Form 1 Geo Notes
Form 1 Geo Notes
Form 1 Geo Notes
MAPWORK
What is a map?
A map is a diagrammatic representation of part of the earth surface on a piece of paper and
is drawn to scale.
Features represented on a map are both natural (relief, water, vegetation) and man-made.
In other words, it is a summary of how a place looks like on a flat drawing.
Maps are drawn to scale.
Signs and symbols are used on the map to represent real features.
Examples of physical features found on maps include mountains, rivers, hills, gorges, lakes
and plateaus.
Components of a good map
Maps are important documents used as primary tools to visualise and understand
geographical spatial relationships.
In order for a map reader to understand the communications of a map, there are certain
characteristics a map should possess.
These include the following:
Title
A map title is very important as it tells the map reader what the map is all about.
It is usually found on the top part of the map.
It also shows the location of the data or area being represented on the map.
The title is usually written in bold letter such as the one of the Zimbabwean map on Fig 1.1.
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Fig 1.1
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Fig 1.2
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Fig
Scale 1.0
Grid/Graticules
A grid is a network of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines used to identify locations on
a map.
It is a way of locating features or objects on a map using coordinates.
The image on Fig 1.5 shows a grid on a map.
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Fig 1.5
A grid on a map
For example, the location of the school is A3 while that of the police is D4.
On the other hand, graticules are lines showing parallels of latitude and meridians of
longitude for the earth.
Graticules can be used to show location in geographic coordinates using degrees of latitude
and longitude.
The map on Fig 1.6 illustrates this.
The location New Orleans is 30˚N 90˚W as shown by the black dot.
Both grid and graticules show the viewer the absolute location of the objects on the map.
Cartographer
A cartographer is a person who draws maps.
The name of the cartographer is usually written on the map.
Coordinate reference system
This is a coordinate based system used to locate geographical features.
It provides a framework for defining real world locations.
This system defines locations in terms of the position on the globe using latitude and
longitude values.
This enables every location on earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.
Activity
Using the scale on Scale 1.0, calculate the actual area of square D4 on Fig 1.5. This enables every
location on earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.
Types of maps
Maps are classified according to the features they show or represent.
Therefore, we have many types but at this level the focus is on topographical, political,
physical and economic maps.
Topographical maps
A topographical map is a map that shows relief, water and vegetation features of an area.
Topographical maps may also show man-made features like dams, roads, dip tanks,
settlements and boundaries.
They are usually highly detailed.
They make use of contour lines to show changes in landscape or elevation.
The contour lines show height above sea level.
The map on Fig 1.7 is an example of a topographical map with contour lines.
The brown numbered lines are the contour lines.
Fig 1.7
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Political maps
A political map shows human-made political or government boundaries.
These maps do not have topographic features.
They show the location of cities or countries in relation to each other.
Political maps can be detailed for instance from a small little town to capital cites up to
countries of the world.
The map on Fig 1.8 shows the political map of Africa.
Fig 1.8
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Fig 1.9
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Fig 1.10
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Fig 1.11
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Fig 1.12
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Fig 1.13
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It is not possible to draw and label every single feature in words on a map, therefore
cartographers use map signs and symbols.
These symbols are generally accepted by cartographers (map makers).
Map symbols are classified into two groups: those representing physical features and those
representing human features.
Symbols of physical features
Symbols of physical features are further subdivided into water, relief and vegetation.
Water features
All water features are represented on a map with the associative colour blue.
The water features maybe natural such as streams, springs and marsh or man-made such as
dams, water tanks and canals.
In the presentation of symbols on Fig 1.14, water features stand out with their colour blue.
Fig 1.14
Water features
Although not all of the water features may be memorised, it is important to keep familiarity
with the following: small stream, river, waterfall, rapid, well, borehole, dam, reservoir and
marsh.
Activity
Identify from the key given on Fig 1.15 and reproduce, by drawing, the above named features in
your exercise books.
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Fig 1.15
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Fig 1.16
Landforms
Vegetation features
Vegetation features are represented in the colour green.
The green colour can be of different due to denote differences in density.
In Zimbabwe we usually use four broad classifications namely: dense bush, medium bush,
sparse bush or open grassland and plantation or orchard.
The image on Fig 1.17 shows vegetation symbols.
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Fig 1.17
Vegetation symbols
Human features
These are physical features built by humans and they constitute the biggest class.
They are mostly represented in black although a variety of other colours may be used to give
prominence to some features.
Red is usually used to represent roads and boundaries.
The main key given earlier shows the different classes of human features symbols.
One can compare those to the small extract given on Fig 1.18 and Fig 1.19.
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Fig 1.18
Linear features
Fig 1.19
Cardinal Points
When telling the direction of one place from the other e.g. A from B, we start at B as shown
on Fig 1.21.
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Fig 1.21
Direction of a point
We draw a north-south line at B and connect B to A with a line.
We are thus able to estimate the direction of A as south east.
Compass points are good in that they are easy and fast to use since they do not entail
measurement.
They also use the skill of generalisation.
On a map, the method is most useful in describing location of extensive areas.
Its weakness is in the fact that exactness or accuracy of a location is difficult to arrive at
when using the method.
It is not very useful in locating points.
Using the sketch map below, direction is useful in locating the school and house which do
not happen to be points.
The school is in the north-west (NW) while the house is in the south-south-east (SSE) of the
map.
Accuracy is, however, demanded in locating points A and B on the map in general as well as
in relation to each other.
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Fig 1.22
A sketch map
Using bearing is the other way of enhancing use of compass points when locating places.
Activity
Use the cardinal points to locate your home from your school, church and friend’s home.
Design and make a 8 cardinal point compass using materials of your choice.
Bearing
A bearing is a measurement of direction between two points.
Bearings measure direction with North taken as a reference.
Bearing is measured clockwise from North.
It involves the use of both compass points and angles.
Bearing gives location of a place in relation to another place.
Below are the steps taken to measure bearing.
Steps in measuring bearing
1. Connect the two points with a pencil line.
2. Draw a north line at the point written ‘FROM’ of the point whose bearing is to be measured.
3. Position the protractor with 0˚ along the north line you have drawn.
4. Measure the angle from the north line clockwise to the line connecting the two points.
Example
What is the location of point B from A?
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Fig 1.23
Bearing
Telling the bearing of B from A involves drawing a north south line at A.
We draw a straight line from A to B.
The bearing of B from A is the angle of B on the north-south line from A.
Please note that in this case we use the Grid North, we then measure the angle between the
north-south line and the line joining A to B using a compass.
Bearing is thus 245°.
If we want the bearing of A from B, again we measure from B the angle of A on the north-
south line which is 065°.
Fig 1.24 is an example of the different angles that can be measured to give bearing of a
place.
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Fig 1.24
Angles
Please note that in all cases, the grid north is the one used.
Bearing can be given as combination of both compass direction and angle.
In Fig 1.25, A is from the north 60° towards the east (N60°E).
Fig 1.25
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Reverse bearing
In the illustration on Fig 1.26, bearing of school from home is 40°.
Reverse bearing is thus 40° + 180° = 220°.
If our initial bearing from a place is 260° then our reverse bearing will be 260° – 180° = 80°.
In the second case, our initial bearing is above 180° so we subtract 180°.
Using distance, direction and/or bearing we are able to follow description of routes on
maps.
Magnetic compasses
It is a compass with a magnetised needle to indicate direction in relation to the magnetic
poles of the earth.
It uses the earth’s magnetic fields to determine where you are and the direction you want to
go.
The image on Fig 1.27 shows a magnetic compass.
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Fig 1.27
Magnetic Compass
Uses of magnetic compasses
It helps to determine direction so that people do not get lost when navigating.
It helps determine the exact location of the magnetic north hence making it easy for ships
and aircrafts to find their routes.
Magnetic compasses enables navigation to be more accurate as some have automatic
magnetic declination (that is the angle between true north and magnetic north).
It enables users to determine bearings accurately and pinpoint locations on the earth’s
surface.
Measuring distance
We measure straight lines with a ruler.
We multiply our measured distances (cm) with our representative fraction (e.g. 1:50 000).
If we measure distance of 16cm on a map, actual distance on the ground will be: x 16 =
32km.
The challenge of measuring distances on a map comes when we measure curved distances.
One simple way is to use a string to follow through all bends and then straighten it up on a
ruler to get straight line distance.
This is shown on Fig 1.28:
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Fig 1.28
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Fig 1.29
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Fig 1.30
Mapwork-Exercise 1
2) Longitudes are a set of imaginary lines drawn on the earth’s surface for the purposes of locating
places. True
False
5) Maps are classified into political, topographical and economic maps only. True
False
7) Water features on a map are associated with the green colour. True
False
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8) A Geographic Coordinate System is a 2-dimensional reference system that locates points on the
earth’s surface. True
False
9) The Geographic Coordinate System is the only way of showing location on a map. True
False
10) A map is a pragmatic representation of part of the earth on a piece of paper drawn to scale.
True
False
WEATHER STUDIES
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Fig 2.1.1
Six’s Thermometer
This is a U-shaped tube containing both the mercury and alcohol.
It is made up of two tubes that combine to make the maximum and minimum
thermometers.
These thermometers record the highest and lowest temperatures reached over a period of
24 hours.
When temperature rises, the alcohol under the left bulb expands pushing the mercury down
the left tube and up the right tube.
As the mercury rises, it pushes the metal index upwards.
Maximum temperature readings are taken on the base of the metal index on the right tube.
When temperature drops, the alcohol in the left side contracts and the mercury moves from
the right tube to the left pushing the metal index up.
Minimum temperature readings are then taken on the base of the metal index on the left.
The six’s thermometer is kept in a wooden box called the Stevenson screen.
Temperature calculations
The temperature readings taken daily are used to calculate the following:
Average or mean daily temperature
Daily temperature range
Mean monthly temperature and;
Mean annual temperature.
o These are calculated as illustrated below:
o Average or mean temperature is obtained by adding the maximum and minimum
temperatures of the day and dividing the total by 2.
Mean Temperature = [Math Processing Error](Maximum+Minimum)2
For Example, Let Us Use The Temperatures Readings Below To Find Mean Temperature.
Maximum temperature =30°C
Minimum temperature =18°C
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Humidity
Humidity is defined as the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
It is measured by an instrument called a hygrometer or a wet and dry bulb thermometer.
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Hygrometer
The wet and dry bulb thermometer is also kept in a Stevenson screen.
The temperature of the atmosphere determines humidity.
High temperatures increases the ability of air to hold more water than low temperatures.
The air has a certain point where it can no longer hold more water.
When that point is reached, it is said to be saturated.
A warm air can hold more water than a cold air before it becomes saturated.
When the air becomes saturated, the probability for rain to fall is high.
The actual amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a given temperature is known
as absolute humidity.
The ratio between actual humidity of a given body of air and the maximum amount of water
vapour that it can hold at that temperature is called relative humidity.
Change in humidity provides the basis for the formation of rainfall.
When the temperature of the atmosphere continue to fall, condensation takes place leading
to the formation of clouds, mist, dew or fog.
How a hygrometer works
If the air is dry, evaporation takes place and moisten the muslin cloth on the wet bulb.
This cools the bulb causing the mercury in the wet bulb to contract thus dropping the
temperature.
The dry bulb thermometer is not affected by the evaporation and therefore shows a
different reading to that of the wet bulb thermometer.
The wet bulb thermometer will show a lower reading than that of the dry bulb
thermometer.
When the air in atmosphere is saturated, no evaporation will take place.
This causes the thermometers to show the same reading.
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Mercury barometer
How a mercury barometer works
At sea level, air pressure that is available is able to support a column of mercury which is
76cm or 760mm in height.
760mm at sea level is equal to 1013 millibars.
An increase in pressure will result in the rise of mercury in the tube.
However, when the pressure falls, the level of mercury also decreases in the tube.
The changes in the mercury levels indicates the pressure that is exerted by the air above the
tube.
A scale marked on the tube is used to indicate the air pressure exerted.
Aneroid Barometer
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This instrument is made of a small metal box with an air tight chamber which is very
sensitive to pressure changes.
The image on Fig 2.1.4 shows an aneroid barometer.
Fig 2.1.4
Aneroid Barometer
Its walls flex in and out with the changes in pressure.
When the pressure rises the top of the box bends inside.
When the pressure falls the walls flex out.
A spring attached to the chamber moves the pointer on the dial in response to pressure
changes.
The pointer will show the amount of atmospheric pressure being experienced.
This doesn’t record accurate pressure as compared to the mercury barometer.
Rainfall
Rainfall is another element of weather.
It is measured by an instrument called a rain gauge.
The instrument is made of a copper container which is cylindrical in shape.
It also consists of a measuring cylinder, collecting can and a funnel.
Usually, both the collecting can and funnel are made of copper.
Copper protects the gauge from rust.
The rain gauge is buried under ground leaving part of it 30cm above the ground level.
The rain falling over the funnel, flows through the funnel into the collecting can.
The water collected is then put into the measuring cylinder.
The measuring cylinder is graduated in millimetres.
The picture on Fig 2.1.5 shows a rain gauge and its parts.
Siting a rain gauge
The rain gauge is kept away from buildings and trees to prevent water from splashing from
the ground into the funnel.
Sinking the gauge into the ground also protects it from the sun's heat.
Wind
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A wind vane
The daily wind direction is recorded on a wind rose.
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Fig 2.1.7
A wind rose
The boxes are marked according to the number of days when wind blew from that direction.
The number of calm days is written on the centre of the wind rose.
Example:
Fig 2.1.8
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Cup anemometer
Sunshine
The sunshine that is received by a particular place is recorded each day.
The instrument used to record sunshine is called a sunshine recorder.
It is made of a glass which has a spherical shape.
The spherical shape has a metal frame around it and inside it is a sensitive card.
The card has hours and minutes to record the sunshine.
The picture on Fig 2.1.10 shows a sunshine recorder.
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Fig 2.1.10
A sunshine recorder
How a Sunshine Recorder works
The glass sphere will focus the sun's rays towards the card.
As the sun continues to rise and shine the rays will make a burning trace on the card.
The card is then taken out at the end of the day.
The total amount of sunshine of the day is recorded by converting the length of the burning
trace into hours and minutes.
NB
All these elements and their measuring are found at a weather station.
Activities
At your school or nearest school, visit the weather station, identify and write down the
weather elements in there.
Record and calculate the averages of that day.
Collect newspaper articles and calculate the averages for that week,
Weather-elements-and-instruments-Exercise 1
Choose the most appropriate answer for each of the following questions.
1) All of the following are elements of weather except ________. rainfall
temperature
wind
floods
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24˚C
24˚C
30˚C
25˚C
20˚C
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Degrees Celsius
7) A small difference in the readings of the hygrometer means humidity is ________. low
high
saturated
medium
9) Which of the following pair makes up a hygrometer? Wet and dry thermometers
Maximum and minimum thermometers
Wet and minimum thermometers
Dry and maximum thermometers
Weather station
A weather station is a place where data on weather conditions is recorded and studied.
This data is used for making weather forecasts and studying weather and climate.
Most schools have their own weather stations.
The image on Fig 2.2.1 shows a typical school weather station.
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Fig 2.2.1
There are a lot of factors that influence the location of a weather station.
Location of a weather station
A weather station must be ideally located for accurate and reliable weather readings.
The following factors are considered when situating a weather station.
It must be located in an open space, far away from buildings, trees, tall grasses and other
obstructions for accurate readings.
For instance, a rain gauge must be located away from trees and buildings to avoid spillage
into it so as to accurately record the amount of rainfall received.
Instruments that measure wind speed and direction should be located away from trees and
buildings where there is free movement of wind for accurate readings.
A weather station must be fenced to protect it from vandalism as it houses fragile
instruments that can be easily damaged.
It must also be located on a flat or even ground for the best weather readings as slopes tend
to receive differential heating from the sun hence giving inaccurate temperature readings.
The Stevenson Screen
A Stevenson Screen is found at all weather stations.
The hygrometer and the Six’s thermometer are kept in the Stevenson screen.
They are protected from rain, heat, snow, winds, leaves and animals.
It provides a conducive environment to record accurate temperature readings and the actual
humidity of the day.
The picture on Fig 2.2.2 shows these two thermometers inside the Stevenson screen.
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Fig 2.2.2
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Fig 2.2.3
Stevenson’s Screen
Weather symbols
A weather symbol is a conventional sign used in meteorological records or weather-maps, to
represent designated phenomenon.
The following symbols have been adopted by the International Meteorological Congress for
recording weather.
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Fig 2.2.4
Weather symbols
Cloud measurement
These are symbols used to represent clouds on maps.
Cloud symbols
Various
cloud types
Clouds
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Clouds are formed when water vapour in the air turns into water droplets through the
process called condensation.
Clouds can easily be seen and people can tell their shape and colour. The shape and colour
can help to estimate whether it will rain or not.
Types of clouds
Clouds are classified by height (altitude) of the cloud base and appearance/shape.
When clouds are classified according to appearance/shape, we have the following:
Cirrus – wispy clouds
Stratus – layered clouds
Cumulus – heaped clouds
These clouds also combine to form other cloud types such as cumulonimbus, altostratus and
so on.
Classification according to height (altitude) gives the following clouds:
High level clouds (7km and above)
Cirrocumulus
o Resembles ripples, like what waves leave in sand.
o Composed of ice crystals.
o They are globular thin clouds.
Cirrostratus
Thin veil of ice crystals.
They have a milky and white appearance which is almost transparent to the sun.
They cause a halo effect on the sun and moon.
Cirrus
High and wispy
Made up of ice crystals which are white and crispy.
Middle level clouds (2km – 7km)
Altocumulus
It is made of water droplets which are bumpy looking.
Appears like neat rolls or long bands.
They are layered bumpy-looking clouds with a flat base.
Altostratus
Thin grey or blue sheet watery-looking clouds.
May partly or totally cover the sky.
It is made up water droplets.
Usually totally or partially cover the sky.
Lower level clouds (0 – 2km)
Nimbostratus
A dense grey shapeless cloud that covers the sky.
It may block the sunlight.
Stratus
A flat layered cloud.
It’s a fog-like low cloud.
Stratocumulus
Sheet of parallel rolls with flat bottom.
It is soft and grey in shape which looks like sausages.
Cumulus
Puffy pile of cloud.
Cumulonimbus
This is a rain bearing cloud which stretches from the lower level to the high level.
It has an anvil head on its top.
The diagram on Fig 2.2.6 shows a pictorial summary of these clouds.
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Fig 2.2.6
Weather-station-and-weather-data-Exercise 1
Choose the most appropriate answer for each of the following questions.
1) The following symbol shows _______.
drizzle
thunderstorm
heavy rains
fog
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Stratus
Cumulus
Altostratus
3) Which of the following is not a locational factor for siting a weather station? Open space far
away from buildings and trees.
Fenced to protect it from vandalism.
Must be kept in a secure house far away from thieves.
It must be located on a flat ground.
4) Altostratus clouds are described as all of the following except_______. thin grey sheet of
watery-looking clouds
partially or totally cover the sky
being made-up of water droplets
being layered and bumpy-looking
6) A place where data on weather is recorded and studied is called a _______. school
weather station
police station
bank
7) Which of the following is a characteristic of a Stevenson’s screen? It has a flat double roof.
It is painted blue to reflect direct sunlight heat.
It has sealed sides.
It has long legs which are 125cm above the ground.
Question Image
stratus
cirrus
cumulonimbus
nimbostratus
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Cirrostratus
Altostratus
Nimbostratus
Rainfall
Rainfall occurs when moist air is forced to rise.
As it rises it cools and condensation of water vapour takes place.
The water droplets increase in size until gravity forces them to fall to the ground as rainfall.
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation.
Other forms include snow, fog, and hail.
Rain formation process
When warm moist air rises, it cools and condenses leading to cloud formation and
eventually rain.
Rain formation involves a lot of mechanisms.
Rainfall is also formed when extremely small water droplets come together and produce big
drops of water called raindrops.
The water droplets will continue to grow and if they become too heavy, they will fall to the
ground as rain or drizzle.
Types of rainfall
Rainfall is classified according to the way it forms.
There are 3 main types of rainfall namely relief, frontal and convectional.
Relief rainfall
It is also known as orographic rainfall.
It is formed when warm moist air is forced to rise over a relief feature such as a mountain.
The rising air cools and condenses.
Clouds form and it rains on the windward side.
As the air descends on the leeward side, it becomes cool and dry.
This results in the leeward side receiving very little or no rainfall at all.
The leeward side therefore is known as the rain shadow area.
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For example, the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe are associated with orographic rainfall
because they are within the route of the South East Trade winds from the Indian Ocean.
That is why the Eastern Highlands receives the most rainfall in Zimbabwe.
The Save Valley is an example of the rain shadow of the Eastern Highlands.
The diagram on Fig 2.3.1 illustrates orographic rainfall.
Fig 2.3.1
Relief rainfall
Frontal rainfall
It is also known as cyclonic rainfall.
When warm air meets cold air, the warm lighter air is forced to rise by the cold dense air.
This is because they cannot mix but forms a front.
A front is an imaginary line separating two air masses of different humidity and temperature
characteristics.
When the warm air rises it expands, cools and condenses.
The rainfall is usually light and it falls for a very long time in the form drizzle.
In Zimbabwe, it is associated with the ITCZ when the North Easterly and South Easterly
converge.
The diagrams on Fig 2.3.2 illustrate this rainfall.
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Fig 2.3.2
Frontal rainfall
Convectional rainfall
It is formed when the ground is overheated by the sun.
Evaporation from the ground and evapotranspiration from vegetation occurs as a result of
this heating.
The heated air rises, expands, cools, and condenses.
High cumulus and towering cumulonimbus clouds are formed when the air condenses.
Heavy torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning begin to fall.
This type of rain is common in the humid tropics such as in the Amazon and Congo forests.
In Zimbabwe, it mainly falls during summer.
The rain falls usually in the afternoon when the ground has been sufficiently heated.
The diagram on Fig 2.3.3 illustrates this rainfall.
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Fig 2.3.3
Convectional Rainfall
Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of what the weather will be like in the near future.
The predictions are usually done up to seven days ahead.
These predictions are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the
atmosphere.
They then use scientific understanding of the atmosphere to project/predict how the
atmosphere is likely to change.
The quantitative data collected is mainly on temperature, humidity and wind.
Importance of weather forecasting
Accurate weather forecasts are important for the planning of day-to-day activities.
It helps farmers to plan for the planting and harvesting of their crops.
It helps aviation authorities to schedule air flights and routes.
It helps people to plan outdoor activities such as sports and other recreational activities.
It helps in choosing the right mode of transport for the transportation and storage of goods.
Weather forecasts help in evacuating people in areas where weather hazards like cyclones
or hurricanes are expected to occur.
It also helps people to choose what to wear.
Indigenous weather forecasting
People have been using indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the rural areas to predict
weather and seasonal changes.
These predictions are made using biological, atmospheric conditions, astronomic and relief
features.
The predictions cover either short or long periods of time.
The following are some of indigenous predictions:
Birds singing and flying high in the morning indicates clear dry conditions during the day.
Birds seeking shelter predicts cloudy and humid conditions.
Singing insects like cicada indicates high temperatures and onset of summer.
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Ants sealing off holes into an ant mold shows that rain is about to fall soon.
Human ailments such as operations, asthmatic attacks, back aches usually predict imminent
cold weather and humid conditions.
Presence of whirlwind indicates hot weather conditions and gusty winds.
Sun and moon halo indicates the coming of the rains within 2 weeks.
Natural burning of mountains predicts impending rains.
Mist in the morning shows that there will be fine weather during the day.
Presence of millipedes and frogs indicate the onset of rain season.
The blooming/shedding off of leaves and abundance of fruits indicates the onset of summer,
dry season or drought.
Activities
Visit elders in your family or community early in the morning, ask them what the weather
will be like that day.
Write down the reasons for their forecast.
Later in the day, record the actual weather of the day.
Types-of-rainfall-and-distribution-Exercise 1
Choose the most appropriate answer for each of the following questions.
1) Thunderstorms are commonly associated with which type of rainfall? Convectional
Frontal
Relief
Cyclonic
2) Which type of rainfall forms when warm moist air is forced to rise over a mountain? Frontal
Cyclonic
Convectional
Relief
4) The relief/highland side that receives little or no rainfall is called ________. rain shadow
desert
eastern highland
rainy ward
7) Which of the following places in Zimbabwe receives the most relief rainfall? Masvingo
Inyanga
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Bulawayo
Harare
10) ________rainfall is formed when warm air is forced to rise over cold air. Frontal
Relief
Convectional
Hail
LANDFORMS
What is a landform?
A landform is a naturally formed feature on the earth’s surface.
Landforms include such features as hills, plains, valleys, gorges and waterfalls.
Typically, landforms have shape, size, elevation, tilt and colour.
There are major landforms that every student of geography must be able to recognise and
these are discussed in this subtopic.
Landforms and their pictorial and contour representation
Gentle and steep slope
In order to understand landforms, it is important to begin by looking at slopes since they
give us the landform features.
There are basically two types of slopes even/gentle and steep.
Contour lines are imaginary lines drawn on a map joining two or more places of the same
height.
On maps, patterns of contours indicate the types of slopes.
When contours are far apart, land is gentle and when they are close together slopes are
steep.
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Fig 3.1.1
Gentle
slope
Even slope
Slopes are even when contours are evenly spaced and this is common with gentle slopes.
The illustration on Fig 3.1.2 shows an even contour pattern.
Fig 3.1.2
Even
slope
On a picture, even or flat ground looks like one on Fig 3.1.3.
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Fig 3.1.3
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Fig 3.1.5
Steep slope
A map that has mostly even ground is seen by its sparse contours while hilly areas have
predominantly close contours.
Undulating slope
A series of gentle up and down slopes give us an undulating slope.
The photograph and map on Fig 3.1.6 shows one such landscape.
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Fig 3.1.6
Undulating slope
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Fig 3.1.7
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Fig 3.1.8
Convex slope
Concave slopes
Concave slopes are slopes that are steep at the top becoming gentle towards the bottom.
Contours are therefore close towards the summit but far apart at the bottom or base.
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Fig 3.1.9
Concave slope
A Ridge
A ridge is an extended highland or mountain with a narrow top.
A ridge is one of the most common features in most local landscapes as it forms most of the
highlands or mountains.
In Zimbabwe, ridges are common along The Great Dyke and Eastern Highlands.
In South Africa, such landscape is common along the Drakensberg Mountains of the eastern
half of the country.
Fig 3.1.10 is a picture showing a ridge and its contour mapping.
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Fig 3.1.10
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Fig 3.1.11
Fig 3.1.12 A
plateau and contour of a plateau
Conical hill
This is simply a round shaped hill.
The illustrations on Fig 3.1.13 show the side view as well as contour pattern.
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Fig 3.1.13
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Fig 3.1.14
An escarpment
Fig 3.1.15
Contours of an escarpment
A Valley
A valley is elongated lowland between highlands whose bottom is indicated by V or U-
shaped contours.
Valleys are mostly as a result of erosion especially by rivers.
Big valleys in Zimbabwe are Zambezi Valley and Save-Limpopo Valley
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Fig 3.1.16
A Valley
Fig 3.1.17
Contours of a valley
In Africa we have the Great East African Rift Valley extending from Mozambique via Malawi,
Tanzania, Kenya, up to Egypt and Red Sea.
Valley and spur
A spur is a highland jutting into a lowland or valley.
Spurs are often found separated by narrow valleys as shown on Fig 3.1.18.
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Fig 3.1.18
A
gorge
At Victoria Falls we have the famous Devils’ Gorge.
In USA we have the Grand Canyon along Colorado River.
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Fig 3.1.20
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Fig 3.1.21
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Fig 3.1.22
Mutarazi Falls
Rivers
Major rivers in Zimbabwe include rivers such as Zambezi, Save, Hunyani, Munyati, Sanyati,
Mazowe, Gwaai, Runde, Pungwe, Ruya, Odzi, Umzingwane and Shangani.
With the exception of Zambezi, most Zimbabwean rivers are not as big because they are in
their upper courses.
Rivers get bigger as they approach the sea e.g. Save and Pungwee.
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Fig 3.1.23
Mazowe River
The longest river in Africa and in the world is the Nile.
The other biggest rivers in Africa are Congo, Niger, Zambezi, Orange, Limpopo, Volta and
Benue.
In the world we also have big rivers such as the Amazon, Yangtse, Yellow, Mississippi,
Danube, Rhine and Tigris.
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Fig 3.1.24
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Activities
In your community, move around identifying and describe landforms in the area.
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