Form 1 Geo Notes

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MAPWORK
BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. Define what a map is.

2. List the major components of a map.
3. Outline the four major types of maps.
4. Outline the two coordinate systems used to locate features on earth.
5. Use coordinates to locate places on a map.
6. Describe the three types of scale used in map work.
7. Interpret universal symbols used on maps.
8. Calculate bearing.
9. Outline any three uses of compasses.
10. Measure straight and curved distances on a map.
11. Calculate area on a map.
What is a map?
 A map is a diagrammatic representation of part of the earth surface on a piece of paper and
is drawn to scale.
 Features represented on a map are both natural (relief, water, vegetation) and man-made.
 In other words, it is a summary of how a place looks like on a flat drawing.
 Maps are drawn to scale.
 Signs and symbols are used on the map to represent real features.
 Examples of physical features found on maps include mountains, rivers, hills, gorges, lakes
and plateaus.
Components of a good map
 Maps are important documents used as primary tools to visualise and understand
geographical spatial relationships.
 In order for a map reader to understand the communications of a map, there are certain
characteristics a map should possess.
 These include the following:
Title
 A map title is very important as it tells the map reader what the map is all about.
 It is usually found on the top part of the map.
 It also shows the location of the data or area being represented on the map.
 The title is usually written in bold letter such as the one of the Zimbabwean map on Fig 1.1.
Compiled by Sir Batison for Mount Sunset Reference Ruzivo Digital learning
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Fig 1.1
Zimbabwe Agro-ecological zones

 The title of the map on Fig 1.1 is “Zimbabwe Agro-Ecological Zones” and it tells the map
reader that it is a map showing Agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe.
Key
 The key is also known as the legend.
 It is found on the bottom of the map.
 Since most maps use symbols or colours to represent different geographical features, the
key explains what the symbols and colours mean.
 Therefore, it gives meaning to all the different symbols used in map construction.
 Without a key/legend, a map becomes meaningless to the viewer.
 Compare the maps on Fig 1.2 and Fig 1.3 and choose the one that has meaning.
Map A
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Fig 1.2
A map without a key/legend

Map B
Fig 1.3
A map with a key/legend

 Of the two maps Fig 1.2 and Fig 1.3, Map on Fig 1.3 is meaningful because of the key it has.
Direction information
 Direction information on a map is shown by compass or cardinal points.
 However, most maps have the North arrow to give the map orientation.
 It helps the map reader to determine the direction of the map as it relates to true north.
 As a result, most maps are oriented in a way that the top of the map faces north.
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 The map on Fig 1.4 illustrates this.

Fig 1.4
A map with directions

 The arrow with an N is the North arrow showing the direction orientation of the map.
Scale
 Scale is the ratio of distance on a map to the actual distance on the ground.
 It is the extent to which the actual distance has been reduced so that it is represented on a
map.
 Scale allows the map reader to see the size and distance of the features on the map.
 Scale description is given as a ratio.
 The ratio is usually given as either a unit to unit or measurement to measurement.
 The image shows examples of map scale.
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Fig
Scale 1.0
Grid/Graticules
 A grid is a network of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines used to identify locations on
a map.
 It is a way of locating features or objects on a map using coordinates.
 The image on Fig 1.5 shows a grid on a map.
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Fig 1.5
A grid on a map
 For example, the location of the school is A3 while that of the police is D4.
 On the other hand, graticules are lines showing parallels of latitude and meridians of
longitude for the earth.
 Graticules can be used to show location in geographic coordinates using degrees of latitude
and longitude.
 The map on Fig 1.6 illustrates this.
Fig 1.6 Location using Graticules

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 The location New Orleans is 30˚N 90˚W as shown by the black dot.
 Both grid and graticules show the viewer the absolute location of the objects on the map.
Cartographer
 A cartographer is a person who draws maps.
 The name of the cartographer is usually written on the map.
Coordinate reference system
 This is a coordinate based system used to locate geographical features.
 It provides a framework for defining real world locations.
 This system defines locations in terms of the position on the globe using latitude and
longitude values.
 This enables every location on earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.
Activity
Using the scale on Scale 1.0, calculate the actual area of square D4 on Fig 1.5. This enables every
location on earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.
Types of maps
 Maps are classified according to the features they show or represent.
 Therefore, we have many types but at this level the focus is on topographical, political,
physical and economic maps.
Topographical maps
 A topographical map is a map that shows relief, water and vegetation features of an area.
 Topographical maps may also show man-made features like dams, roads, dip tanks,
settlements and boundaries.
 They are usually highly detailed.
 They make use of contour lines to show changes in landscape or elevation.
 The contour lines show height above sea level.
 The map on Fig 1.7 is an example of a topographical map with contour lines.
 The brown numbered lines are the contour lines.
Fig 1.7
Topographical Map Showing Contour Lines
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Political maps
 A political map shows human-made political or government boundaries.
 These maps do not have topographic features.
 They show the location of cities or countries in relation to each other.
 Political maps can be detailed for instance from a small little town to capital cites up to
countries of the world.
 The map on Fig 1.8 shows the political map of Africa.
Fig 1.8
Political Map of Africa

 It shows Africa divided along political boundaries.
Physical map
 A physical map shows the physical landscape of a place.
 It shows important natural features such as rivers, mountains, lakes and water.
 It uses different colours and shades to show mountains (landforms) and elevations.
 The map on Fig 1.9 shows the physical landscape of Zimbabwe.
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Fig 1.9
Physical Landscape Map of Zimbabwe

Economic map
 An economic map is a map that illustrates resources present; and various economic activities
that take place in a particular area.
 It may also show the location of commercial activities such as banking, shopping malls,
industries, agriculture, transport and mining.
 Symbols and letters are sometimes used to depict the activity or resource present in the
area.
 The map on Fig 1.10 shows the economic map of Zimbabwe.
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Fig 1.10
Economic Map of Zimbabwe

 It shows various economic activities and crops grown in various areas of Zimbabwe.
Activity
 Using the diagram on Fig 1.10, what are the economic activities in Bulawayo?
 Research on reasons why Mutare has many economic activities.
Location on maps
 Location on maps is done using different means.
 These include use of grid reference, direction and bearing.
 These use coordinates to pin-point a location on a map.
 This is known as the coordinate system of locating features on a map.
 Geographically, there are two main coordinate systems used for location namely the
Geographic Coordinate system and the Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate system.
 The coordinates are often chosen such that one set of the numbers represents a vertical
position (altitude) whilst the other represents a horizontal position.
 Latitudes and longitudes are the common coordinates used in geographic location.
Longitudes and latitudes
 Longitudes are a set of imaginary lines drawn on the earth’s surface for the purposes of
locating places.
 They run from the North Pole to the South Pole.
 Longitude is the angular distance of a place on the earth’s surface to the Greenwich
meridian also known as the prime meridian.
 Latitudes on the other hand, are imaginary lines drawn parallel to the Equator on the earth’s
surface.
 The image on Fig 1.11 illustrates these imaginary lines.
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Fig 1.11
Longitudes and latitudes lines

 Location of places is thus made with reference to either longitude or latitude as is indicated
on the globe above.
Geographic Coordinate System (GSC)
 It is a 3-dimensional reference system that locates points on the earth’s surface.
 This enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols.
 In this system, a point is located or referenced by its longitudinal and latitudinal values.
 In this context, longitudes and latitudes are angles measured from the earth’s centre to a
point on the earth’s surface.
 The angles are measured in degrees, for example 45˚E 55˚W.
 The image on Fig 1.12 illustrate this by showing the location of Ethiopia represented by a red
dot on the earth’s surface.
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Fig 1.12
Location of Ethiopia using the GPS

Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System (UTMC)
 It is a 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinates system that divides the earth into 60 north-south
zones.
 Each zone covering a strip 6˚wide in longitude.
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Fig 1.13
Earth divided into 60 zones

 In each zone, coordinates are measured north and south in meters.
 This is used to locate features more accurately on the earth’s surface independent of the
vertical positions.
 It is therefore a thirteen coordinate system.
 In the UTMC system, grid reference comprises of a zone number, a hemisphere (N/S), an
easting and a northing.
 The UTMC system is universally accepted and used in locating places or features.
Scale
 A map represents the earth’s surface on a piece of paper.
 This means that the distance on a map represents the actual distance on the ground.
 To do this, cartographers use scale to map the actual features on a piece of paper.
 Scale is the ratio of distance on a map to the actual distance on the ground.
 It is the extent to which the actual distance has been reduced so that it is represented on a
map.
Importance of scale
 Scale is important in mapping because it allows a much bigger land that is difficult to handle
to be put on a small sheet of paper that is much easier to handle.
 Due to scale, a portion of the earth is reduced and mapped on to a paper without distortion
as it ensures that the map remains proportional to the actual ground represented.
 Scale also helps a map reader to have an appreciation of the actual distances or sizes of the
geographical phenomenon mapped.
 It also enables cartographers to produce accurate maps.
Types of scale
 There are three types of scale: statement, representative fraction/ratio and linear scale.
 Statement
 This is in the form of a descriptive statement such as “one centimeter represents half a
kilometer”or“1 centimeter represents 50 000 centimeters.”
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 Representative fraction or ratio

 It comes as a fraction or ratio such as or 1:50 000.
 Linear
 Scale is shown as a line with the first part divided into ten units (extension scale) and the
second (primary scale) which if you measure with a ruler will show that 2cm represents 1km
on the ground.
Small scale and large scale maps
 The scale of a map is given by the size of the fraction.
 When we say 1:25 000 map is bigger than 1:50 000 map, it is because the fraction has
greater value than.
 Most students confuse higher denominator with higher value.
 The higher the denominator the smaller the fraction and therefore the smaller the map.
 A small scale map is a one that has a fraction smaller than 1:50 000, for example 1: 100 000.
 Medium scale maps are between 1:50 000 and 1:25 000.
 Large scale maps are those with scales larger than 1:25 000 such as 1:10 000.
 Zimbabwean school system normally uses the 1:50 000 topographic map.
Calculations using scale
 Using the scale of 1cm to represent 50 000cm calculate the actual distance on the ground if
the distance on map is:
o 3cm
o 5,5cm
o 12cm
 Using the scale of 1cm to represent 50 000cm calculate the distance on the map if the actual
distance on the ground is:
 10km
 0,5km
 3km
Answers:
 Scale 1: 50 000
 50 000
=150 000cm
or 1 500m/1,5km
 50 000
=275 000cm
or 2,75km
 50 000
=600 000cm
or 6km
 Scale 1:50 000
 10km = 1 000 000cm
=1
= 2cm
 0,5km = 50 000cm
=1
= 1cm
 3km = 300 000cm
=1
=6cm
Universal symbols
 Maps, unlike photographs, use symbols to represent actual features.
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 It is not possible to draw and label every single feature in words on a map, therefore
cartographers use map signs and symbols.
 These symbols are generally accepted by cartographers (map makers).
 Map symbols are classified into two groups: those representing physical features and those
representing human features.
Symbols of physical features
 Symbols of physical features are further subdivided into water, relief and vegetation.
Water features
 All water features are represented on a map with the associative colour blue.
 The water features maybe natural such as streams, springs and marsh or man-made such as
dams, water tanks and canals.
 In the presentation of symbols on Fig 1.14, water features stand out with their colour blue.
Fig 1.14
Water features
 Although not all of the water features may be memorised, it is important to keep familiarity
with the following: small stream, river, waterfall, rapid, well, borehole, dam, reservoir and
marsh.
Activity
Identify from the key given on Fig 1.15 and reproduce, by drawing, the above named features in
your exercise books.
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Fig 1.15
Water features on maps

Relief features
 These are represented in brown.
 The simplest brown line is a contour.
 The various contour patterns tell us which feature there is on the map and this requires
some set of map reading skills.
 In the key given on Fig 1.15 there are a number of relief features that need to be read
carefully.
 These can be further compared to another set of symbols given on Fig 1.16.
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Fig 1.16
Landforms
Vegetation features
 Vegetation features are represented in the colour green.
 The green colour can be of different due to denote differences in density.
 In Zimbabwe we usually use four broad classifications namely: dense bush, medium bush,
sparse bush or open grassland and plantation or orchard.
 The image on Fig 1.17 shows vegetation symbols.
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Fig 1.17
Vegetation symbols
Human features
 These are physical features built by humans and they constitute the biggest class.
 They are mostly represented in black although a variety of other colours may be used to give
prominence to some features.
 Red is usually used to represent roads and boundaries.
 The main key given earlier shows the different classes of human features symbols.
 One can compare those to the small extract given on Fig 1.18 and Fig 1.19.
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Fig 1.18
Linear features
Fig 1.19
Buildings and related features

 The physical and human features summarise the classes of symbols that we find on a map.
Direction
 Direction is the course or line along which something lies or moves in relation to another
object.
 In other words, direction is used to determine where things are in relation to other things.
 It can be general or specific however, for geographic purposes, direction has to be more
specific.
 In order for it to be specific, we use cardinal directions.
 In geography, these are the most important directions.
Cardinal or compass points
 These are points on a compass.
 The cardinal points are East (E), West (W), North (N) and South (S).
 Using these points, general location of features can be made on a map.
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 To be more precise, intercardinal points are also used.

 Intercardinal points are the eight or sixteen compass points as given on Fig 1.20, for example
NW, SW, NE, SE or WNW, NNW, NNE, ENE, SSW, WSW, SSE and ESE.
Fig 1.20
Cardinal Points
 When telling the direction of one place from the other e.g. A from B, we start at B as shown
on Fig 1.21.
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Fig 1.21
Direction of a point
 We draw a north-south line at B and connect B to A with a line.
 We are thus able to estimate the direction of A as south east.
 Compass points are good in that they are easy and fast to use since they do not entail
measurement.
 They also use the skill of generalisation.
 On a map, the method is most useful in describing location of extensive areas.
 Its weakness is in the fact that exactness or accuracy of a location is difficult to arrive at
when using the method.
 It is not very useful in locating points.
 Using the sketch map below, direction is useful in locating the school and house which do
not happen to be points.
 The school is in the north-west (NW) while the house is in the south-south-east (SSE) of the
map.
 Accuracy is, however, demanded in locating points A and B on the map in general as well as
in relation to each other.
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Fig 1.22
A sketch map
 Using bearing is the other way of enhancing use of compass points when locating places.
Activity
 Use the cardinal points to locate your home from your school, church and friend’s home.
 Design and make a 8 cardinal point compass using materials of your choice.
Bearing
 A bearing is a measurement of direction between two points.
 Bearings measure direction with North taken as a reference.
 Bearing is measured clockwise from North.
 It involves the use of both compass points and angles.
 Bearing gives location of a place in relation to another place.
 Below are the steps taken to measure bearing.
Steps in measuring bearing
1. Connect the two points with a pencil line.
2. Draw a north line at the point written ‘FROM’ of the point whose bearing is to be measured.
3. Position the protractor with 0˚ along the north line you have drawn.
4. Measure the angle from the north line clockwise to the line connecting the two points.
Example
 What is the location of point B from A?
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Fig 1.23
Bearing
 Telling the bearing of B from A involves drawing a north south line at A.
 We draw a straight line from A to B.
 The bearing of B from A is the angle of B on the north-south line from A.
 Please note that in this case we use the Grid North, we then measure the angle between the
north-south line and the line joining A to B using a compass.
 Bearing is thus 245°.
 If we want the bearing of A from B, again we measure from B the angle of A on the north-
south line which is 065°.
 Fig 1.24 is an example of the different angles that can be measured to give bearing of a
place.
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Fig 1.24
Angles
 Please note that in all cases, the grid north is the one used.
 Bearing can be given as combination of both compass direction and angle.
 In Fig 1.25, A is from the north 60° towards the east (N60°E).
Fig 1.25
Angles from cardinal points
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 C is from the south 55° towards the west (S55°W).

Reverse or back bearing
 If we move from one point to another we are able to calculate bearing.
 However, if we return to where we came from we are using reverse bearing.
 It is reverse because we make a 180° turn to get back to where we were.
 Reverse bearing is derived by adding 180° to our initial bearing if it is below 180° or
subtracting 180° if it is above 180°.
Fig 1.26
Reverse bearing
 In the illustration on Fig 1.26, bearing of school from home is 40°.
 Reverse bearing is thus 40° + 180° = 220°.
 If our initial bearing from a place is 260° then our reverse bearing will be 260° – 180° = 80°.
 In the second case, our initial bearing is above 180° so we subtract 180°.
 Using distance, direction and/or bearing we are able to follow description of routes on
maps.
Magnetic compasses
 It is a compass with a magnetised needle to indicate direction in relation to the magnetic
poles of the earth.
 It uses the earth’s magnetic fields to determine where you are and the direction you want to
go.
 The image on Fig 1.27 shows a magnetic compass.
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Fig 1.27
Magnetic Compass
Uses of magnetic compasses
 It helps to determine direction so that people do not get lost when navigating.
 It helps determine the exact location of the magnetic north hence making it easy for ships
and aircrafts to find their routes.
 Magnetic compasses enables navigation to be more accurate as some have automatic
magnetic declination (that is the angle between true north and magnetic north).
 It enables users to determine bearings accurately and pinpoint locations on the earth’s
surface.
Measuring distance
 We measure straight lines with a ruler.
 We multiply our measured distances (cm) with our representative fraction (e.g. 1:50 000).
 If we measure distance of 16cm on a map, actual distance on the ground will be: x 16 =
32km.
 The challenge of measuring distances on a map comes when we measure curved distances.
 One simple way is to use a string to follow through all bends and then straighten it up on a
ruler to get straight line distance.
 This is shown on Fig 1.28:
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Fig 1.28
Measuring Distance Using a String on a Map

 Another method is that of using a piece of paper.
 The paper is turned around as markings are done on all straight distances on both the paper
and the map until the whole length that is measured is covered.
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Fig 1.29
Measuring Distance on a Map Using Straight Edge of a Paper

 The markings on the piece of paper are then put against a ruler to measure straight line
distance.
Estimating area on a map
 Area is generally calculated by multiplying length by width.
 However, this may be very taxing given irregular dimensions of most areal aspects of a map
such as farmland, cultivated area, a game park or a dam.
 A method of estimation is thus used.
 Grid lines provide squares of 2cm by 2cm on a topocadastral map of 1:50 000.
 Because 2cm represent 1km, it means a box represents 1km².
 Total area will thus be the sum of full boxes plus all estimate parts.
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Fig 1.30
Estimating Area on a Map

 The illustration on Fig 1.30 gives us total area of 84km².
Mapwork-Exercise 1
Choose True or False to answer the following questions.

1) A person who draws maps is called a cartographer. True
False
2) Longitudes are a set of imaginary lines drawn on the earth’s surface for the purposes of locating
places. True
False
3) A title and legend are components of a map. True

False
4) A map title is always found at the bottom part of a map. True

False
5) Maps are classified into political, topographical and economic maps only. True
False
6) Maps represent both natural and man-made features. True

False
7) Water features on a map are associated with the green colour. True
False
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8) A Geographic Coordinate System is a 2-dimensional reference system that locates points on the
earth’s surface. True
False
9) The Geographic Coordinate System is the only way of showing location on a map. True
False
10) A map is a pragmatic representation of part of the earth on a piece of paper drawn to scale.
True
False
WEATHER STUDIES
1. List elements of weather.

2. State and describe instruments used to measure each element of weather.
3. Describe how data about elements of weather is recorded.
4. Calculate averages from recorded data about weather elements.
Weather and climate

 Most people confuse weather and climate.
 Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place at a given time.
 It is also the daily atmospheric conditions of a given place.
 These conditions can be hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, sunny or cloudy and so on.
 The condition of the atmosphere is defined in relation to temperature, rainfall, wind,
pressure and humidity.
 These are known as the elements of weather.
 On the other hand, climate refers to the average atmospheric conditions over a long period
of time usually 30-40 years.
 The weather conditions that prevails over a long period of time determine the climate of an
area.
Weather elements
 There are basically 5 weather elements namely temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and
precipitation.
Temperature
 Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness.
 The sun is the major determinant of temperature.
 Temperature is the most important element of weather because it controls all the other
elements such as rainfall, cloud cover and pressure.
 Temperature is measured by an instrument called Six’s Maximum and Minimum
thermometer.
 It is measured in degrees Celsius (˚C).
The six’s thermometer
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Fig 2.1.1
Six’s Thermometer
 This is a U-shaped tube containing both the mercury and alcohol.
 It is made up of two tubes that combine to make the maximum and minimum
thermometers.
 These thermometers record the highest and lowest temperatures reached over a period of
24 hours.
 When temperature rises, the alcohol under the left bulb expands pushing the mercury down
the left tube and up the right tube.
 As the mercury rises, it pushes the metal index upwards.
 Maximum temperature readings are taken on the base of the metal index on the right tube.
 When temperature drops, the alcohol in the left side contracts and the mercury moves from
the right tube to the left pushing the metal index up.
 Minimum temperature readings are then taken on the base of the metal index on the left.
 The six’s thermometer is kept in a wooden box called the Stevenson screen.
Temperature calculations
 The temperature readings taken daily are used to calculate the following:
 Average or mean daily temperature
 Daily temperature range
 Mean monthly temperature and;
 Mean annual temperature.
o These are calculated as illustrated below:
o Average or mean temperature is obtained by adding the maximum and minimum
temperatures of the day and dividing the total by 2.
Mean Temperature = [Math Processing Error](Maximum+Minimum)2
For Example, Let Us Use The Temperatures Readings Below To Find Mean Temperature.
 Maximum temperature =30°C
 Minimum temperature =18°C
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Mean temperature = [Math Processing Error](30+18)2

= [Math Processing Error]482
= 24˚C
 Daily temperature range is calculated by subtracting the minimum temperature of the day
from the maximum temperature of the day.
 e.g Maximum temperature = 30°C
 Minimum temperature =18°C
Daily temperature range = 30°C - 18°C
= 12°C
 Mean monthly temperature is calculated by adding the daily mean temperatures in a month
and dividing by the number of days in that particular month.
Mean monthly temperature =
 Mean annual temperature is also calculated by adding all the mean monthly temperatures
of the year and dividing the answer by 12.
Mean annual temperature = [Math Processing Error]sumofmeanmonthlytemperatures12
 All these temperature calculations are used to plot temperature graphs.
Temperature tables and calculations
MAXIMUM MINIMUM TEMPERATURE MEAN

DAY
TEMPERATURE, TEMPERATURE, RANGE, TEMPERATURE,
1 32°C 16°C 32°C – 16°C = 16°C = 24°C
2 29°C 12°C 29°C – 12°C = 17°C = 20,5°C
3 31°C 8°C 31°C – 8°C = 23°C = 19,5°C
4 27°C 10°C 27°C – 10°C = 17°C = 18,5°C
Humidity
 Humidity is defined as the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
 It is measured by an instrument called a hygrometer or a wet and dry bulb thermometer.
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 A hygrometer is made up of two mercury thermometers.

 The only difference is that one has a muslin cloth dipped in distilled water.
 The diagram on Fig 2.1.2 shows a hygrometer.
Fig 2.1.2
Hygrometer
 The wet and dry bulb thermometer is also kept in a Stevenson screen.
 The temperature of the atmosphere determines humidity.
 High temperatures increases the ability of air to hold more water than low temperatures.
 The air has a certain point where it can no longer hold more water.
 When that point is reached, it is said to be saturated.
 A warm air can hold more water than a cold air before it becomes saturated.
 When the air becomes saturated, the probability for rain to fall is high.
 The actual amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a given temperature is known
as absolute humidity.
 The ratio between actual humidity of a given body of air and the maximum amount of water
vapour that it can hold at that temperature is called relative humidity.
 Change in humidity provides the basis for the formation of rainfall.
 When the temperature of the atmosphere continue to fall, condensation takes place leading
to the formation of clouds, mist, dew or fog.
How a hygrometer works
 If the air is dry, evaporation takes place and moisten the muslin cloth on the wet bulb.
 This cools the bulb causing the mercury in the wet bulb to contract thus dropping the
temperature.
 The dry bulb thermometer is not affected by the evaporation and therefore shows a
different reading to that of the wet bulb thermometer.
 The wet bulb thermometer will show a lower reading than that of the dry bulb
thermometer.
 When the air in atmosphere is saturated, no evaporation will take place.
 This causes the thermometers to show the same reading.
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 Points to note about hygrometer readings:

 If there is a small difference in the readings between the thermometers it means the
humidity is high.
 If there is a large difference between the thermometers it means the humidity is low.
 If the is no difference between the two readings it means the air is saturated.
Atmospheric Pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is the weight exerted by air on the earth’s surface.
 Atmospheric pressure is heavily influenced by altitude and temperature.
 When air is heated it expands and hence it becomes lighter.
 There is less air in high altitudes areas hence less pressure.
 Air moves from the regions of high pressure to the regions of low pressure.
 The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called a barometer.
 There are two types of barometers namely the mercury barometer and aneroid barometer.
 The unit measurement of pressure is milibars (mb).
 Places of the same pressure readings on a weather map are joined by lines called isobars.
Mercury barometer
 The picture on Fig 2.1.3 shows a mercury barometer.
Fig 2.1.3
Mercury barometer
How a mercury barometer works
 At sea level, air pressure that is available is able to support a column of mercury which is
76cm or 760mm in height.
 760mm at sea level is equal to 1013 millibars.
 An increase in pressure will result in the rise of mercury in the tube.
 However, when the pressure falls, the level of mercury also decreases in the tube.
 The changes in the mercury levels indicates the pressure that is exerted by the air above the
tube.
 A scale marked on the tube is used to indicate the air pressure exerted.
Aneroid Barometer
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 This instrument is made of a small metal box with an air tight chamber which is very
sensitive to pressure changes.
 The image on Fig 2.1.4 shows an aneroid barometer.
Fig 2.1.4
Aneroid Barometer
 Its walls flex in and out with the changes in pressure.
 When the pressure rises the top of the box bends inside.
 When the pressure falls the walls flex out.
 A spring attached to the chamber moves the pointer on the dial in response to pressure
changes.
 The pointer will show the amount of atmospheric pressure being experienced.
 This doesn’t record accurate pressure as compared to the mercury barometer.
Rainfall
 Rainfall is another element of weather.
 It is measured by an instrument called a rain gauge.
 The instrument is made of a copper container which is cylindrical in shape.
 It also consists of a measuring cylinder, collecting can and a funnel.
 Usually, both the collecting can and funnel are made of copper.
 Copper protects the gauge from rust.
 The rain gauge is buried under ground leaving part of it 30cm above the ground level.
 The rain falling over the funnel, flows through the funnel into the collecting can.
 The water collected is then put into the measuring cylinder.
 The measuring cylinder is graduated in millimetres.
 The picture on Fig 2.1.5 shows a rain gauge and its parts.
Siting a rain gauge
 The rain gauge is kept away from buildings and trees to prevent water from splashing from
the ground into the funnel.
 Sinking the gauge into the ground also protects it from the sun's heat.
Wind
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 Wind is air in motion.

 Wind has direction and speed.
Wind Direction
 Wind blows from a certain direction.
 The direction from which wind blows from is measured by a wind vane.
 It is made up of a vertical shaft, horizontal arm which rotates freely and fixed arms with
cardinal points (compass directions).
 The rotating horizontal arm has a tail on one side and the other side has a pointer fixed on it.
 As the wind blows, the arm swings and points to the direction where the wind is blowing
from.
 A wind is named after the direction from which it is blowing.
 The wind vane must be sited at an open space where it is exposed to the wind that blows.
 Fig 2.1.6 is a diagram showing a wind vane.
Fig 2.1.6
A wind vane
 The daily wind direction is recorded on a wind rose.
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Fig 2.1.7
A wind rose
 The boxes are marked according to the number of days when wind blew from that direction.
 The number of calm days is written on the centre of the wind rose.
Example:
Fig 2.1.8
Recordings on a wind rose
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The wind rose on Fig 2.1.8 shows:

 There were 4 calm days recorded.
 1 day of South Easterly wind.
 9 days of Southern wind etc.
Wind speed
 The speed of the wind is measured by an instrument called a cup anemometer.
 The cup anemometer is made of metal cups.
 The cups are fixed to metal arms joined to a freely rotating vertical shaft.
 The stronger the wind, the faster the rotation.
 The speed is then recorded on a meter connected to the rotating vertical shaft.
 Wind speed is measured in kilometres per hour or knots.
 Wind speed is represented by small feathered lines on a weather map.
 A beaufort scale is used to interpret wind speed.
 The diagram on Fig 2.1.9 shows a cup anemometer.
Fig 2.1.9
Cup anemometer
Sunshine
 The sunshine that is received by a particular place is recorded each day.
 The instrument used to record sunshine is called a sunshine recorder.
 It is made of a glass which has a spherical shape.
 The spherical shape has a metal frame around it and inside it is a sensitive card.
 The card has hours and minutes to record the sunshine.
 The picture on Fig 2.1.10 shows a sunshine recorder.
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Fig 2.1.10
A sunshine recorder
How a Sunshine Recorder works
 The glass sphere will focus the sun's rays towards the card.
 As the sun continues to rise and shine the rays will make a burning trace on the card.
 The card is then taken out at the end of the day.
 The total amount of sunshine of the day is recorded by converting the length of the burning
trace into hours and minutes.
NB
All these elements and their measuring are found at a weather station.
Activities
 At your school or nearest school, visit the weather station, identify and write down the
weather elements in there.
 Record and calculate the averages of that day.
 Collect newspaper articles and calculate the averages for that week,
Weather-elements-and-instruments-Exercise 1
Choose the most appropriate answer for each of the following questions.
1) All of the following are elements of weather except ________. rainfall
temperature
wind
floods
2) Which of the following is used to measure atmospheric pressure? Barometer

Hygrometer
Speedometer
Millibars
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3) What is the maximum temperature reading of the thermometer shown below?
24˚C
24˚C
30˚C
25˚C
20˚C
4) A 760mm column of mercury at sea is equal to ________. 1012mb

1013mb
1031mb
1210mb
5) Temperature is measured by an instrument called ________. hygrometer

barometer
Six’s thermometer
sunshine recorder
6) What is the unit measurement for temperature? Millimeters

Millibars
Degrees
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Degrees Celsius
7) A small difference in the readings of the hygrometer means humidity is ________. low
high
saturated
medium
8) Where is a hygrometer kept? Weather station

Muslin cloth
Stevenson’s screen
Bottle with distilled water
9) Which of the following pair makes up a hygrometer? Wet and dry thermometers
Maximum and minimum thermometers
Wet and minimum thermometers
Dry and maximum thermometers
10) What is weather? It is the daily atmospheric conditions of a given place.

It is the average atmospheric conditions over a long period of time of a given place.
It is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere of a given place.
It the temperature and humidity conditions of the atmosphere of a given place.
WEATHER STATION AND DATA
1. Define the term weather station.

2. State and describe factors that are ideal for siting a weather station.
3. Describe any three features of a Stevenson’s screen.
4. Describe any four weather symbols and what they represent on a weather map.
5. Describe and explain any four clouds according to their appearance.
Weather station
 A weather station is a place where data on weather conditions is recorded and studied.
 This data is used for making weather forecasts and studying weather and climate.
 Most schools have their own weather stations.
 The image on Fig 2.2.1 shows a typical school weather station.
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Fig 2.2.1
School weather station
 There are a lot of factors that influence the location of a weather station.
Location of a weather station
 A weather station must be ideally located for accurate and reliable weather readings.
 The following factors are considered when situating a weather station.
 It must be located in an open space, far away from buildings, trees, tall grasses and other
obstructions for accurate readings.
 For instance, a rain gauge must be located away from trees and buildings to avoid spillage
into it so as to accurately record the amount of rainfall received.
 Instruments that measure wind speed and direction should be located away from trees and
buildings where there is free movement of wind for accurate readings.
 A weather station must be fenced to protect it from vandalism as it houses fragile
instruments that can be easily damaged.
 It must also be located on a flat or even ground for the best weather readings as slopes tend
to receive differential heating from the sun hence giving inaccurate temperature readings.
The Stevenson Screen
 A Stevenson Screen is found at all weather stations.
 The hygrometer and the Six’s thermometer are kept in the Stevenson screen.
 They are protected from rain, heat, snow, winds, leaves and animals.
 It provides a conducive environment to record accurate temperature readings and the actual
humidity of the day.
 The picture on Fig 2.2.2 shows these two thermometers inside the Stevenson screen.
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Fig 2.2.2
Inside a Stevenson screen

Structure of the Stevenson Screen
 It is a wooden box designed to hold the thermometers.
 It is painted white and has louvred sides.
 It is painted white so as to reflect direct radiation heat energy from the sun.
 The sides of the box are louvred to allow free circulation of air.
 It has a double roof to prevent the sun from heating directly into the screen.
 The screen is built with long legs which are 125cm above ground to prevent taking readings
of the ground temperatures.
 The picture on Fig 2.2.3 show a Stevenson screen.
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Fig 2.2.3
Stevenson’s Screen
Weather symbols
 A weather symbol is a conventional sign used in meteorological records or weather-maps, to
represent designated phenomenon.
 The following symbols have been adopted by the International Meteorological Congress for
recording weather.
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Fig 2.2.4
Weather symbols
Cloud measurement
 These are symbols used to represent clouds on maps.
Cloud symbols
Various
cloud types
Clouds
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 Clouds are formed when water vapour in the air turns into water droplets through the
process called condensation.
 Clouds can easily be seen and people can tell their shape and colour. The shape and colour
can help to estimate whether it will rain or not.
Types of clouds
 Clouds are classified by height (altitude) of the cloud base and appearance/shape.
 When clouds are classified according to appearance/shape, we have the following:
 Cirrus – wispy clouds
 Stratus – layered clouds
 Cumulus – heaped clouds
 These clouds also combine to form other cloud types such as cumulonimbus, altostratus and
so on.
 Classification according to height (altitude) gives the following clouds:
High level clouds (7km and above)
Cirrocumulus
o Resembles ripples, like what waves leave in sand.
o Composed of ice crystals.
o They are globular thin clouds.
Cirrostratus
 Thin veil of ice crystals.
 They have a milky and white appearance which is almost transparent to the sun.
 They cause a halo effect on the sun and moon.
Cirrus
 High and wispy
 Made up of ice crystals which are white and crispy.
Middle level clouds (2km – 7km)
Altocumulus
 It is made of water droplets which are bumpy looking.
 Appears like neat rolls or long bands.
 They are layered bumpy-looking clouds with a flat base.
Altostratus
 Thin grey or blue sheet watery-looking clouds.
 May partly or totally cover the sky.
 It is made up water droplets.
 Usually totally or partially cover the sky.
Lower level clouds (0 – 2km)
Nimbostratus
 A dense grey shapeless cloud that covers the sky.
 It may block the sunlight.
Stratus
 A flat layered cloud.
 It’s a fog-like low cloud.
Stratocumulus
 Sheet of parallel rolls with flat bottom.
 It is soft and grey in shape which looks like sausages.
Cumulus
 Puffy pile of cloud.
Cumulonimbus
 This is a rain bearing cloud which stretches from the lower level to the high level.
 It has an anvil head on its top.
The diagram on Fig 2.2.6 shows a pictorial summary of these clouds.
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Fig 2.2.6
Pictorial Summary of Clouds

Activity
Using the description of clouds, identify and record the type of clouds in the sky. Ask the teacher if
what you have recorded is true.
Weather-station-and-weather-data-Exercise 1
1) The following symbol shows _______.
drizzle
thunderstorm
heavy rains
fog
2) Which of the following is a cloud which is described as being wispy? Cirrus
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Stratus
Cumulus
Altostratus
3) Which of the following is not a locational factor for siting a weather station? Open space far
away from buildings and trees.
Fenced to protect it from vandalism.
Must be kept in a secure house far away from thieves.
It must be located on a flat ground.
4) Altostratus clouds are described as all of the following except_______. thin grey sheet of
watery-looking clouds
partially or totally cover the sky
being made-up of water droplets
being layered and bumpy-looking
5) High level clouds are ________. 2-7km

7km and above
0-5km
5-7km
6) A place where data on weather is recorded and studied is called a _______. school
weather station
police station
bank
7) Which of the following is a characteristic of a Stevenson’s screen? It has a flat double roof.
It is painted blue to reflect direct sunlight heat.
It has sealed sides.
It has long legs which are 125cm above the ground.
8) The symbol below shows a ________ cloud.
Question Image
stratus
cirrus
cumulonimbus
nimbostratus
9) Which cloud causes the halo effect on the sun? Cirrus
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Cirrostratus
Altostratus
Nimbostratus
10) Which of the following is a low level cloud? Altocumulus

Cirrus
Stratus
Cirrocumulus
TYPES OF RAINFALL AND DISTRIBUTION
1. List elements of weather.

2. State and describe instruments used to measure each element of weather.
3. Calculate averages of weather data recorded from the weather elements.
4. Define the term weather forecasting.
5. State any three benefits of weather forecasting.
6. Describe any four indigenous knowledge methods of weather forecasting.
Rainfall
 Rainfall occurs when moist air is forced to rise.
 As it rises it cools and condensation of water vapour takes place.
 The water droplets increase in size until gravity forces them to fall to the ground as rainfall.
 Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation.
 Other forms include snow, fog, and hail.
Rain formation process
 When warm moist air rises, it cools and condenses leading to cloud formation and
eventually rain.
 Rain formation involves a lot of mechanisms.
 Rainfall is also formed when extremely small water droplets come together and produce big
drops of water called raindrops.
 The water droplets will continue to grow and if they become too heavy, they will fall to the
ground as rain or drizzle.
Types of rainfall
 Rainfall is classified according to the way it forms.
 There are 3 main types of rainfall namely relief, frontal and convectional.
Relief rainfall
 It is also known as orographic rainfall.
 It is formed when warm moist air is forced to rise over a relief feature such as a mountain.
 The rising air cools and condenses.
 Clouds form and it rains on the windward side.
 As the air descends on the leeward side, it becomes cool and dry.
 This results in the leeward side receiving very little or no rainfall at all.
 The leeward side therefore is known as the rain shadow area.
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 For example, the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe are associated with orographic rainfall
because they are within the route of the South East Trade winds from the Indian Ocean.
 That is why the Eastern Highlands receives the most rainfall in Zimbabwe.
 The Save Valley is an example of the rain shadow of the Eastern Highlands.
 The diagram on Fig 2.3.1 illustrates orographic rainfall.
Fig 2.3.1
Relief rainfall
Frontal rainfall
 It is also known as cyclonic rainfall.
 When warm air meets cold air, the warm lighter air is forced to rise by the cold dense air.
 This is because they cannot mix but forms a front.
 A front is an imaginary line separating two air masses of different humidity and temperature
characteristics.
 When the warm air rises it expands, cools and condenses.
 The rainfall is usually light and it falls for a very long time in the form drizzle.
 In Zimbabwe, it is associated with the ITCZ when the North Easterly and South Easterly
converge.
 The diagrams on Fig 2.3.2 illustrate this rainfall.
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Fig 2.3.2
Frontal rainfall
Convectional rainfall
 It is formed when the ground is overheated by the sun.
 Evaporation from the ground and evapotranspiration from vegetation occurs as a result of
this heating.
 The heated air rises, expands, cools, and condenses.
 High cumulus and towering cumulonimbus clouds are formed when the air condenses.
 Heavy torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning begin to fall.
 This type of rain is common in the humid tropics such as in the Amazon and Congo forests.
 In Zimbabwe, it mainly falls during summer.
 The rain falls usually in the afternoon when the ground has been sufficiently heated.
 The diagram on Fig 2.3.3 illustrates this rainfall.
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Fig 2.3.3
Convectional Rainfall
Weather forecasting
 Weather forecasting is the prediction of what the weather will be like in the near future.
 The predictions are usually done up to seven days ahead.
 These predictions are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the
atmosphere.
 They then use scientific understanding of the atmosphere to project/predict how the
atmosphere is likely to change.
 The quantitative data collected is mainly on temperature, humidity and wind.
Importance of weather forecasting
 Accurate weather forecasts are important for the planning of day-to-day activities.
 It helps farmers to plan for the planting and harvesting of their crops.
 It helps aviation authorities to schedule air flights and routes.
 It helps people to plan outdoor activities such as sports and other recreational activities.
 It helps in choosing the right mode of transport for the transportation and storage of goods.
 Weather forecasts help in evacuating people in areas where weather hazards like cyclones
or hurricanes are expected to occur.
 It also helps people to choose what to wear.
Indigenous weather forecasting
 People have been using indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the rural areas to predict
weather and seasonal changes.
 These predictions are made using biological, atmospheric conditions, astronomic and relief
features.
 The predictions cover either short or long periods of time.
 The following are some of indigenous predictions:
 Birds singing and flying high in the morning indicates clear dry conditions during the day.
 Birds seeking shelter predicts cloudy and humid conditions.
 Singing insects like cicada indicates high temperatures and onset of summer.
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 Ants sealing off holes into an ant mold shows that rain is about to fall soon.
 Human ailments such as operations, asthmatic attacks, back aches usually predict imminent
cold weather and humid conditions.
 Presence of whirlwind indicates hot weather conditions and gusty winds.
 Sun and moon halo indicates the coming of the rains within 2 weeks.
 Natural burning of mountains predicts impending rains.
 Mist in the morning shows that there will be fine weather during the day.
 Presence of millipedes and frogs indicate the onset of rain season.
 The blooming/shedding off of leaves and abundance of fruits indicates the onset of summer,
dry season or drought.
Activities
 Visit elders in your family or community early in the morning, ask them what the weather
will be like that day.
 Write down the reasons for their forecast.
 Later in the day, record the actual weather of the day.
Types-of-rainfall-and-distribution-Exercise 1
1) Thunderstorms are commonly associated with which type of rainfall? Convectional
Frontal
Relief
Cyclonic
2) Which type of rainfall forms when warm moist air is forced to rise over a mountain? Frontal
Cyclonic
Convectional
Relief
3) In which season does Zimbabwe experience convectional rainfall? Winter

Summer
Autumn
Spring
4) The relief/highland side that receives little or no rainfall is called ________. rain shadow
desert
eastern highland
rainy ward
5) Which of the following is the most common type of precipitation? Hail

Fog
Rainfall
Ice
6) How many types of rainfall are there? 3

2
4
5
7) Which of the following places in Zimbabwe receives the most relief rainfall? Masvingo
Inyanga
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Bulawayo
Harare
8) What is formed when cold air meet warm air? Clouds

Fog
Rain
Front
9) ________is formed when warm moist air is forced to rise. Clouds

Water vapour
Mist
Precipitation
10) ________rainfall is formed when warm air is forced to rise over cold air. Frontal
Relief
Convectional
Hail
LANDFORMS
1. Identify different types of landforms

2. Describe different types of landforms
3. Give examples of different types of landforms
What is a landform?
 A landform is a naturally formed feature on the earth’s surface.
 Landforms include such features as hills, plains, valleys, gorges and waterfalls.
 Typically, landforms have shape, size, elevation, tilt and colour.
 There are major landforms that every student of geography must be able to recognise and
these are discussed in this subtopic.
Landforms and their pictorial and contour representation
Gentle and steep slope
 In order to understand landforms, it is important to begin by looking at slopes since they
give us the landform features.
 There are basically two types of slopes even/gentle and steep.
 Contour lines are imaginary lines drawn on a map joining two or more places of the same
height.
 On maps, patterns of contours indicate the types of slopes.
 When contours are far apart, land is gentle and when they are close together slopes are
steep.
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Fig 3.1.1
Gentle
slope
Even slope
 Slopes are even when contours are evenly spaced and this is common with gentle slopes.
 The illustration on Fig 3.1.2 shows an even contour pattern.
Fig 3.1.2
Even
slope
 On a picture, even or flat ground looks like one on Fig 3.1.3.
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Fig 3.1.3
Even or flat ground

 Areas around Chitungwiza, Mabvuku and Ruwa in Harare have even slopes like this.
 Also, Bulawayo, Matabeleland North, Chiredzi and some parts of Gokwe have expansive flat
terrain.
Steep slopes
 The Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe are typically hilly areas where steep slopes are common
 Travelling on Zimbabwe’s roads, steep slopes are seen at Christmas Pass near Mutare, Great
Dyke Pass near Banket and Boterekwa near Shurugwi.
Steep Slope
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Fig 3.1.5
Steep slope
 A map that has mostly even ground is seen by its sparse contours while hilly areas have
predominantly close contours.
Undulating slope
 A series of gentle up and down slopes give us an undulating slope.
 The photograph and map on Fig 3.1.6 shows one such landscape.
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Fig 3.1.6
Undulating slope
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Fig 3.1.7
Map of undulating slopes

Convex slopes
 These are slopes that are gentle towards the top but steeper towards the bottom.
 Contours start off far apart at the top becoming closer to each other towards the bottom as
shown in the illustration on Fig 3.1.8.
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Fig 3.1.8
Convex slope
Concave slopes
 Concave slopes are slopes that are steep at the top becoming gentle towards the bottom.
 Contours are therefore close towards the summit but far apart at the bottom or base.
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Fig 3.1.9
Concave slope
A Ridge
 A ridge is an extended highland or mountain with a narrow top.
 A ridge is one of the most common features in most local landscapes as it forms most of the
highlands or mountains.
 In Zimbabwe, ridges are common along The Great Dyke and Eastern Highlands.
 In South Africa, such landscape is common along the Drakensberg Mountains of the eastern
half of the country.
 Fig 3.1.10 is a picture showing a ridge and its contour mapping.
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Fig 3.1.10
A ridge and contour of a ridge

Plateau
 It is also spelt as plateaux.
 A plateau is a highland or mountain with a flat top.
 The most popular plateau in Zimbabwe is the Mapfungautsi/Mafungabusi plateau which is
northwest of Bulawayo in Matabeleland.
 A world example is found in South Africa named The Table Mountain.
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Fig 3.1.11
Table Mountain in Cape Town, South Africa
Fig 3.1.12 A
plateau and contour of a plateau
Conical hill
 This is simply a round shaped hill.
 The illustrations on Fig 3.1.13 show the side view as well as contour pattern.
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Fig 3.1.13
A conical hill and the contour pattern

Escarpment
 An escarpment is a sudden fall of land caused by erosion or vertical movement of the earth’s
crust.
 It is a long steep slope happening, especially, at the edge of a plateau.
 In Zimbabwe we have the Zambezi Escarpment in north eastern parts of the country.
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Fig 3.1.14
An escarpment
Fig 3.1.15
Contours of an escarpment
A Valley
 A valley is elongated lowland between highlands whose bottom is indicated by V or U-
shaped contours.
 Valleys are mostly as a result of erosion especially by rivers.
 Big valleys in Zimbabwe are Zambezi Valley and Save-Limpopo Valley
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Fig 3.1.16
A Valley
Fig 3.1.17
Contours of a valley
 In Africa we have the Great East African Rift Valley extending from Mozambique via Malawi,
Tanzania, Kenya, up to Egypt and Red Sea.
Valley and spur
 A spur is a highland jutting into a lowland or valley.
 Spurs are often found separated by narrow valleys as shown on Fig 3.1.18.
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Fig 3.1.18
Valley and Spur

Gorge
 This is a narrow river valley with deep but steep sides.
Fig 3.1.19
A
gorge
 At Victoria Falls we have the famous Devils’ Gorge.
 In USA we have the Grand Canyon along Colorado River.
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Fig 3.1.20
The Grand Canyon

 Gorges are well known for being tourist attractions as well as good sites for damming.
Waterfall
 This is a sudden drop in land height which causes a river to fall over a cliff.
 Examples of waterfalls in Zimbabwe are Victoria Falls, Mutarazi Falls, Gandavaroyi Falls and
Pungwe Falls.
 The Victoria Falls which is found along Zambezi River is the biggest waterfall in Zimbabwe
and Africa.
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Fig 3.1.21
The Victoria Falls

 It is followed by Mutarazi which is highest waterfall in Zimbabwe (at 762m) and the second
highest in Africa.
 Fig 3.1.22 is a picture of Mutarazi in Nyanga which drops along the Pungwe River into Honde
Valley.
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Fig 3.1.22
Mutarazi Falls
Rivers
 Major rivers in Zimbabwe include rivers such as Zambezi, Save, Hunyani, Munyati, Sanyati,
Mazowe, Gwaai, Runde, Pungwe, Ruya, Odzi, Umzingwane and Shangani.
 With the exception of Zambezi, most Zimbabwean rivers are not as big because they are in
their upper courses.
 Rivers get bigger as they approach the sea e.g. Save and Pungwee.
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Fig 3.1.23
Mazowe River
 The longest river in Africa and in the world is the Nile.
 The other biggest rivers in Africa are Congo, Niger, Zambezi, Orange, Limpopo, Volta and
Benue.
 In the world we also have big rivers such as the Amazon, Yangtse, Yellow, Mississippi,
Danube, Rhine and Tigris.
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Fig 3.1.24
The Yellow River in China

 The biggest rivers originate or flow through regions of high rainfall or of rapid snow melt.
 The Amazon River gets its water from the equatorial rainforest of Amazon in Brazil.
 Fig 3.1.25 is a picture showing the big Amazon River in Brazil.
Fig 3.1.25
Amazon River in Brazil
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Activities
In your community, move around identifying and describe landforms in the area.

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BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Define what a map is.

Zimbabwe Agro-ecological zones

A map without a key/legend

A map with a key/legend

 The map on Fig 1.4 illustrates this.

A map with directions

Fig 1.6 Location using Graticules

Topographical Map Showing Contour Lines

Political Map of Africa

Physical Landscape Map of Zimbabwe

Economic Map of Zimbabwe

Longitudes and latitudes lines

Location of Ethiopia using the GPS

Earth divided into 60 zones

 Representative fraction or ratio

Water features on maps

Buildings and related features

 To be more precise, intercardinal points are also used.

Angles from cardinal points

 C is from the south 55° towards the west (S55°W).

Measuring Distance Using a String on a Map

Measuring Distance on a Map Using Straight Edge of a Paper

Estimating Area on a Map

Choose True or False to answer the following questions.

3) A title and legend are components of a map. True

4) A map title is always found at the bottom part of a map. True

6) Maps represent both natural and man-made features. True

BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. List elements of weather.

Weather and climate

Mean temperature = [Math Processing Error](30+18)2

MAXIMUM MINIMUM TEMPERATURE MEAN

1 32°C 16°C 32°C – 16°C = 16°C = 24°C

2 29°C 12°C 29°C – 12°C = 17°C = 20,5°C

3 31°C 8°C 31°C – 8°C = 23°C = 19,5°C

4 27°C 10°C 27°C – 10°C = 17°C = 18,5°C

 A hygrometer is made up of two mercury thermometers.

 Points to note about hygrometer readings:

 Wind is air in motion.

Recordings on a wind rose

The wind rose on Fig 2.1.8 shows:

2) Which of the following is used to measure atmospheric pressure? Barometer

3) What is the maximum temperature reading of the thermometer shown below?

4) A 760mm column of mercury at sea is equal to ________. 1012mb

5) Temperature is measured by an instrument called ________. hygrometer

6) What is the unit measurement for temperature? Millimeters

8) Where is a hygrometer kept? Weather station

10) What is weather? It is the daily atmospheric conditions of a given place.

WEATHER STATION AND DATA

BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Define the term weather station.

School weather station

Inside a Stevenson screen

Pictorial Summary of Clouds

2) Which of the following is a cloud which is described as being wispy? Cirrus

5) High level clouds are ________. 2-7km

8) The symbol below shows a ________ cloud.

9) Which cloud causes the halo effect on the sun? Cirrus