticles, with
dimensions in the nanoscale (1-100 nm), exhibit unique attributes influenced
by size, shape, and surface properties. Diverse types, including metal,
polymer, and semiconductor nanoparticles, offer distinct functionalities.
Physicochemical properties, crucial for reactivity and stability, govern
nanoparticle behavior. Synthesis techniques, spanning chemical, physical,
and biological approaches, tailor nanoparticles for specific characteristics.
Applications span various fields which includes pharmacology, food
industry, cosmetic industry. This abstract provides a succinct overview of
the intricate landscape of nanoparticles, highlighting their significance in
scientific and technological advancements.
Keywords: Nanotechnology; Nanoparticles; Applications; Characterization.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term ‘nano’ is etymologically derived from the Greek word
nanos, meaning ‘a dwarf’. The prefix nano was officially adopted in the year
1947, at the 14th conference of International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) with the purpose of denoting a quantity that is
one-billionth part of a unit (10-9). The prefix is generally used to represent
IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 313

‘very small’ processes or entities which lie in the nanometer scale (Joudeh &
Linke, 2022). Nanoscience is the discipline concerning the study of matter at
nanoscale magnitudes, attempting to understand their size and
structure-dependent properties and additionally comparing the emergent
atoms, molecules and their bulk material related differences (Bayda et al.,
2019). In contrast, nanotechnology is the manipulation and regulation of
matter on nanoscale dimensions by utilizing scientific knowledge of various
industrial and biomedical applications. It was Richard P. Feynman, a Nobel
laureate, now regarded as the father of nanotechnology who presented
‘nanotechnology’ in his famous lecture in 1959 which was titled “There’s
Plenty of Room at the Bottom”. Since then, there have been incredible
numbers of revolutionary developments in the field of nanotechnology (Baig
et al., 2021).
Nanoparticles refer to extremely small particles or structures with

dimensions typically in the nanometer scale, ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers. They are engineered at atomic or molecular levels in order to
form novel or superior physicochemical properties that are otherwise not
possible in their bulk solid counterparts. This is due to the fact that all
compounds typically have a particular threshold range or value with respect
to their size, below which their properties change remarkably (Prasad et al.,
2021). These nanosized particles possess properties that are contrasting to
those of their conventional solids. In essence, their characters and
properties fall in between those of conventional solids and atomic or
molecular structures (Paramasivam et al., 2021).
An isodimensional nanoparticle is one which has all its dimensions

well within the nanometer range such as spherical NPs of silica. There are
many different types of NPs which can be broadly classified into organic,
carbon-based or inorganic. They possess a range of unique physicochemical
properties which are characteristic to NPs and make them uncommon and
widely applicable (Sharma et al., 2019). Additionally, NPs can be synthesized
using two prominent approaches viz., top-down method and bottom-up
method. Synthesis of NPs can be via physical, chemical and biological
methods. Despite the favorable impacts of chemical and physical methods,
there exist certain drawbacks, such as the high costs associated with
synthesis, energy requirements, the utilization of toxic chemicals, and

non-environmentally friendly processes (Dikshit et al., 2021). The utilization

of toxic chemicals poses a threat to the environment and can disrupt
ecological equilibrium. In order to tackle these issues, researchers have
turned to green synthesis, which involves the utilization of natural reducing
agents sourced from plant extracts, microorganisms, and templates (Singh
et al., 2018). Green synthesis provides a cost-effective, non-toxic, and
environmentally friendly alternative, rendering it the preferred choice for
nanoparticle fabrication. NPs can exist in either amorphous or crystalline
form. Their surfaces behave as carriers for droplets of liquid and gases. The
usage of NPs in drug delivery is successful as drugs can attach, dissolve,
encapsulate or entrap in the nanoparticle matrix (Singh et al., 2022).
2. TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES
2.1. Carbon based Nanoparticles
As the name suggests, Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are protracted
tubular structures that have their diameters in the range of 1-2 nm. They
exhibit a structural resemblance to a graphite sheet that is rolled onto it and
since the rolled sheet may have one, two or multiple walls, the CNTs are
classified accordingly as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs), double-walled
nanotubes (DWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). They find
various applications as fillers, gas adsorbents and support medium for
catalysts owing to their unique physical, chemical and mechanical
characteristics in their native form as well as in combination as
nanocomposites.
Fullerene also known as buck ball is one of the many allotropic

forms of carbon wherein each atom is sp2 hybridized and is arranged in
pentagonal or hexagonal units. Each of these units come together to create
a hollow, globular mesh-like structure. Properties of versatility, electrical
conductivity, electron affinity and their high tensile strength make them
immensely significant in the field of nanobiotechnology. C60 and C70 are
examples of the most commonly used fullerenes as nanomaterials (Singh et
al., 2022).
2.2. Ceramic Nanoparticles

They are non-metallic, inorganic solids like phosphates, oxides,
carbonates and carbides that are synthesized by heating and successive

cooling. Ceramic nanoparticles are structurally versatile as they can be

found in many forms like hollow, dense, amorphous and polycrystalline. This
characteristic along with their high heat resistance and chemical inertness
makes the particle useful in the fields of catalysis, photocatalysis, imaging,
photodegradation of dyes among others. Given the precision that can be
achieved in terms of surface-to-volume ratio and the porosity of these
nanoparticles, they are found effective as drug delivery agents and in bone
repair (Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
2.3. Metallic Nanoparticles

Majorly manufactured from the metal precursors, these
nanoparticles possess the most uncommon optoelectrical properties owing
to the widely known characteristic of Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance
(LSPR). Most of the nanoparticles contain alkali metals or the transition
elements like Au, Ag, Pd, Ti, Zn and Cu since they have a comparatively
broader absorption spectrum in the visible region (350-700 nm) of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Metallic NPs are classified based on the number
of metal atoms involved in the formation of the nanoparticle. Among those,
Monometallic nanoparticles are composed of a single metal atom and their
properties are mostly attributed to that metal atom only. Bimetallic
nanoparticles, as the name suggests, is composed of two different metal
atoms and their properties and characteristics are a result of combined
architecture of different metallic nanoparticles. A prime reason for the
popularity and versatility of metallic nanoparticles is the controlled
synthesis with respect to the size, shape and facet of these particles
(Loiseau et al., 2019). Considering these inferences, these have the widest
range of applications, especially in the area of research which will be
discussed in the following sections.
2.4. Polymeric Nanoparticles

Also known as polymer nanoparticles (PNP), these nanoparticles are
generally organic in nature. Based on the method of preparation, they are
primarily of two types, nanospheres are generally solid materials on the
outlook and other molecules are adsorbed at the peripheral boundary of
their globular surface. They have a uniform dispersion of the active
compounds in the polymers. Nanospheres are matrix particles.
Nanocapsules on the other hand display core-sell morphology. It is solid

mass that is completely encapsulated within a particle. Herein, the active

particle is confined and surrounded by a shell of polymer. Protection of the
active compounds, controlled release and specific targeting are a few
advantages of using polymeric nanoparticles (Zielińska et al., 2020).
2.5. Semiconductor Nanoparticles

Semiconductors are the elements or combination of elements that
have their properties lying between those of metals and non-metals. One
such property is wider band gaps compared to the other compounds which
enables the researcher to bring about various alterations in their properties
by bandgap tuning. Their applications majorly lie in the areas of photo
optics and electronics. GaN, GaP, ZnO, ZnS are a few examples of
semiconductors that are a combination of elements from period III-V and IV
respectively (Terna et al., 2021).
2.6. Lipid based Nanoparticles

Similar to the polymeric nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles consist of
a solid lipid core that is surrounded by a matrix composed of lipophilic
molecules. They are generally spherical in structure with their diameters
ranging from 10 nm to 100 nm. Since they are a lipid moiety, emulsifiers
and/or surfactants are used to stabilize the external core of these
nanoparticles. Lipid nanotechnology is the field that primarily focuses on
the designing as well as synthesis of lipid NPs as they are essential in cancer
therapy for releasing RNA/oligonucleotides that are water-insoluble and as
drug carriers and their delivery agents to the target sites (Khan et al., 2019).
3. PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES

The nanoparticles have unique properties which makes them one of
the most superior choices for a wide range of applications in comparison to
its counterpart.
3.1. Mechanical properties

The mechanical characteristics of the NPs are Strength, hardness,
brittleness, toughness, plasticity, elasticity, rigidity, fatigue strength,
ductility, and yield stress. These properties play a significant role in the
uniqueness and applicability of nanoparticles. Inorganic, non-metallic
materials are too brittle and lack ductility and toughness whereas organic
materials tend to be too flexible and lack rigidity. NPs establish a balance

between all the 10 mechanical properties, attributed to the surface and

quantum effects of these nanoparticles (Joudeh & Link., 2022).
3.2. Thermal properties

Heat transfer in NPs is a result of energy conduction as a result of
both electrons and photons, plus the scattering effect which is a
combination of both. The size of nanoparticles has a direct effect on
thermal as well as the electrical conductivities of NPs. As the size of NP
decreases, there is a hyperbolic increase in the ratio of surface area to
volume of the particle. Since conduction via electrons is one of the two
ways through which heat is transferred, a greater surface-volume ratio
implies a greater number of electrons available for heat transfer in
comparison to bulk materials (Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
3.3. Magnetic properties

Compounds that exhibit magnetism generally include a magnetic
element in their formulae, though there are a few exceptions of compounds
that are made up of diamagnetic elements but still manage to exhibit a
magnetic moment. Though Pd, Au and Ag are diamagnetic, the properties
tend to change when in nanoscale as their NPs exhibit magnetic properties.
One of the possible reasons for this observed contrast is the uneven
electronic distribution. As an example, FeAl does not have magnetic moment
in bulk but is magnetic in the form of nanoparticles. The factors that
determine magnetism of an element in bulk are crystallographic structure,
composition, vacancy defects and magnetic anisotropy. Two other essential
factors add up when nanoparticles are under consideration, those are, size
and shape of the NP (Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
3.4. Electrical and optical properties

These properties are exclusively observed in metallic and
semiconductor nanoparticles. Due to local surface plasmon resonance
(LSPR) effect and quantum confinement, these NPs possess uncommon
photoluminescence emission, linear absorption and nonlinear optical
properties. In metals, plasmons are the collective excitations of conductive
electrons. Plasmons are differentiated as bulk plasmons,
surface-propagating plasmons and surface-localized plasmons based on the
boundary conditions. The LSPR phenomenon is observed when the incident

photon frequency and the plasmons are at sync. Optical properties of NPs
are affected by the shape, size and the dielectric environment of the
nanoparticles (Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
3.5. Catalytic properties

In comparison to their bulk analogues, it has been reported that NP
catalysts exhibit obviously enhanced or novel catalytic properties such as
selectivity and reactivity. These properties of NPs are a function of their
shape, size, oxidation state, composition, support and inter-particle
spacing. The relation between the size and catalytic properties of NPs is
essentially an inverse one. i.e., smaller the size of nanoparticles, the more
catalytically active they tend to be. Researchers discovered that the smallest
NPs were the ones which provided highest normalized current densities.
Shape of the NP is also of significance in affecting the reactivity and
selectivity of nanoparticles. It was observed that, in the oxidation of CO
wherein Au NPs were being used, hemispherical NPs showed a greater
activity than the spherical NPs. The speculated reasons for these dramatic
changes are differences in stability of different shapes of NPs or the
increase or decrease in the relative surface area of catalytically active facets.
Apart from size and shape of NPs, their composition also plays a major role
in affecting the catalytic properties of nanoparticles. It has been proved that
use of alloys increases the catalytic efficiency of NPs as the alloying effect
causes changes in electronic properties, provides distinct selectivity and
reduces the poisoning effect of catalysts. Nanocatalysis is a fast-emerging
field within the domain of chemical catalysis wherein nanoparticles are used
as catalysts (Joudeh & Linke, 2022).

Figure 1: Physicochemical Properties of Nanoparticles
4. METHODS FOR SYNTHESIZING NANOPARTICLES

Today, a number of methods are available for the synthesis of NPs,
and they can be broadly classified into three types: physical, chemical and
biological methods. Physical methods of NP synthesis include rotor speed
ball mill, high energy ball mill among others wherein the total yield is
affected and is comparatively low. While the chemical methods of NP
synthesis give reasonably good yield, they cannot be relied on completely
because of the toxic precursors that are used or the toxic substances that
could be released into the environment during synthesis. Chemical methods
include utilization of chemical precursors for NP synthesis and the reaction
may be either a direct conversion or the one aided by a catalyst.
Nanoparticles of heavy metals are generally synthesized by chemical
methods. Biological methods of NP synthesis are the most eco-friendly and
environmentally benign methods of the three wherein bacteria, fungi or
plants are made use of, for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Also known as
biofabrication of nanoparticles, these methods make use of the ability of the
organisms to reduce metal ions and exploit cell-free extracts and
byproducts produced by them (Khan et al., 2019). Nanoparticle synthesis can
be classified into two different categories based on their approach to the
size-scale. They are,

4.1. Top-down approach of nanoparticle synthesis

Also known as the destructive pathway, in this approach, larger
particles are steadily reduced in size and structure towards the nanoscale.
Coconut shell nanoparticles and NPs of spherical magnetite (Fe2O3) are
synthesized in this way. A few examples of methods of NP synthesis that fall
under this category are mechanical milling, sputtering, chemical etching,
laser ablation and electro explosion (Khan et al., 2019).
4.2. Bottom-up approach of nanoparticle synthesis

The approach is also known as the building-up method. In contrast
to the previous approach, relatively smaller atoms and molecules assemble
together to form the nanostructures. TiO2 anatase NPs with graphene
domains are mostly synthesized by bottom-up approach. Sedimentation,
reduction, spinning, CVD, laser pyrolysis, atomic/molecular condensation
are some of the commonly used methods of NP synthesis that fall under the
category of this approach (Khan et al., 2019).
Figure 2: Various Methods of Synthesis of Nanoparticles
5. PHYSICAL CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR THE

SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
Synthesis of nanoparticles include different types of approaches
such as physical, chemical and biological approach, which is classified under

top down and bottom-up methods. These three approaches include wide
varieties of methods for the nanoparticle synthesis.
5.1. Physical approach

Physical methods provide thermal energy or electrical energy to
cause material abrasion, mechanical pressure, melting, evaporation or
condensation, high energy radiation to generate nanoparticles. This
physical method particularly works on top-down strategies. Since they are
free from the contamination of solvents and create uniformity in the
monodispersity of nanoparticles, they are said to be advantageous. But on
the other side of discussion, production of huge waste during the synthesis
of Nanoparticles makes it less economical. Some of the common physical
methods applied for the generation of Nanoparticles include high energy
ball milling, laser ablation, inert gas condensation, electro spraying, laser
spray pyrolysis, melt mixing, physical vapour deposition (Paramasivam et al.,
2021).
5.1.1. High energy ball milling

High energy ball milling, which is also termed as mechanical
alloying, is a method used in the development of dispersion-strengthened
high temperature alloys. In different fields, this technology has
demonstrated quiescent applications for material synthesis. To synthesize
materials for various applications such as solid-state solutions of ceramics,
nanocrystalline oxide powders etc, this technology is successfully used. A
wide variety of powders can be processed using ball milling to achieve
nanostructured materials. The most advantageous aspect of high energy ball
milling technique is that at room temperature, with a grain size in the
manometer scale the required, designed compound is synthesized. In
general, mechanical alloying is a technique of solid-state powder
processing, which includes continuous welding, fracturing and re-welding
of powdered particles in a high energy ball milling technique. Under high-
energy collision the powders distort plastically. The powder soldiers with
each other and give rise to new, aggregate particles with multiple
compositions with new sterile surfaces exposed by the mechanical
treatment. The repeated process of welding and fracturing leads to the
formation of fully alloyed powder. For the complete mechanical alloying,

efficient cold- welding of the materials are essential in this process

(Paramasivam et al., 2021).
5.1.2. Laser Ablation (LA) and pulse laser deposition (PLD)

Laser ablation technique is found to be an attractive method used in
fabricating and forming nanomaterial and also nanoparticles due to the
production of nanoparticles with high purity. Using this technique pure
nanomaterial or nanoparticles are obtained which are devoid of other
substances during the process. Utilizing laser beam of high power in laser
ablation method, evaporation of particles from a solid source is observed.
Two types of lasers are used in normal laser ablation processes namely
continuous laser and pulsed laser.
Pulse laser deposition is a type of vacuum related PVD process
which employs laser energy to wash out the materials from the targeted
site. Laser pulses of high power when hit to the surfaces of the target, leads
to melting, evaporation and ionization of the material. Materials which are
finally ablated are deposited onto the substrate. In the preparation of
numerous types of materials such as oxides, metallic systems, fullerene,
carbides, polymers, nitrides etc (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.1.3. Inert gas condensation (IGC)

Inert gas condensation is said to be a primordial technique for the
synthesis of nanoparticles, which employs inert gases and liquid nitrogen
cooled substrate holders for the nanoparticle synthesis. The substance
which is evaporated is carried along with the inert gases and it is condensed
onto the substrate that is attached to liquid nitrogen. This method is found
to be the most effective method for the synthesis of silver and platinum
which is of good quality. It is seen that with gas-phase synthesized
nanoparticles, surface decoration or functionalization of a conductive base
material constitutes an alternative for the thin film-based devices (Dhand et
al., 2015).
5.1.4. Electro spraying technique

Electro spraying is a technique based on an electromechanical
device that is similar to electrospinning technique. In this technique a
syringe is used to take up the solution mixture containing desired solvent
and the polymer. To the capillary tip high voltage is applied which leads to
the production of charged droplets. After the evaporation of the solvent

along the counter electrode, particles or fibers are finally collected as the
end product. This technique provides flexibility as well as control over the
surface parameters. This technique is used in membrane fabrication, and it
is also mentioned that it is an alternative method to obtain 3D printing of
membranes (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.1.5. Laser pyrolysis

Laser pyrolysis is a technique where the products of multiple
materials are generated by the cleavage and subsequent recombination of
chemical bonds of the reactants. Laser pyrolysis imposes a laser beam on
solid, liquid, or gaseous reagents which provide the energy necessary for
the pyrolysis reaction inside a reactor where there is a controlled and
oxygen free atmosphere. This technique is well known in the field of
production of nano powders which contain silicon and metal oxides or
noble metals starting from a gaseous precursor. When compared to other
types of pyrolysis technique, laser pyrolysis could be an alternative for fast
and flash pyrolysis when it comes to chemical characterization of the
reaction (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.1.6. Melt mixing

Melt mixing is a process where the polymer is mechanically mixed
with modified nanofillers. In this process instead of injection moulding
technique, kneading or extrusion method is used. Melt mixing is found to be
the oldest method applied in the designing of polymer composites, where
nanoparticles act as fillers to obtain characteristics of the desired materials.
This mechanical process is environmentally friendly (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.1.7. Physical vapour deposition (PVD)

Physical vapor deposition involves atomic level material transfer
using processes such as vaporization and thin film coating. In a simple way
of understanding, in the vapor state, alloys and metals can be transferred
from one state to another state. This process is environment friendly, since
it generates a small amount of pollution content during the process. Metal
hardness, wear resistance and oxidation resistance properties are improved
by applying PVD coating technique. In the process of fabrication of thin
material layers and formation of nanoparticles this method is used
(Paramasivam et al., 2021). Some of the commonly used PVD techniques

include sputtering, vacuum arc, electron beam evaporation, pulsed laser

deposition.
5.2. Chemical approach

Chemical approach for the synthesis of nanoparticles is the process
classified under bottom-up nanoparticle synthesis. For nanoparticle
synthesis by chemical method, organic and inorganic reducing agents are
used. Chemical synthesis results in agglomeration into oligomeric cluster
formation and metal formation as a result of reduction of ions by the
reducing agents. During the synthesis of metal nanoparticles, it is hard to
use protective agents, which is required for the stabilization of dispersive
nanoparticles. These protective agents prevent clumping of nanoparticles
during the synthesis process. Some of the protective agents such as Poly
methacrylic acid, polymethylmethacrylate, polyethylene glycol,
polyvinylpyrrolidone are used during the process. Chemical methods which
is a cause for the synthesis of nanoparticles include, sol- gel method, plasma
and chemical vapour synthesis, microwave assisted synthesis, polyol
synthesis, hydrothermal synthesis, salvo thermal synthesis, micro emulsion
technique (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.2.1. Sol-gel method

Sol-gel method is a process where, network of discrete particles or
network polymers are formed by the connection of sol particles, which is
the creation of sols in the liquid. In this method the sol stands for colloidal
suspension of solid particles in a liquid and gel is a polymer that contains
liquid. Sol-gel processes include two typical steps, that is hydrolysis and
condensation where water is used for the degeneration of bonds. After this
process condensation leads to the formation of nanomaterials. Following
the condensation process at the end, the final structure of the material is
determined by the removal of excess water. Nanoparticles such as Fe3O4 are
well synthesized using this process (Paramasivam et al., 2021).
5.2.2. Microwave assisted synthesis

Using microwave radiation numerous nanoparticles are synthesized.
This technique leads to fast and reproducible nanomaterial synthesis.
According to recent research, in the field of organic synthetic method
microwave heating technique is extensively used (Dhand et al., 2015).

5.2.3. Chemicals vapor synthesis

In the chemical vapor synthesis method, the three different states
(solid, liquid and gas) of precursor s are generated in the form of vapor
inside the reactor, where it requires particles to perform the nucleation
process. This process is also called differently such as chemical vapor
reaction (CVR), chemical vapor condensation (CVC), and chemical vapor
precipitation (CVP). By using this technique nanoparticles are synthesized at
a higher growth rate which results in reduction of cost of the material
5.2.4. Hydrothermal synthesis

Hydrothermal synthesis is a process utilized for the production of
hydrophobic or hydrophilic magnetic nanoparticles. Synthesis of
nanoparticles from different materials using this technique will be the most
simple and quick procedure. This technique is used to control the particle
size, compositions, surface chemistry, particle morphology and crystalline
phase by adjusting the pressure, aging time, reaction temperature, solvent
property, solution composition and additives. Inorganic nanoparticles are
synthesized by hydrothermal or electrochemical treatments (Dhand et al.,
2015).
5.2.5. Micro emulsion technique

Microemulsions consisting of minimum three components such as
polar phase(water), surfactant, and non-polar phase (oil or hydrocarbon
liquid) ,and it is macroscopically homogeneous, optically transparent,
thermally stable and also provide isotropic dispersions. Depending on the
surfactant used, monodispersed droplets or oil-in-water are present in the
microemulsion system. The best technique for the synthesis of
nanoparticles is applying a water-in-oil reverse micellar system during the
process. This technique is used in the synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials,
where metal nanoparticles are synthesized easily by this technique by using
the reduction strategy. By using this process, well crystallized nanoparticles
can be produced, but its versatility is limited in terms of nanoparticles size,
shape and nature (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.2.6. Solvothermal synthesis

Solvothermal synthesis is a method which has been introduced
since the 1840s as a means of analogue preparation of natural minerals. The

word hydrothermal means, utilization of water as a medium for the reaction

where in a closed vessel water is heated at or above its boiling point, there is
an introduction of antigenous pressure. The term solvothermal was
introduced later to encompass the usage of any other solvent heated above
its boiling point. When compared to other methods solvothermal synthesis
is termed as advantageous, where directly from the solution, crystallization
of the desired phase occurs and directly at the point of synthesis it offers
the potential to control the crystal habitat and it is also devoid of high
temperature annealing that is necessary to induce crystallization which
might destroy the intricate crystal formation (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.2.7. Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition is also known as plasma
assisted chemical vapor deposition. This is a well known process which is
utilized for the deposition of thin films at the same time it can also be used
in the synthesis of nanoparticles. In this process chemical reactions are
enhanced by the plasma for the synthesis of nanoparticles and also thin
films. During this process reactivity of plasma at low input power causes the
slaw chemical reaction rate which results in the monomer formation. Due to
slow reaction rate, there is a formation of a small number of nuclei and
eventually a certain amount of unreacted precursor molecules exit. When a
huge number of species which are unreacted will condense and react with a
small number of nuclei that results in the formation of large sized particles
5.2.8. Polyol synthesis

Polyol process is the synthesis of compounds that consists of metal
which uses polyethylene glycol as reaction media, that acts as solvent, and
also as reducing agent and complexing agent, with dissolved protecting or
stabilization agents. This method is used in the mass production of
nanoparticles. Metal hybrid nanoparticles, metal-based nanoparticles, metal
oxide nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles were created using polyol
synthesis (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.3. Biological approach for the synthesis of nanoparticles

Bionanotechnology is the advanced process which is the
combination of Biology and nanotechnology, that contains living entities of
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic origin. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles are

listed below the bottom-up method, where the primary reactions are
involved.
Even the physical and chemical methods are said to be so efficient in
creating well defined nanoparticles, they are observed with some drawbacks
such as higher production cost, long synthesis time, difficulty in
purification, and also discharge of hazardous by-products. Synthesis of
nanoparticles by using biological entities is by both intracellularly and
extracellularly. Biological systems such as viruses, yeast, fungi,
actinomycetes, bacteria, biomolecules, plant-based extracts are used in the
preparation of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. There are mainly three
types of categories where the biological process of nanoparticle synthesis
can take place, namely biomolecules-based synthesis,
microorganisms-based synthesis, plants-based synthesis (Dhand et al.,
2015).
5.3.1. Biomolecules based synthesis

Different types of biomolecules such as nucleic acid, membrane,
diatoms and viruses are utilised in the synthesis of nanoparticles as
templates. Mainly DNA is a well known biomolecular template, which has a
strong attraction with transition metal ions. The functional groups such as
amino acids that are found in molecular enzymes, which are used in the
metal nanoparticle synthesis that may function as reducing agents. Actin
filaments serve as a template for the synthesis of nanowires (Dhand et al.,
2015).
5.3.2. Microorganisms based synthesis

Microbial synthesis of nanoparticles is a method of green chemistry
that combines nanotechnology and microbial nanotechnology. The
microbes are minute organisms which consist of bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Optoelectronics, bioimaging, sensor technology, are the application of
extracellular nanoparticle production. Most commonly used bioreactors in
the nanoparticle synthesis include fungi, yeast, bacteria, yeast, virus, algae
and actinomycetes (Dhand et al., 2015).
5.3.2. Plant based synthesis

Plants secret biomolecules for the synthesis of nanoparticles which
reduce metal ions and are functionally active. In the process of nanoparticle
synthesis plants and their different parts are used because they are

inexpensive, spontaneous and consist of a single step biosynthesis process.

Usage of plants for the nanoparticle synthesis will be convenient, handled
easily, and also contain different types of metabolites which may abet in
reaction. The natural biomolecules present in plants help in bio reduction,
capping, formation and stabilization of nanoparticles (Dhand et al., 2015).
6. MECHANISM OF PLANT MEDIATED SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES

In recent years, the Nanotechnology sector is emerging as one of
the active domains of research. The production of silver nanoparticles from
plant sources is a significant area of biosynthetic research. Plants have long
been recognized to have the ability to reduce metal ions in a variety of
organs and tissues that are away from the site of ion penetration as well as
on their surface. The testing and evaluation of plants to synthesize metallic
nanoparticles has been the subject of much published research; yet the
fundamental idea behind the synthesis of nanomaterials has gotten
relatively little scholarly attention. In order to produce nanoparticles,
reducing agents, capping agents, solvents, metal salts, nucleation, growth,
aggregation, stability, and characterization are among the general
equipment, procedures, and materials required.
Figure 3: Mechanism of synthesis of Nanoparticles using Plant Extract

A number of studies were conducted on the synthesis of

nanoparticles using different plant parts. Chemical reduction is the most
commonly used mechanism for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Plant
extracts contain a variety of active ingredients, such as alkaloids, phenols,
terpenoids, quinines, amides, flavonoids, proteins, and alcohols. Of these,
reducing active ingredients, such as flavonoids and phenols, can both
reduce some metal cations to MNPs and function as stabilizers to stop
MNPs from aggregating, which is important for the green synthesis of
MNPs. The reduction phase, growth phase, and termination phase are the
three general steps that are involved in the process of synthesizing MNPs
utilizing plant extracts. Through electron transfer, the reducing
Phyto-actives in reduced stage lower metal ions to zero-valent metal atoms.
Then, in the growth step, the growth of zero-valent metal atoms occurs by
their aggregation into metallic nanoparticles having different shapes such as
linear, rod-shaped, triangular, hexagonal, or cubic. In order to keep MNPs
stable during the termination stage, the Phyto-active components with
antioxidant qualities are supplemented surrounding the MNPs in the final
phase. More positive reduction potential indicates that the reduction of
metals takes place at a faster rate. Slower reduction rate implies that the
nucleation and growth phase are at close proximity to equilibrium. The
study on the synthesis of nanoparticles using alfalfa sprouts by Gardea et al.,
2003 reported that the alfalfa roots are capable of absorbing silver (Ag) from
the agar medium and ascend them to the shoot region of the plant in the
same oxidation state.
The characterization of the synthesized nanoparticles can

be performed by various techniques such as Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM), Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX), Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM), Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-vis), X-ray
Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The
size, shape and the particle aggregation of the preferable nanoparticles are
determined using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron
Microscopy techniques without making any comparison to the standard
materials. The most generally used method for the characterization of the
nanoparticles is the Spectrometric technique. Based on the particle
accumulation and average particle size, the UV-Spectrometry is used to
analyse the nanoparticles. The composition and distribution of the

nanoparticles is verified using the spectrum and element mapping in EDX.

The structural properties and crystallinity are decided using FTIR and XRD
techniques. Nowadays the plant mediated synthesis of nanoparticles is an
emerging field of study. Based on different studies, it is proved that based
on the nature of plant extract, the nanoparticles can be synthesized using
the extract within a short time at room temperature. Concentration of the
extract, metal salt, temperature, pH and time of contact are the major
components affecting the synthesis of nanoparticles.
As the plants are easily accessible and as the different regions of the
plant are rich in numerous bioactive components that are capable of
reducing the Ag ion, the plant mediated synthesis of desired nanoparticles is
most preferred. Terpenoids, polysaccharides, phenolics, alkaloids,
flavonoids, amino acids, alcoholic compounds enzymes, and proteins are the
bioactive components responsible for the reduction of silver ion to silver
nanoparticles during the process of plant mediated synthesis of
nanoparticles. The availability of natural capping agents such as proteins
enhance the stability of plant extract-based synthesis of nanoparticles by
avoiding the accumulation of particles. The antioxidant properties of
nanoparticles also serve as the reducing agents in the synthesis of metal
nanoparticles.
The use of plant extract mediated synthesis of nanoparticles has

significant advantages of cost effectiveness, nontoxic, easy scaling up and
ecofriendly perspectives resulting in sustainable nanoscience development
(Khan et al., 2022).
7.APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES
7.1.Pharmacological applications of metallic nps

● Antibacterial activities
Silver nanoparticles work as antibacterial agents by effectively
disintegrating the complex polymeric cell membranes of pathogenic
bacterial cells. Additionally, Ag NPs are efficient in affecting the mechanisms
of protein synthesis in the bacteria. The concentration of NPs used is
directly proportional to the rate of cell wall rupturing and increasing
membrane permeability. Gold and silver NPs strongly bind to the active

sites of the cell membrane thus inhibiting most of the functions of cell cycle
(Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
● Antifungal activities
Fungicidal activities of NPs are found to have much more potential
than those of commercial antibiotics like amphotericin and fluconazole. The
membranes of fungal cells are found to be damaged in case of Candida spp.
Further leading to the damage of intracellular components and finally loss of
cell function and cell death. Metallic NPs are preferred more than the
commercially available antifungal agents and the antibiotics because the
latter have more adverse effects and less recovery. Adverse effects include
renal failure, nausea, and acute increase in the body temperature, diarrhea
and liver damage. NPs are also effective in inhibiting spore germination and
subsequent growth of fungi (Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
● Anticancer studies
Cancer is the term used to describe a condition of uncontrolled
proliferation of cells with hysterical changes in the biochemical and
enzymatic parameters of the cells, which is a characteristic of tumour cells.
Metallic NPs act as novel controlling agents as they arrest over expression
of cellular growth and regulate the cell cycle mechanisms. These NPs have
significant effects on different cancer cell lines like Hep 2, HCT 116 and HeLa
cell lines. The cytotoxic effect of these plant-based metallic nanoparticles is
attributed to the various secondary metabolites that are synthesized and
the non-metal compositions that are present in the synthesizing medium
(Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
● Antiviral effects of metallic NPs

Viral pathogens enter hosts passing through all the barriers of the
immunological system and cause diseases that are difficult to cure or lack
treatment. They rapidly multiply within the host cells and increase their
colony numbers. Silver NPs are proven to be potent broad-spectrum
antiviral agents that inhibit viral activities. They effectively inhibit the entry
of viruses into the host system. Moreover, metallic nanoparticles are known
to have a persuasive effect on HIV at early stages of reverse transcription
mechanism (Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).

● Antidiabetic management of NPs

Diabetes mellitus is the term given to a metabolic dysfunction
wherein the body fails to metabolize the sugars taken in by the person
which in turn leads to uncontrolled levels of sugar in blood. Generally, a
balanced diet or insulin drug uptake can be made use of to treat the patients
and control the levels of sugar. It has been found that metallic NPs that are
derived from plants could serve as alternatives to cure diabetes. In
particular, it was seen that gold (Au) NPs assist in treating diabetes by
reducing the levels of enzymes synthesized by liver such as alanine
transaminase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (AP), creatinine levels in the
serum and uric acid in a model organism that was treated with
biosynthesized NPs (Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
● Mechanisms of anti-oxidation
Antioxidants are particles that act as scavengers and regulate the
formation of free radicals, thus preventing aging of cells. They can be either
enzymatic, like superoxide dismutases (SOD) or non-enzymatic substances
like lycopenes. If oxidation by free radicals is uncontrolled, it may as well
lead to severe conditions like cancer. The antioxidant activity of
biosynthesized silver (Ag) NPs is proven to be more efficient than the
commercially available standards like butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Joudeh & Linke,
2022).
7.2. Applications of nanoparticles in food industry

Food products are prone to contamination at different levels like
importing raw materials, manufacturing, processing and shipping. In the
food industry, apart from being used as preservatives, plant-derived
nanoparticles play a significant role as biosensors. These are devices that
detect even traces of any pathogen that is present in the given food sample
and monitor the load of contaminants at different stages of food processing
at a reasonable cost. They ensure the quality of products by indicating the
presence of any harmful microorganism in the samples (Kuppusamy et al.,
2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).

7.3. Nps in cosmetic industry

Metallic NPs are used as preservatives in cosmetic and food
industries. Silver (Ag), silica (SiO2), platinum (Pt), and titanium oxide (TiO2)
nanoparticles are used as major ingredients in cosmetic products like
sunscreen, toothpastes, mouthwashes, hair-care products, anti-ageing
creams and perfumes. Apart from these, the metallic NPs are also used as
coating agents of pharmaceutical products. Since the chemical ingredients
used in the cosmetic products are mostly synthetic, they cause a range of
side effects to the user. Biosynthesized NPs on the other hand prove to be
excellent alternatives as they have negligible side effects (Kuppusamy et al.,
2016; Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
7.4. Commercial applications of Nps

Nanoparticles that are derived from plants have various applications
in our everyday life as they prove to be highly efficient and eco-friendly.
Silver (Ag), silica (SiO2) and platinum (Pt) nanoparticles have a decent
demand as they have applications in the fields of bone and teeth cementing,
water purifiers etc. modified silica NPs have pesticide controlling ability and
have a variety of agricultural and non-agricultural applications. Apart from
these, AgNPs are good conductors of heat and can be used in many
mechanical devices. They are especially used in instrumentations that are
liable to heat like UV-spectrophotometer and the lids of PCR machineries.
These NPs are coated onto the equipment and are stable at extreme
temperatures thus do not interact with the samples (Kuppusamy et al., 2016;
Joudeh & Linke, 2022).
8. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

The scientific domains of nanoscience and nanotechnology are
inherently trans-disciplinary. It is imperative for biologists to understand
not only the fundamentals of nanoscience but also the tools and techniques
used in the past to characterize nanomaterials in order to effectively apply
new bio-based approaches. The various kinds of nanoparticles that have
been discovered and studied have served an instrumental part in the
development of nanotechnologies, producing breakthroughs in drug
delivery that can save lives and increasing the effectiveness of a wide range
of processes. Over the past 20 years, a great deal of research has been
carried out regarding the biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles making use of

plant derivatives. Eco-friendly metallic nanoparticle synthesis is induced by

plant metabolites. Potentially, innovative substrates for large-scale
manufacturing could be used in the environmentally friendly synthesis of
nanoparticles employing plant crude extracts and purified metabolites.
There are several possible applications for plant-mediated nanoparticles,
including medicine, pharmaceuticals, sustainable and renewable energy,
and other commercial products. Plant-derived metallic nanoparticles are
expected to have an impact on the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of
ailments, with minimal side effects. In the future, the plants could be
harnessed to synthesize metallic nanoparticles for use in healthcare and
consumer goods.
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NANOPARTICLES: CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR DIVERSE

Chapter · May 2024

Syed Baker Ashwini Prasad

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NANOPARTICLES: CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR DIVERSE

Ranjini H.K 1, Syed Baker 2, Niranjan Raj 2. S, Apeksha. V 1, Kripali. K.P

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Keywords: Nanotechnology; Nanoparticles; Applications; Characterization.

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 313

Nanoparticles refer to extremely small particles or structures with

An isodimensional nanoparticle is one which has all its dimensions

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 314

non-environmentally friendly processes (Dikshit et al., 2021). The utilization

Fullerene also known as buck ball is one of the many allotropic

2.2. Ceramic Nanoparticles

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 315

cooling. Ceramic nanoparticles are structurally versatile as they can be

2.3. Metallic Nanoparticles

2.4. Polymeric Nanoparticles

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 316

mass that is completely encapsulated within a particle. Herein, the active

2.5. Semiconductor Nanoparticles

2.6. Lipid based Nanoparticles

3. PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES

3.1. Mechanical properties

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 317

between all the 10 mechanical properties, attributed to the surface and

3.2. Thermal properties

3.3. Magnetic properties

3.4. Electrical and optical properties

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 318

3.5. Catalytic properties

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 319

Figure 1: Physicochemical Properties of Nanoparticles

4. METHODS FOR SYNTHESIZING NANOPARTICLES

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 320

4.1. Top-down approach of nanoparticle synthesis

4.2. Bottom-up approach of nanoparticle synthesis

Figure 2: Various Methods of Synthesis of Nanoparticles

5. PHYSICAL CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR THE

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 321

5.1. Physical approach

5.1.1. High energy ball milling

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 322

efficient cold- welding of the materials are essential in this process

5.1.2. Laser Ablation (LA) and pulse laser deposition (PLD)

5.1.3. Inert gas condensation (IGC)

5.1.4. Electro spraying technique

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 323

5.1.5. Laser pyrolysis

5.1.6. Melt mixing

5.1.7. Physical vapour deposition (PVD)

IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 324

include sputtering, vacuum arc, electron beam evaporation, pulsed laser

5.2. Chemical approach

5.2.1. Sol-gel method

5.2.2. Microwave assisted synthesis