Python

PYTHON
Python Introduction
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum, and released in 1991.
It is used for:
 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready software
development.
Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed
as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.
Good to know
 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with
anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write
Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when
managing larger collections of Python files.
Python Syntax compared to other

programming languages
 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Python Syntax
Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.
Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

only, the indentation in Python is very important.
Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.
ExampleG
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Five is greater than two!
Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:
The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is
four, but it has to be at least one.
You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:
Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:
Example
Variables in Python:
x = 5
y = "Hello, World!"
Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.
Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:
Example
Comments in Python:
#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")
Python Comment
Comments can be used to explain Python code.
Comments can be used to make the code more readable.
Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.
Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:
Example
#This is a comment
Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of
the line:
Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment
Multiline Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multiline comments.
To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:
Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
Python Variables
Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.
Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.
A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set.
Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)
Sally
Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.
Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
Get the Type

You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
<class 'int'>
<class 'str'>
Single or Double Quotes?
String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:
Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.
Example
This will create two variables:
a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
Python - Variable Names

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
 A variable name cannot be any of the Python keywords.
Example
Legal variable names:
myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"
Remember that variable names are case-sensitive
Multi Words Variable Names

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.
There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:
Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:
myVariableName = "John"
Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:
MyVariableName = "John"
Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:
my_variable_name = "John"
Python Variables - Assign
Multiple Values
Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:
ExampleG
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or else
you will get an error.
One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to extract
the values into variables. This is called unpacking.
Example
Unpack a list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Python - Output Variables

Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.
Example
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)
Python is awesome
In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:
Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)
You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:
Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)
Python is awesome
Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result
would be "Pythonisawesome".
For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)
15
In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with
the + operator, Python will give you an error:
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'
The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate
them with commas, which even support different data types:
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x, y)
Python - Global Variables

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples in the
previous pages) are known as global variables.
Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.
Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function
x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)
myfunc()
Python is awesome
If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.
Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable
x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
Python is fantastic
Python is awesome
Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.
Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different
things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:
Text Type: str
Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range
Mapping Type: dict
Set Types: set, frozenset
Boolean Type: bool
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
None Type: NoneType
Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x = 5
print(type(x))
Python Numbers
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:
 int
 float
 complex
Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.
Example
Integers:
x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.
Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example
Complex:
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
5jType Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:
Example
Convert from one type to another:
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)
#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)
#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type
Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:
Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:
import random
print(random.randrange(1, 10))
Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.
Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:
 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

(by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the string
represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal
or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals
Example
Integers:
x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3
Example
Floats:
x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
Example
Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
Python Strings
Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.
'hello' is the same as "hello".
You can display a string literal with the print() function:
Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')
Quotes Inside Quotes

You can use quotes inside a string, as long as they don't match the quotes
surrounding the string:
Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')
Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:
Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)
Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:
Example
You can use three double quotes:
a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
Or three single quotes:
Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)
Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of
bytes representing unicode characters.
However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is
simply a string with a length of 1.
Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
print(x)
b
a
n
a
n
a
String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.
Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
13
Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.
Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)
True
Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use
the keyword not in.
Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)
True
Python - Slicing Strings

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.
Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part
of the string.
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5]
llo
Note: The first character has index 0.
Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:
Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])
Hello
Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:
Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])
llo, World!
Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters:
From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)
To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
orl
Python - Modify Strings

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())
HELLO, WORLD!
Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())
Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you
want to remove this space.
Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:
a = " Hello, World! "
print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"
Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Jello, World!
Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified
separator becomes the list items.
Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
['Hello', ' World!']
Python - String
Concatenation
String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + b
print(c)
HelloWorld Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)
Python - Format - Strings

String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and
numbers like this:
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "demo_string_format_error.py", line 2, in <module>
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
TypeError: must be str, not int
But we can combine strings and numbers by using f-strings or

the format() method!
F-Strings
F-String was introduced in Python 3.6, and is now the preferred way of
formatting strings.
To specify a string as an f-string, simply put an f in front of the string literal, and
add curly brackets {} as placeholders for variables and other operations.
Example
Create an f-string:
age = 36
txt = f"My name is John, I am {age}"
print(txt)
My name is John, I am 36
Python - Escape Characters

Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.
An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

insert.
An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:
Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded
by double quotes:
txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

File "demo_string_escape_error.py", line 1
txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
To fix this problem, use the escape character \":
Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would
not be allowed:
txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Code Result
\' Single Quote
\\ Backslash
\n New Line
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\b Backspace
\f Form Feed
\ooo Octal value
\xhh Hex value
Python - String Methods

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original
string.
Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case
casefold() Converts string into lower case
center() Returns a centered string
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string
encode() Returns an encoded version of the string
endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value
expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string
find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of wher
format() Formats specified values in a string
format_map() Formats specified values in a string
index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of wher
isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric
isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet
isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii characters
isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals
isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits
isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier
islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable
isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces
istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title
isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case
join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string
ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string
lower() Converts a string into lower case
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string
maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations
partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified valu
rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of w
rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of w
rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string
rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string
split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list
startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value
strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string
swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa
title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case
translate() Returns a translated string
upper() Converts a string into upper case
zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning
Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.
Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.
You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.
When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns
the Boolean answer:

print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:
Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,
Example
Evaluate a string and a number:
print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))
True
True
Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.
Any string is True, except empty strings.
Any number is True, except 0.
Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.
Example
The following will return True:
bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])
True
True
True
Some Values are False
In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values,
such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the
value False evaluates to False.
Example
The following will return False:
bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})
Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:
Example
Print the answer of a function:
def myFunction() :
return True
print(myFunction())
Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a
certain data type:
Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))
Python Operators
Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

print(10 + 5)
Python divides the operators in the following groups:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:
Operator Name Example
+ Addition x+y
- Subtraction x-y
* Multiplication x*y
/ Division x/y
% Modulus x%y
** Exponentiation x ** y
// Floor division x // y
Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:
Operator Example Same As
= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
:= print(x := 3) x=3
print(x)
Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:
Operator Description Example
is Returns True if both variables are the same object x is y
is not Returns True if both variables are not the same x is not y
object
Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:
Operator Description E
in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is present in x

the object
not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not present x
in the object
Operator Precedence
Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.
The precedence order is described in the table below, starting with the highest
precedence at the top:
Operator Description
() Parentheses
** Exponentiation
+x -x ~x Unary plus, unary minus, and bitwise NOT
* / // % Multiplication, division, floor division, and modu
+ - Addition and subtraction
<< >> Bitwise left and right shifts
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise XOR
| Bitwise OR
== != > >= < <= is is not in not Comparisons, identity, and membership operat
in
not Logical NOT

and AND
or OR
Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
Lists are created using square brackets:

Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.
Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general:
the order of the items will not change.
Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a
list after it has been created.
Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:

print(len(thislist))
List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
[1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
[True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:
Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]
type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>
The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double

round-brackets
print(thislist)
Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.
Python - Access List Items

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index
number:

Print the second item of the list:

print(thislist[1])
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.
: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including
"mango" (-1):
thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1]
['orange', 'kiwi', 'melon']
Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
Python - Change List Items

Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Change the second item:

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist
Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new
values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the
new values:
Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
['apple', 'blackcurrant', 'watermelon', 'orange', 'kiwi', 'mango']
If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
['apple', 'blackcurrant', 'watermelon', 'cherry']
If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
['apple', 'watermelon']
Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can
use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
['apple', 'banana', 'watermelon', 'cherry']
Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange']
Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use
the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'mango', 'pineapple', 'papaya']
The elements will be added to the end of the list.
Python - Remove List Items

Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.

Remove "banana":

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method
removes the first occurrence:
Example
Remove the first occurrence of "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
['apple', 'cherry', 'banana', 'kiwi']
Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example
Remove the first item:

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example
Delete the entire list:

del thislist
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "demo_list_del2.py", line 3, in <module>
print(thislist) #this will cause an error because you have
succsesfully deleted "thislist".
NameError: name 'thislist' is not defined
Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.
The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example
Clear the list content:
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Print all items in the list, one by one:

for x in thislist:
print(x)
Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and
loop your way through the list items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i = i + 1
Looping Using List

Comprehension
List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

[print(x) for x in thislist]
Python - List Comprehension

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list
based on the values of an existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the
letter "a" in the name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)
print(newlist)
With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
print(newlist)
The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.
Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.
Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]
Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:
newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically,
ascending, by default:

Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
['banana', 'kiwi', 'mango', 'orange', 'pineapple']
Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
['pineapple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi', 'banana']
Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters
being sorted before lower case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example
Reverse the order of the list items:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Python - Copy Lists

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will
only be a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically
also be made in list2.
Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.

Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Use the slice Operator

You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.
Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:

mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)
Python - Join Lists

Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
nother way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one
by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements from
one list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
Python - List Methods

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.
Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list
Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
Tuples are written with round brackets.

Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)
Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.
Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.
Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items
after the tuple has been created.
Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value
Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Tuple items can be of any data type:
A tuple can contain different data types:
Python - Access Tuple Items

Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Print the second item in the tuple:

print(thistuple[1])
Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Print the second item in the tuple:

print(thistuple[1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified
items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Python - Update Tuples

Python - Unpack Tuples
Example
Unpacking a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
(green, yellow, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
apple
banana
cherry
Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to
the variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")
(green, yellow, *red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
apple
banana
['cherry', 'strawberry', 'raspberry']
Python - Join Tuples

Join Two Tuples
To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can
use the * operator:
Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2
print(mytuple)
('apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'apple', 'banana', 'cherry')
Python - Tuple Methods
Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.
Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found
Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the
other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new
items.
Sets are written with curly bracket

Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)
Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.
Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot
be referred to by index or key.
Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the
set has been created.
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items
and add new items.
Note: The values False and 0 are considered the same value in sets, and are
treated as duplicates:
Python - Add Set Items

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
thisset.update(tropical)
print(thisset)
Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any
iterable object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]
thisset.update(mylist)
print(thisset)
Python - Remove Set Items
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset.remove("banana")
print(thisset)
You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will
remove a random item, so you cannot be sure what item that gets removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example
Remove a random item by using the pop() method:
x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)
Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}
print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know
which item that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:
thisset.clear()
print(thisset)
Try it Yourself »
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:
del thisset
print(thisset)
Python - Loop Sets

Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:

Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Python - Join Sets

Join Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
The union() and update() methods joins all items from both sets.
The intersection() method keeps ONLY the duplicates.
The difference() method keeps the items from the first set that are not in the
other set(s).
The symmetric_difference() method keeps all items EXCEPT the duplicates.
Union
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets.

Join set1 and set2 into a new set:
set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
{3, 'c', 'a', 'b', 2, 1}
You can use the | operator instead of the union() method, and you will get the
same result.
Example
Use | to join two sets:
set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1 | set2

print(set3)
Join Multiple Sets

All the joining methods and operators can be used to join multiple sets.
When using a method, just add more sets in the parentheses, separated by
commas:
Example
Join multiple sets with the union() method:
set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}
myset = set1.union(set2, set3, set4)

print(myset)
Join a Set and a Tuple

The union() method allows you to join a set with other data types, like lists or
tuples.
The result will be a set.
Example
Join a set with a tuple:
x = {"a", "b", "c"}

y = (1, 2, 3)
z = x.union(y)
print(z)
Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.
A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow

duplicates.
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.
Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:
Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.
Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by

using the key name.
When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a
defined order, and that order will not change.
Unordered means that the items do not have a defined order, you cannot refer
to an item by using an index.
Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items
after the dictionary has been created.
Duplicates Not Allowed
Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:
Python - Access Dictionary

Items
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

Get the value of the "model" key:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
x = thisdict.get("model")
Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the keys:
The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done
to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:
x = thisdict.keys()
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change

dict_keys(['brand', 'model', 'year'])
dict_keys(['brand', 'model', 'year', 'color'])
Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary
Example
Get a list of the values:
x = thisdict.values()
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
x = thisdict.values()
print(x) dict_values(['Ford', 'Mustang', 1964])
Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict.items()
print(x)
dict_items([('brand', 'Ford'), ('model', 'Mustang'), ('year',

1964)])
5j
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Python

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 web development (server-side),

What can Python do?

Python Syntax compared to other

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Get the Type

Python - Variable Names

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

Multi Words Variable Names

One Value to Multiple Variables

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Python - Output Variables

In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Python - Global Variables

Python Data Types

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

#convert from int to float:

#convert from float to int:

#convert from int to complex:

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Quotes Inside Quotes

Assign String to a Variable

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

Or three single quotes:

Strings are Arrays

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Looping Through a String

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

Python - Slicing Strings

Slice From the Start

Slice To the End

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

Python - Modify Strings

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Python - Format - Strings

But we can combine strings and numbers by using f-strings or

Python - Escape Characters

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

\' Single Quote

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

Python - String Methods

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits