Lengua y Fonología Inglesa II

INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LETRAS
EDUARDO MALLEA (A-1369)

Incorporado a la Enseñanza Oficial
PROYECTO DE EDUCACIÓN ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

MALLEA
CARRERA:
Tecnicatura Superior en la Traducción de

Textos en Inglés
Lengua y Fonología Inglesa II
Primer año, segundo cuatrimestre
Ediciones Mallea
1
Lengua y Fonología Inglesa II, Buenos Aires: Ediciones Mallea, 2021.
125 páginas.
ISBN: 978-987-27838-1-5
1. Lingüística. Coordinadora: Magíster Lina Mundet
® INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LETRAS

EDUARDO MALLEA (A-1369)
Incorporado a la Enseñanza Oficial
Mendoza 3114
(1428) Ciudad de Buenos Aires
República Argentina
Tel.: 4541-6597/ 4544-8214

E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Web: www.institutomallea.edu.ar
RECTORA: Magíster Lina Mundet
SECRETARIO ACADÉMICO: Lic. Gonzalo J. Lemme
PROSECRETARIA: Lic. Guadalupe Giménez Milán
® Ediciones Mallea
QUEDAN RIGUROSAMENTE PROHIBIDAS, SIN LA

AUTORIZACIÓN ESCRITA DE LOS REPRESENTAN-
TES DEL INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LETRAS
EDUARDO MALLEA, LA REPRODUCCIÓN PARCIAL
O TOTAL DE ESTA PUBLICACIÓN POR CUALQUIER
MEDIO O PROCEDIMIENTO.
LEY N.º 11.723
2
LIST OF ICONS
ICON DESCRIPTION AND USE
ESSENTIAL RESOURCES TO STUDY THIS SUBJECT
SUBJECT GOALS
CONTENTS
CONTENT STUDY
ACTIVITIES
APPENDIXES
RECOMMENDATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KEY TO EXERCISES
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ESSENTIAL RESOURCES TO STUDY ENGLISH LANGUAGE
AND PHONOLOGY II
RESOURCES SOURCES
Online mono- https://dictionary.cambridge.org/

lingual https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/
dictionary
Online
collocation https://www.freecollocation.com/
dictionary
Online https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-thesaurus
thesaurus https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus
Pronunciation dictionary
dictionary:https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Y0FBHUETfuQ7EaDsyPB0fqD8F6c8JHuj/view?usp=sharing
Important!
You should create shortcuts to these websites on your Google
Chrome homepage to be only a mouse-click away from
knowledge. Remember to write down all the information you
get from the dictionary to be able to recycle vocabulary in
other exercises.
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SUBJECT GOALS
Students should be able to:
 Improve their skills in all the following areas: grammar, reading comprehension, writing
and phonology.
 Perfect their vocabulary by detecting co-text and topic-related vocabulary, and then
recycle it in writing and oral activities.
 Write documents of various kinds and on various subjects, mainly opinion essays,
reports, and summaries.
 Make effective oral presentations in a range of topics.
 Read, analyse, and summarise effectively information from different sources.
 Use spelling, punctuation, and grammar accurately to convey clear messages.
 Paraphrase ideas resorting to a wide range of vocabulary and advanced grammar

structures.
 Analyse the nuances of texts to deeply comprehend ideas.
 Consolidate the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and monitor their own sounds.
 Understand the most relevant allophonic variations and introduce them in their speech.
 Apply the concepts of weak forms to their oral skills.
 Detect compound nouns and predict the stress patterns by using the rules.
 Analyse literary texts, and deliver oral presentations that focus on themes, settings,
symbols, and atmosphere.
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CONTENTS
MODULE I: Exploring non-fiction texts
UNIT 1: Studying the media.

A) Grammar: Passive voice (general review, causative use of “have” and “get”)
B) Reading comprehension: “Childhood stimulation key to brain development, study
finds”.
C) Writing: Summaries – structure and examples
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Revision of the English vowels – spontaneous speech
UNIT 2: Understanding multiple perspectives in the media.

A) Grammar: Passive voice (impersonal constructions)
B) Reading comprehension: “More views, angles and perspective: Why community
journalism may be the future of news.”
C) Writing: Summaries – model and exercise
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Revision of the English consonants and semi-vowels –
Rules of added -s/-ed – planned speech
MODULE II: The great richness of fiction texts.
UNIT 1: Analysing fiction texts: Plays.
A) Grammar: Negative inversion

B) Reading comprehension: “Tribes” by Nina Raine
C) Writing: Opinion essay – structure and model
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Weak forms of function words
UNIT 2: Analysing fiction texts: Short stories.
A) Grammar: Reported speech (general review, introductory and summarising verbs)

B) Reading comprehension: “The Masque of the Red Death” by Edgar Allan Poe
C) Writing: Opinion essays – model and exercise
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Key allophonic variations: aspiration, full devoicing.
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MODULE III: Nuances of the language
UNIT 1: Decoding gender-inclusive language.
A) Grammar: Conditionals (general review, variations)

B) Reading comprehension: “A guide to gender-neutral language is developing around
the world.”
C) Writing: Report – structure and model
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Word stress – Stress in simple and complex words.
UNIT 2: Examining the differences of World Englishes.
A) Grammar: conditionals (inversion)

B) Reading comprehension (and listening): “Why a global language?”, “World Englishes”,
“Will English always be a global language?” by David Crystal.
C) Writing: Report – model and exercise
D) Phonetics and Phonology: Word stress – Stress in compound words.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KEY TO EXERCISES
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MODULE I
Exploring non-fiction texts
Unit I
Studying the media
A) GRAMMAR – GENERAL REVIEW OF PASSIVE VOICE & CAUSATIVE
Passives are used whenever an action is more important than the agent - for
example, in reporting the news or scientific experiments;
• A woman has been arrested for the abduction of baby Emily Smith.
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive sentence, and the
verb be is used in the correct tense with the past participle of the relevant verb.
By + the agent is used only if it contributes important information:

• Coastal buildings have been damaged by gales.
Intransitive verbs, e.g. arrive, cannot become passive, because they have no
object. Certain other verbs, e.g. let, fit, lack, resemble, suit, cannot normally
become passive.
After modal verbs, passive infinitives are used:

• He ought to be arrested. • You might have been killed.
Passive -ing forms are possible:

• She likes being driven to work. • Having been fed, the dog went to sleep.
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Many verbs, like give, award, lend, can have two objects. When putting these verbs into the
passive, it is more usual to make the 'person object', rather than the 'thing object', the subject
of the passive verb:
• I was given back my change. (NOT My change was given back to me).
We use have + object + past participle to describe things that happen to use, often
misfortunes or services. The subject is the person who experiences what happened:
 I’ve had my car stolen.
 He’s had his application for citizenship turned down.
 My mother’s had her letter published in The Times.
In spoken English, we can sometimes use get instead of have:

 She’s got another letter published int The Times.
If you need further explanations on Passive Voice,

check your additional study resources.
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ACTIVITIES
A. Complete the passage with the correct passive form of the verbs in brackets.
An ingenious device like a bed of nails, which 1) (originally use) by the great Carthaginian
general Hannibal to restrain his elephants, is currently 2 )________ (put) to a similar use in
parts of Britain. It 3)______ (know) as the Stinger, and recently it 4) _________ (successfully
deploy) in Greater Manchester and the Midlands. When a joyrider in a stolen vehicle 5
)________ (involve) in a police chase, the Stinger can 6 )________ (lay out) on the road in front
of the speeding driver, bringing the car to an abrupt halt. Last week a car chase in Bolton, which
had lasted 90 minutes, 7)________ (end) in 30 seconds, when the fugitive’s tyres 8)________
(puncture) by the Stinger. It 9 )____ ___ (hope) that this device will save police time and enable
more joyriders to 10)_______ _____ (catch), as well as reducing the length of dangerous high-
speed chases.
B. Follow the same instructions as for Exercise A.
A recent front-page story in the British press revealed a truly sensational musical discovery -
six Haydn piano sonatas 1)______________(find) in Germany. Apparently the long-lost
sonatas 2 )_________ (discover) by a German music teacher in the home of an elderly lady.
Strangely enough, the manuscripts, which 3) _________ (pronounce) genuine by several
eminent musicologists, 4 )________ (not make) available in their original form, so no scientific
tests could 5)________ (carry out) in order to verify their authenticity. The musical world 6
)________ (throw) into a state of great excitement by this news. Preparations 7)__________
(make) for a 32 U nit 9 prestigious recording of the sonatas, and an authoritative article
8)________ (publish) in the BBC’s Music Magazine. Since then, however, a note of doubt has
crept in, and experts now say that unless the originals 9)_____ (hand over) very soon, the
manuscripts must 10)________ (regard) as a forgery, albeit a very clever one.
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C. Change the following from active to passive constructions, keeping the same verb
tense. At the same time, decide whether, in the passive constructions, it is
necessary or useful to indicate who the agent is.
1. Lexicographers are constantly adding new words to dictionaries.

2. Some countries have adapted English, so it is hardly recognisable as the same
language.
3. The Court in London had used French before English became an acceptable language
for polite society.
4. We ought to have kept the distinction between “fewer” and “less”.
5. It is possible to learn a language by ear without anyone having taught it to you.
D. Covert the following constructions using ·have/get something done”, starting as

shown.
1. It would have been impossible for the car to have been repaired in time. It would have
been impossible to…
2. It’s no good, it will have to be cut. It’s no good, you…
3. Am I going to perm your hair this time? Are you…
4. The job should have been done by professionals. He should…
If you have any doubts, contact your tutor.

Remember you will find the key to all the exercises
at the end of the booklet.
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B) READING COMPREHENSION
1. Spot all the topic-related collocations for the following lexical items: stimulation, brain,
cortex, study, childhood.
2. Provide headings for each paragraph.
3. Analyse the collocations of the underlined co-text and organise the information as shown
below.
E.g.:
ROLE: tremendous ~, to play a ~
4. Could you name the grammar structures in bold?
Childhood stimulation key to brain development, study finds
Twenty-year research project shows that most

critical aspect of cortex development in late teens
was stimulation aged four.
Brain scans of participants aged in their late teens
showed a correlation between cognitive stimulation
at the age of four and a thinner, more developed,
cortex.
Photograph: David Job/Getty Images
An early childhood surrounded by books and educational toys will leave positive
fingerprints on a person's brain well into their late teens, a two-decade-long research
study has shown.
Scientists found that the more mental stimulation a child gets around the age of four,
the more developed the parts of their brains dedicated to language and cognition will
be in the decades ahead.
It is known that childhood experience influences brain development, but the only
evidence scientists have had for this has usually come from extreme cases such as
children who had been abused or suffered trauma. Martha Farah, director of the centre
for neuroscience and society at the University of Pennsylvania, who led the latest study,
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wanted to find out how a normal range of experiences in childhood might influence the
development of the brain.
Farah took data from surveys of home life and brain scans of 64 participants carried out
over the course of 20 years. Her results, presented on Sunday at the annual meeting of
the Society for Neuroscience in New Orleans, showed that cognitive stimulation from
parents at the age of four was the key factor in predicting the development of several
parts of the cortex – the layer of grey matter on the outside of the brain – 15 years later.
The participants had been tracked since they were four years old. Researchers had
visited their homes and recorded a series of details about their lives to measure
cognitive stimulation, details such as the number of children's books they had, whether
they had toys that taught them about colours, numbers or letters, or whether they played
with real or toy musical instruments.
The researchers also scored the participants on "parental nurturance" – how much warmth,
support or care the child got from the parent. The researchers carried out the same
surveys when the children were eight years old. When the participants were between 17
and 19, they had their brains scanned.
Farah's results showed that the development of the cortex in late teens was closely
correlated with a child's cognitive stimulation at the age of four. All other factors
including parental nurturance at all ages and cognitive stimulation at age eight – had no
effect. Farah said her results were evidence for the existence of a sensitive period, early
in a person's life, that determined the optimal development of the cortex. "It really does
support the idea that those early years are especially influential."
As the brain matures during childhood and adolescence, brain cells in the cortex are
pruned back and, as unnecessary cells are eliminated, the cortex gets thinner. Farah found
that the more cognitive stimulation a participant had had at the age of four, the thinner,
and therefore more developed, their cortex. "It almost looks like whatever the normal
developmental process is, has either accelerated or gone further in the kids with the
better cognitive stimulation," she said.
The most strongly affected region was the lateral left temporal cortex, which is on the
surface of the brain, behind the ear. This region is involved in semantic memory,
processing word meanings and general knowledge about the world.
Around the time the participants had their brains scanned in their late teens, they were
also given language tests and, Farah said, the thinner their cortex, the better their
language comprehension.
Andrea Danese, a clinical lecturer in child and adolescent psychiatry at the Institute of
Psychiatry, King's College London, said the study suggested that the experience of a
nurturing home environment could have an effect on brain development regardless of
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familial, perhaps genetic, predispositions to better brains. Danese added that this kind of
research highlighted the "tremendous role" that parents and carers had to play in enabling
children to develop their cognitive, social, and emotional skills by providing safe,
predictable, stimulating, and responsive personal interactions with children.
"Parents may not be around when their teenage children are faced with important choices
about choosing peers, experimenting with drugs, engaging in sexual relationships, or
staying in education," said Danese. "Yet, parents can lay the foundations for their
teenage children to take good decisions, for example by promoting their ability to retain
and elaborate information, or to balance the desire for immediate reward with the one
for greater, long-term goals since a young age."
Bruce Hood, an experimental psychologist who specialises in developmental cognitive
neuroscience at the University of Bristol, said his advice to parents was just to "be kind
to your children. Unless you raise them in a cardboard box without any stimulation or
interaction, then they will probably be just fine."
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C) WRITING
SUMMARIES
The purpose of a summary is to give the reader, in a about 1/3 of the original length of an
article/lecture, a clear, objective picture of the original lecture or text. Most importantly, the
summary restates only the main points of a text or a lecture without giving examples or
details, such as dates, numbers, or statistics.
Before writing the summary:
For a text, read, mark, and annotate the original. (For a lecture, work with the notes you took).
o highlight the topic sentence

o highlight key points/key words/phrases
o highlight the concluding sentence
o outline each paragraph in the margin
2. Take notes on the following:

o the source (author--first/last name, title, date of publication, volume number, place
of publication, publisher, URL, etc.)
o the main idea of the original (paraphrased)
o the major supporting points (in outline form)
o major supporting explanations (e.g., reasons/causes or effects)
Writing your summary-Steps:
1. Organize your notes into an outline which includes main ideas and supporting
points but no examples or details (dates, numbers, statistics).
2. Write an introductory paragraph that begins with a frame, including an in-text
citation of the source and the author as well as a reporting verb to introduce the
main idea. The reporting verb is generally in present tense.
3. At the end of your summary, double-space and write a reference for the in-text
citation, following APA guidelines.
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A) ARTICLE
In the article, ____________ (author's last name) (year) argues (claims/reports/argues)

that ___________________________ (main idea/argument)
Example: In his article, Serwer (1997) describes how Michael Dell founded Dell Computers
and claims that Dell’s low-cost, direct-sales strategy and high-quality standards accounted for
Dell’s enormous success.
B) BOOK
Example: In his book The Pearl, John Steinbeck (1945) illustrates the fight between good and
evil in humankind.
C) INTERVIEW
In an interview, __________________ (first name last name) stated that

________________________________ (main idea/argument; S + V + C)
Strong Argument: argue, assert, claim, contend, maintain, insist, posit
Neutral: state, note, report, explain, discuss, illustrate, observe
Counterargument: refute the claim, argue against
Suggestion: suggest, recommend
Indicating research results: show, demonstrate, illustrate, indicate, point out,

(studies/authors) prove/find
Reporting Verbs:
1. The main idea or argument needs to be included in this first sentence. Then mention
the major aspects/factors/reasons that are discussed in the article/lecture. Give a
full reference for this citation at the end of the summary.
a. For a one-paragraph summary, discuss each supporting point in a
separate sentence. Give 1-2 explanations for each supporting point,
summarizing the information from the original.
b. For a multi-paragraph summary, discuss each supporting point in a
separate paragraph. Introduce it in the first sentence (topic sentence).
2. Support your topic sentence with the necessary reasons or arguments raised by
the author/lecturer but omit all references to details, such as dates or statistics.
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3. Use discourse markers that reflect the organization and controlling idea of the
original, for example cause-effect, comparison-contrast, classification, process,
chronological order, persuasive argument, etc.
4. In a longer summary, remind your reader that you are paraphrasing by using
"reminder phrases," such as
a. The author goes on to say that ...

b. The article (author) further states that ...
c. (Author's last name) also states/maintains/argues that ...
d. (Author's last name) also believes that ...
e. (Author's last name) concludes that…
5. Restate the article’s/lecturer’s conclusion in one sentence.
6. Give a full reference for the citation.
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D) PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
English vowels
In an attempt to continue learning and practising key concepts, you should revise Unit II,
Module II from your booklet “Lengua y Fonología Inglesa I”.
Spontaneous speech
Sponteneous speech (sometimes called unplanned speech) is speech which is not thought
out beforehand. The vast majority of the speech that we use on our day-to-day basis is
unplanned. Because this kind od speech is not planned or thought-out before we speak, it has
a range of features that are typical of it.
Features of spontaneous speech

The first thing to note about spontaneous speech is that, unlike written language, we do not
speak in carefully constructed, grammatically correct sentences. The bulk of spontaneous
speech consists of ungrammatical units called utterances. These express what we say or
“utter”.
Here are some features to look out for in spontaneous speech:

 Turn-taking – most conversations between two or more people involve the people
taking turns to speak (although not in a regular pattern).
 Adjacency pairs – we use these all the time in conversation: one utterance leads to
another – one speaker says something and another speaker says something in
response. For example, if a speaker A asks a question and speaker B answers, that is
an adjacency pair.
 Pauses – these happen a lot in spontaneous speech. Some are vert short, but some
can be quite long.
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 Voice-filled pauses – these are gaps in the conversation that are filled by some kind of
non-verbal sound, e.g. “erm”, “er”, “um”, etc.
 Fillers – these fill gaps in the conversation too but they are words rather than sounds.
However, they are words that do not have a real meaning. E.g. “you know”, “I mean”,
“well”, etc.
 Overlaps – these occur when one speaker begins speaking before the other speaker
has finished, or they both speak at the same time.
 Repetitions – these often occur when the speaker is not sure what they are saying or
when they are searching for the correct word.
 False starts – these happen when a speaker begins to speak and then corrects
himself/herself by beginning the utterance again.
 End clipping – when letters (or rather sounds) are dropped from the ends of words, for
example, “happenin” instead of “happening”.
 Contractions – when words are shortened by running them together, for example,
“don’t” instead of “do not”.
 Slang or colloquial language – this is frequently used in informal spontaneous speech.
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ACTIVITIES
1. Write the correct phonemic transcription for the following words:

1. month:……… 6. met ......... .
2. gone:……… 7. sung .......... .
3. bank .......... . 8. symbol .......... .
4. ago ........ . . 9. cinema ........ .
5. sugar .. 10. any .......... .
2. Provide all the long vowel sounds that can be put into the gaps to make
correct words.
1. h ....... m 4. f... .... d

2. b ....... t 5. t ....... k
3. p ....... s
3. Circle the correct phonemic transcription of the following words.
1. pin /pɪn/ /pen/
2. send /send/ /sænd/ 5. full /fu:l/ /fʊl/
3. golf /gɔ:lf/ /gɒlf/ 6. hurt /hɜ:t/ /hɑ:t/
4. part /pɑ:t/ /pæt/ 7. order /ˈɒdə/ /ˈɔ:də/
4. Diphthongs: classify the following words according to their diphthongs.
sigh, ray, fear, row (= move through water), pie, bow (= weapon), may, hoe, boy, day, hair, rare,
pier, foe, hay, die, bear, tie, sow (= female pig), how, dear, tour, tear (= water from the eye),
pear, mere, bow (= bend), pay, my, poor, gear, beer, say, buy, fair, rear, toy, high, tear (= pull
apart), go, dare, bay, guy, soy, dough, sow ( = to plant seeds), here, gay, mare, toe, row (=
argument), rye, mow
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5. Listen to the track n.º1 – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and find
examples of the above-mentioned features of spontaneous speech.
Remember you should revise the concepts of

vowels which were studied in English Language and
Phonology I.
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MODULE I
Exploring non-fiction texts
Unit II
Understanding multiple perspectives in the media
A) GRAMMAR – IMPERSONAL PASSIVE VOICE CONSTRUCTIONS
Passive constructions are often used with verbs like say, believe, and know.
It + passive + that-clause:
• It is said that three people died in the accident.
• It was once believed that the earth was completely flat.
Subject + passive + to + infinitive:
• Three people are said to have died in the accident.
• The earth was once believed to be completely flat
Sometimes there are two passive constructions in the same sentence:
• It is known that York was invaded by the Vikings.
• York is known to have been invaded by the Vikings.
Other verbs which are used in this way include: consider, think, understand, report, allege,
expect, fear, claim and deny. The verb be rumoured only exists in the passive form.
If you need further explanations on Impersonal

Passive Voice, check your additional study
resources.
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ACTIVITIES
1. Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first one, using
the word given. You must use between three and eight words, including the word
given. (Contractions count as two words.)
1. It is expected that tax increases will be announced in tomorrow’s budget statement. to

Tax increases_____________________________ in tomorrow’s budget statement.
2. We understand that inner-city crime rates are going up in most areas. be
Inner-city crime rates_____________________________ in most areas.
3. They say the rock star’s wife has had at least two facelifts. have
The rock star’s wife_____________________________ at least two facelifts.
4. We fear that nine crew members were lost overboard in the storm. are
Nine crew members _____________________________overboard in the storm.
5. It was considered that Ralph’s speech was one of the best. to
Ralph’s speech_____________________________ one of the best.
6. We can’t deny making certain mistakes in the early stages. that
It_______________________ _ made in the early stages.
7. Police reported that a man had been helping them with their inquiries. was
A man ______________________________police with their inquiries.
8. The accused was alleged to have committed fraud. had
It_____________________________ committed fraud.
2. Find in the text from unit 1 some examples of Passive Voice and
Impersonal Passive Voice.

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1. Read the text carefully.

2. Find the collocations in the text for the following general academic words: gaps-
partner – understand.
3. Find the collocations in the text for the following topic-related vocabulary: media-
journalism-agenda-broadcast-content-platform-news-mobile-press-viral-updates-digital.
'More views, angles and perspective': Why community

journalism may be the future of news.
Hashtag Our Stories co-founder Yusuf Omar explains why advancements in digital technology
will help more people tell their stories.
Posted: 16 January 2018 By: Caroline Scott
Community journalism, the local news coverage typically focused on neighbourhoods, suburbs
and small towns, helps to address gaps in the mainstream media, providing increased diversity,
greater depth and context to reporting in any particular area. With the advancement of
technologies such as virtual reality (VR), livestreaming capabilities, 8K video footage and 5G
internet, it's never been easier for local news organisations to get eyeballs on stories outside of
the mainstream, national news agenda.
But the developments that have happened in mobile journalism specifically have ensured it's
not just journalists who get to tell stories anymore – citizens can use the smartphones in their
pockets to shoot, edit and publish content to thousands of viewers, without needing major
broadcasting platforms. And platforms themselves are recognising this too
– Facebook recently started piloting 'Today In' in the US, an initiative to help users find local
news and events, while Snapchat have partnered with college newspapers around the US
to give people updates in their local area. No longer is social media just about posting selfies,
memes or what you had for breakfast – it's where two-thirds of US adults get at least some
of their news, according to the latest research by Pew (2017).
Yusuf Omar, co-founder of Hashtag Our Stories, an initiative dedicated to training
communities around the world in using mobile tools to tell their stories, believes this is the future
of news, as he explained to delegates at last week's Building the Future of Community
Journalism conference in Cardiff. "We don't need a printing press or broadcast equipment
anymore," he said. "If we have a powerful story to tell, nothing can stop it going viral – the
traditional media no longer has a monopoly on information. We will see the movement evolve
from communities producing shaky, hand-held footage to everybody being able to make content
that is effectively as good as the broadcaster's."
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Omar, who has previously worked on the Snapchat team at CNN and has trained 750
journalists at the Hindustan Times to use the platform as a content management system,
created Hashtag Our Stories with his wife, Sumaiya Omar. So far, they have travelled to
countries such as Sri Lanka, Indonesia, France and Puerto Rico, to 'identify communities that
are not being listened to by the mainstream media' and training citizens to tell stories with their
mobile phones.
"I feel that community journalism equals diversity – we have access to more views, more angles
and more perspectives, and that means more truth," he said, noting the industry's current
diversity problem. "We talk about fake news but we don't listen to enough real views or
perspectives – if we had listened to many of our communities on the ground and not just to polls
and pundits, we would have been in a better position to predict Brexit and Trump. Community
journalism is our best chance of understanding the past, and better predicting the future."
This is one of the reasons Yusuf and Sumaiya developed Hashtag Our Stories – with ordinary
citizens being able to publish content on social media platforms, journalists and the media are
able to better understand the audiences they are meant to be serving.
Additionally, he noted, it can help news organisations get updates from places that are difficult
to reach, such as war-torn countries or areas too dangerous to send a team of reporters to.
"Look at the BBC, CNN or any of the major broadcasters – they don't have correspondents on
the ground in places like Syria – we are crossing to a reporter in Lebanon who's telling us what
is happening in Syria," he said. By training communities around the world in storytelling, he
explained, the media can get better access to these places, hearing the stories that would
usually go unnoticed.
Omar's work with Hashtag Our Stories has shown him unusual ways in which people around
the world are distributing news, including South Koreans sending community news on USB
sticks over the border – using balloons.
"We should remember that all of us are on the right side of the 'digital divide'," he said, referring
to the split between those who have access to computers and the internet and those who do
not.
He explained he has to work with each community to understand what is and isn't appropriate
when publishing stories on particular subjects, being mindful of local customs and sensitivities.
"If we are training people, it is important we teach them how to protect themselves from their
community, the reputation or whatever may become from sharing that story – ensuring they film
safely and ethically."
25
C) WRITING
SUMMARIES
Model
From: Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
"Other animals, which, on account of their interests having been neglected by the insensibility
of the ancient jurists, stand degraded into the class of things. ... The day has been, I grieve it
to say in many places it is not yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under the
denomination of slaves, have been treated ... upon the same footing as ... animals are still. The
day may come, when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could
have been withholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already
discovered that the blackness of skin is no reason why a human being should be abandoned
without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may come one day to be recognized, that the
number of legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum, are reasons equally
insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace
the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason, or perhaps, the faculty for discourse?...the
question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? Why should the law
refuse its protection to any sensitive being?... The time will come when humanity will extend its
mantle over everything which breathes...” (283).
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Sample Summary:
There are just two main points in this passage.
1. Animals aren’t protected by the law because they are considered “things” rather than moral
subjects.
2. Animals should be protected by the law because they have the capacity to suffer.
26
Everything else is either supporting rhetoric or specific examples of the broader points Bentham
is making. Therefore, they don’t need to be included.
A summary of this passage might look like this:
In Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham challenges the traditional
justifications for why non-human animals are denied moral consideration under the law.
Instead, he argues that the law should serve to project any individual who has the capacity to
suffer (283).
Choose one of the articles of this module, and write a summary following
the guidelines.
Tip! You should always pay attention to paragraph

division, topic sentences and elements of cohesion.
27
English consonants and semi-vowels
In an attempt to continue learning and practising key concepts, you should revise Unit III,
Module II from your booklet “Lengua y Fonología Inglesa I”.
Rules of added -s/-es
An -s or -es must be added to certain words to form regular plural nouns, the genetive, and
the 3rd person singular of the simple present tense.
These are the rules:
1. If the final phoneme of the word is voiceless (/p, t, k, f, θ/),

then the added -s/-es must be pronounced /s/, so that they agree
in voicing.
Looks /lʊks/
Maths /mæθs/
It’s /ɪts /
Wife’s /waɪfs/
2. If the final phoneme of the word is voiced (/b,d,g,v,ð,l,m,n,ŋ/

or vowels), then the added -s/-es must be pronounced /z/, so
that they agree in voicing.
Tom’s /tɒmz /
Reads /riːdz/
Lives /laɪvz /
Sees /siːz /
28
3. If the final phoneme of the word is a sibilant (/s,z,ʃ,ʒ,tʃ,dʒ/),
then the added
-s/-es must be pronounced /ɪz/, so that they agree in voicing.
Churches /tʃɜːtʃɪz/
Splashes /splæʃɪz/
Charles’s /tʃɑːlzɪz/
Dresses /dresɪz/
Rules of added -d/-ed
A -d or -ed must be added to certain words to form regular verbs in the past
and past participle forms (-ed), and most adjectives*.
These are the rules:
1. If the final phoneme of the word is voiceless (/p, t, k, f, θ,

s, ʃ, tʃ), then the added -d/-ed must be pronounced /t/, so that
they agree in voicing.
Looked /lʊkt/
Laughed /lɑːft/
Washed /wɒʃt/
2. If the final phoneme of the word is voiced

(/b,d,g,v,ð,l,m,n,ŋ,z,ʒ,dʒ/ or vowels), then the added -d/-ed
must be pronounced /d/, so that they agree in voicing.
Played /pleɪd/
Surprised /səˈpraɪzd/
Cleaned /kliːnd/
29
3. If the final phoneme of the word is /t/ or /d/, then the added -
d/-ed must be pronounced /ɪd/, so that they agree in voicing.
Excited /ɪkˈsaɪtɪd /
Invited /ɪnˈvaɪtɪd/
Sounded /saʊndɪd/
*Some adjectives take /ɪd/
Wretched /retʃɪd/
Wicked /wɪkɪd/
Naked /neɪkɪd/
Planned speech
Planned speech differs from spontaneous speech in one very obvious way – it has been
thought-out and planned in advance. Sometimes it might have been written out (or scripted)
before it is delivered.
The main purpose of many speeches is that the speaker wants to affect feelings, viers,
emotions or ideas of the listener in a certain way. The art od speech-making of this kind is called
rhetoric. To make their speeches effective in putting across the message and persuading their
listeners, speakers often use a range of rhetoric features.
Features of planned speech

Here are some rhetorical features you might find in planned speech:
 Emotive language – language that is specially chosen to appeal to the emotions of the
listeners.
 Exclamations – these can add emphasis and impact to particular points (they can lose
their effectiveness, though, if over-used).
 Guarantees or pledges – e.g. in political speeches, politicians often guarantees they
will do things that others have failed to do.
30
 Repetition – repeating key words, phrases or ideas can highlight key points and give
added impact to the listener.
 Patterns of three (use of three) – this is a very common technique in which the speaker
uses three words or phrases, often creating a strong rhythmic effect, which adds impact
to the words, for example, “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
 Lists – speakers use lists of points or ideas to build up the effect of what they are saying
and, again, to add emphasis to the words.
 Questions – speakers often use questions directed to the listeners. These are called
rhetorical questions and are not questions that require an answer – they are used for
effect and to add weight to the speaker’s point or argument, for example, “why should
we tolerate this?”
 Personal pronouns – speakers often use personal pronouns, e.g. “we” to include the
listener and give the impression that they are all on the same side.
 Literary techniques – often literary techniques, such as the use of metaphors and
similes, are used to add effect to the speech.
 Phonological techniques – these are to do with the sound effects created by the words.
Speakers can use features such as alliteration, assonance, and rhyme to create
effects.
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ACTIVITIES
1. Write the following words into phonemic script.

Feather – special – hunger – injury – beach – drink – cash – seizure – bath – yes – treasure –
dangerous – feature – although – young – usual
2. Spot the mistake in each utterance and write the correct transcription.
ðəts ˈveri kaɪnd əv ju | 1......................
ˈaɪ ˈθɪŋk ˈðeɪd lʌv tə həv ði ˌɪnviˈteɪʃn̩ | 2......................
bət aɪ ˈrɑːðə daʊt ˈweðər ˈaɪðə əv ðəm wʊd fiːl breɪv iˈnʌf | 3.....................
ˈfænsi ðæt ˈdʒɜːni ɪn ə nɒt ˈveri ˈkʌmftəbl ̩ kɑː wɪð θri ˈtʃɪldrən | 4.................
bət lɑːst ˈtaɪm ðə ˈweðə wəz ˈɔːfʊl ̩ ənd ðə fuːd ˈterəbl ̩ | 5....................
bət ðeɪ ˈθɔːt ðət ˈevriθɪŋ wɒz ˈlʌvli | 6....................
3. Write the words in phonemic script following the rules of added -s/-ed.
Word Added -s/-es Added -d/-ed

Look
Watch
Play
Judge
4. Watch the speech – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and identify
different features in Emma Watson’s planned speech.
32
MODULE II
The great richness of fiction texts
Unit I
Analyzing fiction texts: Plays
A) GRAMMAR – NEGATIVE INVERSION
The general rule for word order in English (subject-verb-object) can be broken by placing certain
adverbial words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence: this is done to produce a more dramatic
effect, particularly in story-telling, stating strong opinions and the giving of rules.
“Normal” Negative inversion
The result was never in doubt. At no time/Never was the result in doubt.
I have never heard such a terrible lecture. Never/Never before have I heard such a
terrible lecture.
You can’t see such large forests anywhere Nowhere else is it possible to see such
else. large forests.
I was not only tired, I was also hungry. Not only was I tired, (but) I was also
hungry.
Almost as soon as I got into the house, the No sooner had I got into the house than
telephone rang. the telephone rang.
The sun rose and almost immediately it Hardly had the sun risen when/before it
began to rain. began to rain.
A public figure has seldom been more Seldom has a public figure been more
completely humillated. completely humillated.
33
He little realised that she had heard every Little did he realise that she had heard
word. every word.
It was such a heavy vase that he dropped it. Such was the weight of the vase that he
dropped it.
He spoke so quickly that nobody could So quickly did he speak that nobody could
understand. understand.
He must not leave the country on any On no account must he leave the country.
account.
I wouldn’t go back to university under any Under no circumstances would I go back

circunstances. to university.
The club will only admit men under Only under expectional circumstances
expectional circumstances. will the club admit men.
He didn’t realise the extent of the damage *Not until he saw the damage in daylight
until he saw it in daylight. did he realise the extent of the damge.
I can only relax after I have had a drink. *Only after I have had a drink can I relax.
*Notice that only, not until and not even introduce adverbial clauses, and the
inversion comes in the second part of the sentence.
If you need further explanations on Negative Inversion,

34
ACTIVITIES
A. Rewrite the sentences, putting the words in italics at the beginning, and making
any other necessary changes.
1. They had seldom participated in such a fascinating ceremony.

2. Miss Weaver will not be offered the job under any circumstances.
3. He was so surprised to be addressed by the Queen that he didn’t answer at once.
4. He had hardly entered the house when the police arrested him.
5. I never for one moment thought the consequences would be so far-reaching.
6. She has rarely travelled more than fifty miles from her village.
7. You must on no account lift heavy weights like that again.
8. I had scarcely put down the phone when it rang again.
9. The defendant did not express his misgivings in any way.
10. The task was so difficult that expert assistance was required.
B. Make complete sentences from the following, adding articles and changing the
verb forms where necessary.
1. Never/I see/such/brilliant acting.

2. Not only/Jon/play/piano/he also/play/clarinet.
3. Hardly/we/leave/building/when it/catch fire.
4. Not until ten years later/they/find out/ truth.
5. Only if both sides agree/settlement/be reached.

35
Drama
… the first things to realise when we open a play is that the words in front of us are not
designed to function in the same way as the words in a novel or poem. The words are
designed to become a performance!
Wallis, Mick & Shepherd, Simon. 2002. Studying Plays. London: Arnold.
Drama is like a recipe for a fictional world rather than the complete dish: it lists the
ingredients – dialogue, stage directions, breaks and perhaps some stage props – but it asks
to be put together through interpretation, and ultimately, performance. In this way, drama
may be viewed as a kind of indirect literature that does not offer a reader a completed
fictional world but asks the readers to consider the relationships between a dramatic text
and a dramatic production.
The main elements of drama are as follows.
Performance
Viewing the script for a play immediately reveals the differences between drama and literary
narrative. Quite simple, you notice a lot of “other” writing like information about the first
performance, stage directions, lists of characters and setting that speak most obviously to
drama as performance. Some readers may dismiss this as extraneous information, but this
information actually has a substantial impact on the larger story. It is, at the same time,
necessarily distinguished from the dialogue of the play and is certainly different to what you
would normally expect to find in literary narrative.
Stage directions
Stage directions can do more than just set the scene, although this is also important.
Considering stage directions helps a reader know something of the conventions and
conditions common to the time of writing and the play’s relationship to those conventions.
This, in turn, greatly informs both a literal reading and a larger interpretation. Stage
directions can be telling for quite different reasons, including the presence or absence, the
frequency with which they occur and the content. Props, costumes and set design can be a
part of stage directions.
36
Dialogue and character
In a novel, a writer can provide significant background and history that gives a reader a rich
idea about characters. Drama faces many more restrictions. Although the stage directions
can speak directly to the characters of a play, most of what we learn about the characters
comes from their speech and interactions with others. Both of these occur primarily through
dialogue, sometimes in what a character says, sometimes in what is said about the
character and sometimes through the dialogue exchanges or comparison between
characters.
Soliloquy and aside

Revealing the character’s internal thoughts and feelings could be problematic to manage if
it had to always be delivered as an exchange of dialogue on stage. The unique dramatic
convention of the soliloquy and the aside is an important characteristic of staged drama, as
it allows the playwright to navigate the limits of genre. Very simply, an aside is defined as a
convention whereby an actor addresses the audience directly to reveal the inner thoughts
and feelings. The aside is intended to be a private exchange between the actor and the
audience and understood to be secret or unshared with other characters in the play. An
aside is spoken when other characters are on stage and is rather like a whisper or a
comment made to oneself in order to be heard by the audience but not by others on stage.
A soliloquy is a kind of aside but is spoken when a character is on stage alone, or at least
believes they are alone. A soliloquy usually intends to reveal more honesty of feeling or
thought on the part of a character by virtue of its staging as a character safely buffeted from
the attitudes, influences, or judgements of others.
Plot and action

Unlike plot in narrative, plot in drama is generally free from chronological considerations.
Time is less important in drama than action. Action, however, needs to be more fully
understood that simply a physical event.
Plot and action in drama are more about movement that occurs via conflict, opposition, and
difference. Characters either experience events or perform physical and verbal actions that
create tension and crises that must be explored, resolved, or overcome. Interestingly, these
tensions and crises may be on stage between actors or beyond the stage between the actor
and the audience, and the play and society. But plot and action in drama, unlike in prose, is
about movement from episode to episode via conflict of one sort or another. Drama uses
debate to maintain its dynamism.
37
Tragedy and comedy
The familiar symbols of drama are the twin masks of tragedy and comedy that supposedly
encompass all the possible stories to come out of the theatre, and by extension, human
experience. Even though they are defined as distinct genres, they sit together in a common
continuum that overlaps, intertwines.
Along this spectrum, tragedy is where things end badly, and comedy is where things end
well. With the former, a character often falls against great odds as a result of an inherent
flaw and we are sad or afraid to see it; with the latter, we simply laugh. But from such
simplistic distinctions a great deal of complexity can arise.
Space
Although space is obviously a component of stage directions, it can communicate unique
ideas. It can occur in multiple ways:
- Setting on the stage: The space can be an interior room or an entire landscape. It can
involve movement through set changes or a static quality without change. This might
also occur through lightning.
- Space between actors: The kinesthetic movements of actors obviously affect space
which communicates ideas.
- Space between the stage and an audience: This is known as the “fourth wall” and is the
partition that separates actors as characters in a play from an audience.
38
ACTIVITIES
1. Carefully read the play Tribes by Nina Raine.

2. Use the following questions as a guide to analyse the play. Write down notes to
discuss them in class.
a. Has this play been performed many times? When was it first performed? Is there
material available on YouTube?
b. How many characters are there? Briefly describe them.
c. How does the exchange among characters reveal aspects of themselves and others?
Give examples.
d. What effect do the stage directions have in the way this play can be approached?
e. Mention, at least, three moments in which there is tension as characters experience
crises.
f. “Each dysfunctional family is dysfunctional in its own way.” Which is their way?
g. Analyse the function of language in this play.
h. What does Sylvia represent?
i. How does Billy change from the first to the second act? Why?
j. How is the issue of disability addressed in the play?
k. Who is deaf in the play, both in a literal and metaphorical way?
l. What happens to Daniel as he witnesses Billy’s changes?
m. Explain the following statement: “Tribes enriches our understanding of the voice as
the ultimate medium to inter-personal connections.”
39
C) WRITING
A
OPINION ESSAYS
When you are writing an essay that asks you to discuss a topic or give your opinion on
a question, it is important to organize your thoughts and present your arguments clearly
and to work out the structure of your essay before you start to write.
1. Plan four or five paragraphs:
- an introduction (saying why it is important, what the situation is...)
- two or three paragraphs in support of the argument/ giving a
contrasting or different view (with reasons)
- a conclusion (a summary of your opinion or interpretation of the facts)
2. List your reasons “for” or “against” before you start writing.

3. Back up your reasons with clear examples.
4. Use connectors to introduce the different ideas and arguments in your essay.
5. Use a formal style: do not use contractions or very colloquial expressions.
Model
Some people believe that violence on television and in computer games has a damaging
effect on the society. Others deny that these factors have any significant influence on
people's behaviour. What is your opinion?
These days, the amount of violence in media is growing. While some people argue that this
trend will undoubtedly lead humans to dangerous future, others claim that it has no damaging
effect on the society. I believe that in most cases media violence doesn't affect people's
behavior.
Firstly, I think that people act from their motives, regardless of what they see on the television.
That is to say, if someone intends to do harm to somebody, that is not because of watching TV
or playing computer games, but due to that person's character and education. Although it is
generally considered that violent media accustoms viewers to cruelty, I doubt this opinion. In
40
my view, reasonable and intelligent people treat others humanely irrespective of what they see
or hear in fictional stories.
Moreover, video games and television may even reduce social violence by providing a safe
outlet for aggressiveness. In other words, truculent people may fight in virtual reality instead of
evincing their combative spirit in real world. This may not only help those people, but also
reduce the level of social violence in long-term perspective.
Finally, despite many claims and assumptions about negative effects of television and computer
games I have never seen any proven connection between violent media and illegal activities in
social life.
Taking everything into consideration, I would say that violence in contemporary media has no
substantial influence on people's behavior. Television and computers are not the main factors
that shape personal character, and they can even be useful in reducing the level of violence.
(255 words)
41
Weak forms of function/grammar words
Lexical words (both monosyllables and polysyllables) generally retain their full vowels in
connected speech and hence have a level of prominence above that of syllables with reduced
vowels, even when no pitch prominence is associated with them.
But many function words (pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, articles) have
different pattern according to whether they are unaccented (as is usual) or accented (in special
situations or when said in isolation). Compared with the accented (STRONG) forms, the
unaccented WEAK forms of these words show reductions of the length of sounds, centralisation
of vowels towards / ə,i,u /and the elision of vowels and consonants.
The following charts show the most common of these words in their unaccented (normal) weak
form.
42
Remember! Negative forms of auxiliaries are always strong!
Strong forms
It is important to remember that there are certain contexts where only the strong form is
acceptable, and others where the weak form is the normal pronunciation. There are some
simple rules; we can say that the strong form is used in the following cases:
i) For many weak-form words, when they occur at the end of a sentence; for example,
the word “of” has the weak form in the following sentence:
I'm fond of chips. aɪm fɒnd əv tʃɪps |
However, when it comes at the end of the sentence, as in the following example, it has the
strong form:
Chips are what I'm fond of. tʃɪps ə wɒt aɪm fɒnd ɒv |
Many of the words never occur at the end of a sentence (e.g., 'the', 'your').
ii) When a weak-form word is being contrasted with another word, for example:
43
The letter's from him, not to him. ðə letəz frɒm ɪm | nɒt tu ɪm |
A similar case is what we might call a co-ordinated use of prepositions:
I travel to and from London a lot. aɪ ˈtrævl tu ənd frɒm ˈlʌndən ə lɒt |
A work of and about literature. ə wɜ:k ɒv ənd əˈbaʊt ˈlɪtrətʃə |
iii) When a weak-form word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis, for example:
You must give me more money. ju mʌst ɡɪv mi mɔː ˈmʌni |
iv) When a weak-form word is being "cited" or "quoted”, for example:
You shouldn't put "and" at the end of a sentence. ju ˈʃʊdnt pʊt ænd ət ði end əv ə ˈsentəns|
Another point to remember is that when weak-form words whose spelling begins with 'h' (e.g.,
'her', 'have') occur at the beginning of a sentence, the pronunciation is with initial /h/, even
though this is usually omitted in other contexts.
44
ACTIVITIES
A. Remembering that negative forms of auxiliaries are always strong, you should
transcribe the following: aren’t, can’t, couldn’t, daren’t, didn’t doesn’t, don’t, hadn’t
hasn’t, haven’t, isn’t, mayn’t, mightn’t, mustn’t, needn’t, oughtn’t, shan’t, shouldn’t,
wasn’t, weren’t, won’t, wouldn’t.
B. Listen to track nº2 – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and write the
utterances in phonemic script. Pay extra attention to the weak forms of function words.
C. Listen to track nº3 – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and write the
sentences in ordinary spelling. Pay extra attention to the weak forms of function words.
D. Watch the video – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – about weak forms.
Write down notes and share them orally in class.
E. Transcribe the following sentences:

1. Of all the proposals, the one that you made is the silliest.
2. Jane and Bill could have driven them to and from the party.
3. To come to the point, what shall we do for the rest of the week?
4. Has anyone got an idea where it came from?
5. Each one was a perfect example of the art that had been developed there.

45
MODULE II
The great richness of fiction texts
Unit II
Analyzing fiction texts: Short Stories
A) GRAMMAR – REPORTED SPEECH-GENERAL REVIEW, INTRODUCTORY AND

SUMMARISING VERBS
When direct speech is changed into reported speech, with a reporting verb in the past, the
verb tense, the pronouns, and the time-phrase may all have to be changed to indicate the time
shift to the past:
 'We'll be getting married this year,' he said, (direct speech)
 He says (that) they'll be getting married this year.
(reported speech with a present reporting verb)
 He said (that) they would be getting married that year.
(reported speech with a past reporting verb)
It is usually better style to use more precise reporting verbs than say or tell when turning
(usually informal) direct statements into (usually more formal) reported ones.
Examples are: advise, apologise, congratulate, promise, remind.
Structures used after reporting verbs
1. verb + (not) to do:

• We refused to have anything to do with the plan.
• He threatened not to come.
promise, agree, refuse, threaten, offer.
46
2. verb + someone + (not) to do:
• He advised her to say nothing about it
warn, beg, remind, recommend, tell, persuade,
advise, encourage, instruct, order, invite.
3. verb + that + verb clause:

• She pointed out that she had been there first
claim, state, explain, add, report, boast, complain,

point out, agree, confirm, estimate, promise,
insist, admit, deny.
4. verb + preposition + doing:

• He insisted on seeing the manager.
apologise (to someone) for, accuse someone of,
insist on, object to someone, congratulate someone on, blame someone for, thank someone
for, charge someone with.
5. verb + someone (that) + verb clause:

• They assured me that there was nothing to worry about.
assure, inform, tell.
6. verb + doing
:
• He admitted having sent the letter.
admit, deny, regret.
7. suggest + doing/suggest that someone should do something.
Formal verbs used in newspapers, Special verbs that summarise the

articles, reports of interviews, etc. essence of what has been said.
Acknowledge – comment – declare – Accuse – advise – apologise – blame –

describe – enquire – inform – say – tell compliment – congratulate – deny - insist
– announce – confirm – demand – – observe – promise – suggest – threaten
disclose – explain – question – state – – admit – agree – beg – complain -
wonder confess – convince – encourage – urge –
offer – persuade – remind – thank – warn
47
Special verbs
The present subjunctive can be used in a that-clause in formal and literary styles.
Reporting verbs used with a that-clause with the present subjunctive
advise propose
agree recommend
demand request
insist suggest
prefer urge
Carlos: I think you should visit a specialist.

Carlos advised that I visit a specialist.
Susan: Yes, you are right, Harry. You'd better accept that offer.
Susan agreed that Harry accept the offer.
Customer: I want you to give me a full refund.

The customer demanded that the company give him a full refund.
Mike: You really must try my new muffin recipe.

Mike insisted that I try his new muffin recipe.
Howard: I'd rather you came to my party, and not to Ryan's.

Howard preferred that I go to his party.
Jill: How about going to the sauna tonight?

Jill proposed/recommended/suggested that we go to the sauna.
Employees: Could we have the staff meeting on Tuesday instead?

The employees requested that the staff meeting be on Tuesday.
Green activists: The nuclear plant must immediately be shut down.

Green activists urged that the nuclear plant be shut down.
48
Important!
Modals and Conditionals
The modals should, would, could, ought and might do not change tense in reported speech,
and neither do the second and third conditionals. With a reported second or third conditional,
that is needed, and a comma is necessary to separate the two clauses if the if clause comes
first:
• He pointed out that if she had bought him a ticket, he could have seen the play too.
Questions
Notice how reported questions are formed from the two types of direct question in English.
a. questions starting with a question-word:
• 'When will you next be in Paris?'

He asked when she would next be in Paris. (NOT ... *when would she
next be in Paris)
• 'When does your plane take off?'

She asked when his plane took off.
Notice that no do/did auxiliaries are needed in reported speech, and that the word order is the
same as in a statement.
b. questions starting with a verb:
• 'Can you come tomorrow?'

She asked if/whether I could go the next day/the day after/the following day.
If/whether connect the reporting verb and this type of question.
If has no connection here with conditional if. Whether must be used before an infinitive:
• He was not sure whether to believe them.
• I didn't know whether to laugh or cry.
49
Requests and commands
Reported requests or commands usually involve the use of the infinitive with to:
• 'Take that away!' He told me to take it away.

• 'Please don’t talk.' She asked us not to talk.
Use ask for a polite request, beg for an earnest request, instruct or tell for a command, and
order for an authoritative command:
• She ordered the children to sit down and be quiet.
If you need further explanations on Reported

Speech, check your additional study resources.
50
ACTIVITIES
A. Match the direct speech on the left with the most appropriate reporting verb on
the right. Then put the direct statements into reported speech, using the verbs
you have chosen, and starting each sentence with She.
1. ‘I’ve had better marks than anyone else all term!’ A threaten
2. ‘You did it! I saw you! You stole my watch!’ B accuse
3. ‘If you don’t give me your money, I’ll hit you!’ C suggest
4. ‘I’m very sorry I didn’t get round to writing earlier.’ D boast
5. ‘Why don’t we all go for a drive in the country?’ E insist
6. ‘I must, I simply must see the manager at once!’ F estimate
7. ‘Please, please, don’t tell anyone you’ve seen me!’ G beg
8. That’s right. Your flight’s taking off at midnight.’ H apologise
9. ‘Don’t forget to bring the binoculars, will you?’ I confirm
10. ‘I imagine Mexico City has about 20 million J remind
inhabitants by now, but I could be wrong.’
B. Match the direct speech on the left with the most appropriate reporting verb on
the right. Then put the direct statements into reported speech, using the verbs
you have chosen, and starting each sentence with He.
1. ‘It’s five o’clock already, you know.’ A assure

2. Yes, that’s fine. I’ll be able to help.’ B blame
3. ‘Don’t worry, there’ll be no difficulty, believe me.’ C deny
4. ‘How kind of you to bring me the flowers!’ D warn
5. ‘If I were you, I’d keep it under my hat.’ E admit
6. ‘.... and another thing, there’ll be a 2% surcharge.’ F refuse
7. ‘I didn’t do it! I didn’t rob the old lady!’ G congratulate
8. ‘No, I’m afraid I’m not prepared to make a speech.’ H add
9. ‘Be careful when you cross the road, won’t you?’ I point out
10. ‘Well done! You’ve passed the test first time!’ J advise
11. ‘I’m sure it was Charlotte who let us down.’ K thank
12. ‘Yes, it was my fault. I caused the accident.’ L agree
51
C. Turn into reported speech.
1. ‘If I had known, I’d have come earlier,’ she said.

2. He said, ‘Unless John tells the truth, somebody’ll get hurt.’
C. ‘I really think you should join the tennis club this summer,’ she said.
D. ‘If you practised more, you might be able to make a career out of music,’ her teacher
said.
E. ‘I wouldn’t have had the accident if the brakes had been repaired properly,’ he said.
F. ‘He’ll be sent to prison if he commits a further offence,’ said the magistrate.
G. ‘You can stay here as long as you like,’ he said.
H. ‘I wish Bob would buy himself a new suit,’ said Maggie.
D. Correct the reported questions if necessary. Tick any which are already correct.
1. I asked how far was it to the station.

2. They wondered how many people lived in Tokyo.
3. She asked me unless I could do the shopping for her.
4. Her father asked her was what she had told him true.
5. The committee enquired whether she might accept the job.
6. The traffic warden asked why had I parked there.
7. I asked the old man what was his recipe for long life.
8. We wondered how did our neighbours manage to keep their garden so neat.
9. The officials asked him what did he want.
10. I only wanted to know where he had been for so long.
E. Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first one, using
1. ‘You’ve passed the exam? Oh, well done!’ my aunt said to me.
on
My aunt______________________________ the exam.
2. ‘I’m sorry I forgot to set the security alarm,’ said the receptionist,
for
The receptionist______________________________ set the security alarm.
52
3. ‘Why don’t you postpone your trip till the autumn, Jim?’ suggested Sarah.
off
Sarah suggested______________________________ till the autumn.
4. ‘Don’t forget to enclose a cheque, will you?’ the clerk said to me.
In
The clerk reminded ______________________________ the envelope.
5. ‘It’s a good idea to rehearse your speech in front of a mirror,’ George told me.
Run
George advised ___________ ____________ in front of a mirror.

53
A. Read the short story The Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allan Poe using the
following questions as a guide. Your ideas will be discussed in class.
Part 1
1. Who is the author of this work?

2. What’s the title?
3. Is the title clear or obscure? Does it give any clues about the content?
4. What feelings and expectations does the title arouse?
5. Who is the narrator? Tick the appropriate answers and give reasons for your choice.
a. The author himself.

b. An external narrator who knows everything about the characters and events.
c. One of the main characters.
d. One of the minor characters.
e. There’s no narrator. We can learn what happens through the characters’ thoughts
and through the dialogues.
6. Is the narrator impersonal or subjective? Give reasons.

7. What’s the subject matter or content? What is the sequence of events? Explain the plot
briefly.
8. What’s the setting? When and where does the action take place?
9. Are the events presented in chronological order or are they flashbacks?
10. Are there any subplots? What is their purpose?
11. Is there a climax and anticlimax?
Part 2
1. Who are the main characters?

2. Who are the minor characters? What is their function?
3. What is the characters’ social status?
4. Is there a hero/heroine? What is their purpose?
5. Does the hero/ heroine have to fight against any opponents or opposing forces?
6. What are the physical and moral features of the characters? Provide examples.
7. What are the feelings the characters express? Provide examples.
8. What is their relationship with the others and the environment?
54
Part 3
1. What is the theme/ purpose of the story?

2. Was the author successful in getting to the purpose?
3. Did the author use…? Tick the appropriate answers and provide as many examples as
possible.
a. Descriptions.
b. Dialogues.
c. Educated Language.
d. Uneducated Language.
e. Slang.
f. Frequent idioms or proverbs.
4. Did the story develop an end according to your earlier expectations? Justify your answer.
B. Explain what the following concepts symbolise: The Red Death, the ebony clock,
the colour red, and Prince Prospero. Your ideas will be discussed in class.
THE "Red Death" had long devastated the country. No pestilence had ever been so fatal, or so
hideous. Blood was its Avatar and its seal -- the redness and the horror of blood. There were
sharp pains, and sudden dizziness, and then profuse bleeding at the pores, with dissolution.
The scarlet stains upon the body and especially upon the face of the victim, were the pest ban
which shut him out from the aid and from the sympathy of his fellow-men. And the whole
seizure, progress and termination of the disease, were the incidents of half an hour.
But the Prince Prospero was happy and dauntless and sagacious. When his dominions were
half depopulated, he summoned to his presence a thousand hale and light-hearted friends from
among the knights and dames of his court, and with these retired to the deep seclusion of one
of his castellated abbeys. This was an extensive and magnificent structure, the creation of the
prince's own eccentric yet august taste. A strong and lofty wall girdled it in. This wall had gates
of iron. The courtiers, having entered, brought furnaces and massy hammers and welded the
bolts. They resolved to leave means neither of ingress or egress to the sudden impulses of
despair or of frenzy from within. The abbey was amply provisioned. With such precautions the
courtiers might bid defiance to contagion. The external world could take care of itself. In the
meantime it was folly to grieve, or to think. The prince had provided all the appliances of
pleasure. There were buffoons, there were improvisatori, there were ballet-dancers, there were
musicians, there was Beauty, there was wine. All these and security were within. Without was
the "Red Death."
It was toward the close of the fifth or sixth month of his seclusion, and while the pestilence
raged most furiously abroad, that the Prince Prospero entertained his thousand friends at a
masked ball of the most unusual magnificence.
It was a voluptuous scene, that masquerade. But first let me tell of the rooms in which it was
held. There were seven -- an imperial suite. In many palaces, however, such suites form a long
55
and straight vista, while the folding doors slide back nearly to the walls on either hand, so that
the view of the whole extent is scarcely impeded. Here the case was very different; as might
have been expected from the duke's love of the bizarre. The apartments were so irregularly
disposed that the vision embraced but little more than one at a time. There was a sharp turn at
every twenty or thirty yards, and at each turn a novel effect. To the right and left, in the middle
of each wall, a tall and narrow Gothic window looked out upon a closed corridor which pursued
the windings of the suite. These windows were of stained glass whose color varied in
accordance with the prevailing hue of the decorations of the chamber into which it opened. That
at the eastern extremity was hung, for example, in blue -- and vividly blue were its windows.
The second chamber was purple in its ornaments and tapestries, and here the panes were
purple. The third was green throughout, and so were the casements. The fourth was furnished
and lighted with orange -- the fifth with white -- the sixth with violet. The seventh apartment was
closely shrouded in black velvet tapestries that hung all over the ceiling and down the walls,
falling in heavy folds upon a carpet of the same material and hue. But in this chamber only, the
color of the windows failed to correspond with the decorations. The panes here were scarlet --
a deep blood color. Now in no one of the seven apartments was there any lamp or candelabrum,
amid the profusion of golden ornaments that lay scattered to and fro or depended from the roof.
There was no light of any kind emanating from lamp or candle within the suite of chambers. But
in the corridors that followed the suite, there stood, opposite to each window, a heavy tripod,
bearing a brazier of fire that protected its rays through the tinted glass and so glaringly illumined
the room. And thus were produced a multitude of gaudy and fantastic appearances. But in the
western or black chamber the effect of the fire-light that streamed upon the dark hangings
through the blood-tinted panes, was ghastly in the extreme, and produced so wild a look upon
the countenances of those who entered, that there were few of the company bold enough to
set foot within its precincts at all.
It was in this apartment, also, that there stood against the western wall, a gigantic clock of
ebony. Its pendulum swung to and fro with a dull, heavy, monotonous clang; and when the
minute-hand made the circuit of the face, and the hour was to be stricken, there came from the
brazen lungs of the clock a sound which was clear and loud and deep and exceedingly musical,
but of so peculiar a note and emphasis that, at each lapse of an hour, the musicians of the
orchestra were constrained to pause, momentarily, in their performance, to hearken to the
sound; and thus the waltzers perforce ceased their evolutions; and there was a brief disconcert
of the whole gay company; and, while the chimes of the clock yet rang, it was observed that
the giddiest grew pale, and the more aged and sedate passed their hands over their brows as
if in confused reverie or meditation. But when the echoes had fully ceased, a light laughter at
once pervaded the assembly; the musicians looked at each other and smiled as if at their own
nervousness and folly, and made whispering vows, each to the other, that the next chiming of
the clock should produce in them no similar emotion; and then, after the lapse of sixty minutes,
(which embrace three thousand and six hundred seconds of the Time that flies,) there came
yet another chiming of the clock, and then were the same disconcert and tremulousness and
meditation as before.
But, in spite of these things, it was a gay and magnificent revel. The tastes of the duke were
peculiar. He had a fine eye for colors and effects. He disregarded the decora of mere fashion.
His plans were bold and fiery, and his conceptions glowed with barbaric lustre. There are some
who would have thought him mad. His followers felt that he was not. It was necessary to hear
and see and touch him to be sure that he was not.
56
He had directed, in great part, the moveable embellishments of the seven chambers, upon
occasion of this great fete; and it was his own guiding taste which had given character to the
masqueraders. Be sure they were grotesque. There were much glare and glitter and piquancy
and phantasm -- much of what has been since seen in "Hernani." There were arabesque figures
with unsuited limbs and appointments. There were delirious fancies such as the madman
fashions. There was much of the beautiful, much of the wanton, much of the bizarre, something
of the terrible, and not a little of that which might have excited disgust. To and fro in the seven
chambers there stalked, in fact, a multitude of dreams. And these -- the dreams -- writhed in
and about, taking hue from the rooms, and causing the wild music of the orchestra to seem as
the echo of their steps. And, anon, there strikes the ebony clock which stands in the hall of the
velvet. And then, for a moment, all is still, and all is silent save the voice of the clock. The
dreams are stiff-frozen as they stand. But the echoes of the chime die away -- they have
endured but an instant -- and a light, half-subdued laughter floats after them as they depart.
And now again the music swells, and the dreams live, and writhe to and fro more merrily than
ever, taking hue from the many-tinted windows through which stream the rays from the tripods.
But to the chamber which lies most westwardly of the seven, there are now none of the maskers
who venture; for the night is waning away; and there flows a ruddier light through the blood-
colored panes; and the blackness of the sable drapery appals; and to him whose foot falls upon
the sable carpet, there comes from the near clock of ebony a muffled peal more solemnly
emphatic than any which reaches their ears who indulge in the more remote gaieties of the
other apartments.
But these other apartments were densely crowded, and in them beat feverishly the heart of life.
And the revel went whirlingly on, until at length there commenced the sounding of midnight
upon the clock. And then the music ceased, as I have told; and the evolutions of the waltzers
were quieted; and there was an uneasy cessation of all things as before. But now there were
twelve strokes to be sounded by the bell of the clock; and thus it happened, perhaps, that more
of thought crept, with more of time, into the meditations of the thoughtful among those who
revelled. And thus, too, it happened, perhaps, that before the last echoes of the last chime had
utterly sunk into silence, there were many individuals in the crowd who had found leisure to
become aware of the presence of a masked figure which had arrested the attention of no single
individual before. And the rumor of this new presence having spread itself whisperingly around,
there arose at length from the whole company a buzz, or murmur, expressive of disapprobation
and surprise -- then, finally, of terror, of horror, and of disgust.
In an assembly of phantasms such as I have painted, it may well be supposed that no ordinary
appearance could have excited such sensation. In truth the masquerade license of the night
was nearly unlimited; but the figure in question had out-Heroded Herod, and gone beyond the
bounds of even the prince's indefinite decorum. There are chords in the hearts of the most
reckless which cannot be touched without emotion. Even with the utterly lost, to whom life and
death are equally jests, there are matters of which no jest can be made. The whole company,
indeed, seemed now deeply to feel that in the costume and bearing of the stranger neither wit
nor propriety existed. The figure was tall and gaunt, and shrouded from head to foot in the
habiliments of the grave. The mask which concealed the visage was made so nearly to
resemble the countenance of a stiffened corpse that the closest scrutiny must have had
difficulty in detecting the cheat. And yet all this might have been endured, if not approved, by
the mad revellers around. But the mummer had gone so far as to assume the type of the Red
57
Death. His vesture was dabbled in blood -- and his broad brow, with all the features of the face,
was besprinkled with the scarlet horror.
When the eyes of Prince Prospero fell upon this spectral image (which with a slow and solemn
movement, as if more fully to sustain its role, stalked to and fro among the waltzers) he was
seen to be convulsed, in the first moment with a strong shudder either of terror or distaste; but,
in the next, his brow reddened with rage.
"Who dares?" he demanded hoarsely of the courtiers who stood near him -- "who dares insult
us with this blasphemous mockery? Seize him and unmask him -- that we may know whom we
have to hang at sunrise, from the battlements!"
It was in the eastern or blue chamber in which stood the Prince Prospero as he uttered these
words. They rang throughout the seven rooms loudly and clearly -- for the prince was a bold
and robust man, and the music had become hushed at the waving of his hand.
It was in the blue room where stood the prince, with a group of pale courtiers by his side. At
first, as he spoke, there was a slight rushing movement of this group in the direction of the
intruder, who at the moment was also near at hand, and now, with deliberate and stately step,
made closer approach to the speaker. But from a certain nameless awe with which the mad
assumptions of the mummer had inspired the whole party, there were found none who put forth
hand to seize him; so that, unimpeded, he passed within a yard of the prince's person; and,
while the vast assembly, as if with one impulse, shrank from the centres of the rooms to the
walls, he made his way uninterruptedly, but with the same solemn and measured step which
had distinguished him from the first, through the blue chamber to the purple -- through the
purple to the green -- through the green to the orange -- through this again to the white -- and
even thence to the violet, ere a decided movement had been made to arrest him. It was then,
however, that the Prince Prospero, maddening with rage and the shame of his own momentary
cowardice, rushed hurriedly through the six chambers, while none followed him on account of
a deadly terror that had seized upon all. He bore aloft a drawn dagger, and had approached, in
rapid impetuosity, to within three or four feet of the retreating figure, when the latter, having
attained the extremity of the velvet apartment, turned suddenly and confronted his pursuer.
There was a sharp cry -- and the dagger dropped gleaming upon the sable carpet, upon which,
instantly afterwards, fell prostrate in death the Prince Prospero. Then, summoning the wild
courage of despair, a throng of the revellers at once threw themselves into the black apartment,
and, seizing the mummer, whose tall figure stood erect and motionless within the shadow of
the ebony clock, gasped in unutterable horror at finding the grave-cerements and corpse-like
mask which they handled with so violent a rudeness, untenanted by any tangible form.
And now was acknowledged the presence of the Red Death. He had come like a thief in the
night. And one by one dropped the revellers in the blood-bedewed halls of their revel, and died
each in the despairing posture of his fall. And the life of the ebony clock
went out with that of the last of the gay. And the flames of the tripods
expired. And Darkness and Decay and the Red Death held illimitable
dominion over all
58
C) WRITING
OPINION ESSAY
Model
“Who learns faster - children or adults?”
Small children seem to learn very quickly, while adults sometimes appear to lose the
ability to pick up new subjects such as languages, music, games, or computer
programs. In this essay, I will discuss whether children or adults make the best
learners.
It is undoubtedly true that children seem to learn very quickly. In just a few years, they
can learn how to play a musical instrument, speak one or even two new languages, and
deal with many subjects at school. They even have time for sports and hobbies, and
become experts in their favorite pastimes. However, how much of this is social pressure
and how much is genetic? I am convinced that while children's brains have a natural
ability to absorb new information as part of their developmental growth, much of their
achievement is because of social pressure. Schools force them to take many subjects.
Parents force them to practice new sports or to learn music. Even their playmates force
them to become better at computer games or to read Harry Potter novels faster. In
summary, children may enjoy learning, but their environment also is a big motivating
factor.
Adults on the other hand are supposed to be poor learners. However, I disagree with
people who say that adults cannot learn quickly. Adults have many skills that
compensate for the decline in the ability of the brain to grasp and remember new
material. They can organize their learning by setting times for reading or practice. They
can build on skills and experiences they know already. Adults usually cannot learn to do
ballet or to play the violin, but even despite these physical challenges, their motivation
can often be higher than a child's. Unfortunately, society does not encourage many
adults to learn. People are busy with families and work, and some adults may feel that
further learning is pointless, since they have already achieved many goals at work or in
their personal life.
In conclusion, I feel that we cannot generalize about children or adults
being better learners. It depends on the situation and the motivation of
the person, and the level of enthusiasm he orshe has for learning.
59
ACTIVITIES
A. Read the following composition and fill in the blanks with a word or
expression from the list:
furthermore recently as a result in conclusion on the other hand
“Genetic engineering brings with it more dangers than benefits and

should be banned worldwide”. Discuss.
(1) , advances in science have demonstrated to us that things that

once seemed possible only in science fiction could become a reality. The cloning of a
sheep brought the possibility of using genetic engineering to create new organs, or
even whole human beings, one step closer.
Some people consider this to be a dangerous development, and believe that all that
research should be banned. Interfering with nature in this way could bring with it
dangers that none of us can imagine. We have no idea how an artificially-created person
might behave, or indeed how he or she might suffer. (2), we may find ourselves in
a position which we do not like, but which we are unable to reverse.
(3), many people would say that it is not for human beings to decide
what other human beings should be like. It is not only people with deep religious beliefs
who feel that it is wrong, for example, for parents to choose whether their baby will be a
boy or a girl, or have blue eyes or musical talent.
(4), the latest research in genetics has also opened the possibility
of new treatment for many diseases which up to now have been incurable. If it were
possible to prevent a baby from developing a hereditary disease by modifying its genes,
should we stop the scientists? If doctors could replace a diseased organ with a new
one grown from cells, should it not be allowed?
(5), I would say that genetic engineering has the potential to be

both a huge benefit and a terrible curse for humankind. To make sure that we benefit
from it, it will be necessary to control it very strictly. The real challenge will be to find
ways of monitoring the research that is conducted in laboratories all over the world and
to make sure that it is only used for the good of everyone.
Text adapted from OXFORD STUDENT´S DICTIONARY.
60
B. In the box below you will find some more linking words and expressions you can
use to substitute for the ones used in the composition above. Can you match the
words with the blanks?
moreover consequently therefore nevertheless

however , to sum in finally nowadays
up addition
C. Here you will find another example of opinion composition. Read it carefully
and complete with the words in the box.
although to sum up such as secondly like

personally besides think firstly just
so
“Top sports people earn too much money nowadays”.
In most countries today top sports people, (1) footballers, tennis

players and basketball players, get enormous salaries. In a week they often earn more
than ordinary people in a year. Is this really too much? (2) I don´t
(3).
(4), the active life of a professional sports person is relatively short

– they often retire when they are in their mid-thirties. (5), many of them
don´t even play that long, as they often get injured, which means they have to retire
early.
(6), (7) their salaries are very high they are
not much higher than those of other successful people in the entertainment industry
(8) pop singers, actors or TV personalities, whose professional
careerscan last for fifty years. Sport today is watched by millions of people, so it should
be considered entertainment (9) like the cinema or TV.
(10), I think that top sports people´s high salaries are not unfair if
you compare them with people doing similar jobs.
D. Choose one of the following options and write an opinion essay following the guidelines.
1. “Poe’s Mask of the Red Death depicts a current reality.” Do you agree?
2. “Raine’s Tribes seeks to reflect upon our inability to listen to others.” Do you agree?
Tip! You should always pay attention to paragraph

division, topic sentences and elements of cohesion.
61
(1) ˌæspəˈreɪʃn̩ |
(1.1) strɒŋ |
iˈnɪʃl̩ ɪn strest ˈsɪləbl̩z | nɒt priˈsiːdɪd baɪ /s/ ənd ˈfɒləʊd baɪ ə ˈvaʊəl |
ðəz diˈleɪ əv ði ˈɒnset əv ˈvɔɪsɪŋ | əz ˈvɔɪsɪŋ ˈdʌznt biˈɡɪn iˈmiːdɪətli | ɪt ɪz
pəˈsiːvd əz səm ˈekstrə pʌf əv eər əz ðə ˈvɔɪsləs stɒp ɪz riˈliːst|
 [pʰ] [ˈpʰiːpl̩]
 [tʰ] [ˈtʰɔːn]
 [kʰ] [əˈkʰeɪʒn̩ ]
(1.2) wiːk |
ɪn ʌnˈstrest ˈsɪləbl̩z | nɒt priˈsiːdɪd baɪ /s /ənd ˈfɒləʊd baɪ ə ˈvaʊəl |
 [p-] [ˈreɪp-ɪst]
 [t-] [ˌmʌlt-iˈreɪʃl̩]
 [k-] [k-ənˈtreəri]
(1.3) læk əv ˌæspəˈreɪʃn̩ |

/p/ /t/ /k/ priˈsiːdɪd baɪ /s/ ənd ˈfɒləʊd baɪ ə ˈvaʊəl wɪðˈɪn ðə seɪm
ˈsɪləbl̩| mɔːˈrəʊvə| /p/ /t/ /k/ meɪ luːz ðeər ˌæspəˈreɪʃn̩ ɪn ðiːz ˈsiːkwənsɪz
wɪtʃ krɒs ˈmɔːfiːm ɔː ˈwɜːd ˈbaʊndrɪz|
 [ sp=] [ˌɪnsp=əˈreɪʃn̩ ]
62
b̥ b̥
 [ st=] [ˈst=ʌbl̩]
d̥ d̥
 [ sk=] [ˈsk=ɪmə]
g̊ g̊
(2) ˌdiːˈvɔɪsɪŋ|
ˌæspəˈreɪʃn̩ əˈfekts ðə ˈvɔɪsɪŋ əv ˈsɜːtn̩ ˈkɒnsənənts| ˈmeɪkɪŋ ðəm luːz pɑːt
əv ðeə ˈvɔɪsɪŋ|
(2.1) fʊl|
ɪt əˈkɜːz ɪn strest pəˈzɪʃn̩ z wɪðˈɪn ðə seɪm ˈwɜːd ɔːr ət ˈwɜːd ˈbaʊndrɪz ˈəʊnli
ɪn kləʊs nɪt ˈsiːkwənsɪz| ðə ˈvɔɪsləs stɒps ˈkænət bi priˈsiːdɪd baɪ /s/|
 /p/ /t/ /k/ / j/ → [ç] ˈvɔɪsləs ˈpælətl̩ ˈfrɪkətɪv | [ɪt wəz
ˈsəʊ kçuːt]
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /w/ → [ʍ] ˈvɔɪsləs ˈleɪbɪəlˈviːlə ˈfrɪkətɪv |

[hiːz ˈtʍaɪs əz bɪg əz hi wəz biˈfɔː]
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /r/ →[ɹ̥ ] ˈvɔɪsləs əˈprɒksɪmənt ˈfrɪkətɪv|

si: sɪks pɔɪnt wʌn|
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /l/ →[ɬ] ˈvɔɪsləs ˌælviˈəʊlə ˈlætərəl ˈfrɪkətɪv|

[ʃiz sʌtʃ ə ˈkɬevə ɡɜːl]
riˈmembə | ɪn ðə ˈklʌstə /spr/ /str/ /skr/ | ðə /r/ ʃəd bi əˈprɒksɪmənt [ɹ]|
(2.2) ˈpɑːʃl̩
63
səm ˈkɒnsənənts ə ˈpɑːʃəli ˌdiːˈvɔɪst ɪn ʌnˈstrest ˈsɪləbl̩z| ən ˈɑːftə ðə
ˈklʌstəz /sp//st//sk/|
 /p/ /t/ /k/ / j/ → [aɪl let ju nəʊ]
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /w/ → [pɔː səm ˈlɪkwɪd ˈɪntə ðə kənˈteɪnə]
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /r/ →[ɹ] [ʃi ˈdʌznt ˈθɪŋk ɪts əˈprəʊpɹiət]
 /p/ /t/ /k/ /l/ →[l] [hi wəz ˈsəʊ ˈlʌkləs]
64
ACTIVITIES
A. Listen to track nº 4 – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and write the
utterances in ordinary spelling.
B. Write the previous utterances into phonemic script adding the diacritics for strong, weak
and lack of aspiration, and full devoicing.
C. Listen to track nº 5 – a monologue from The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar

Wilde – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus. Write it down in ordinary spelling and
phonemic script, adding the diacritics for strong, weak and lack of aspiration, and full devoicing.
D. Watch the two videos on aspiration and full devoicing by Geoff Lindsey – which have
been uploaded to the WebCampus. Write down notes and discuss them in class.

65
MODULE III
Nuances of the language
Unit I
Decoding gender-inclusive language
A) GRAMMAR – CONDITIONALS (GENERAL REVIEW-VARIATIONS)
Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells you the condition (If
you study hard) and the main clause tells you the result (you will pass your exams). The order
of the clauses does not change the meaning.
If you study hard, you will pass your exams.
You will pass your exams if you study hard.
Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.
Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are generally true.
If I drink too much coffee, I can't sleep at night.
Ice melts if you heat it.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.
When I went to my grandparents’, I got a present.
The structure is:

if/when + present simple >> present simple.
if/when + past simple >> past simple.
First conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about future situations we believe are real or possible.
If it doesn't rain tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.
Arsenal will be top of the league if they win.
When I finish work, I'll call you.
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The structure is usually:
If clauses:
Present Simple: to describe facts, routines, habits, etc.
Present Continuous: to describe actions in progress in the present or actions in the near future.
Present Perfect: to describe actions that have been completed.
Present Perfect Continuous: to describe actions that started in the past and continue in the
present moment.
Main clauses:
Future Simple: to predict future events, make promises, etc.
Future Perfect: to predict what will have happened.
Can: to express ability, permission, etc.
Going to: to describe predictions – based on present evidence – or intentions.
Imperative: to give orders.
It is also common to use this structure with unless, as long as, as soon as or in case instead of if.
I'll leave as soon as the babysitter arrives.
I don't want to stay in London unless I get a well-paid job.
I'll give you a key in case I'm not at home.
You can go to the party, as long as you're back by midnight.
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to imagine present or future situations that are impossible or
unlikely in reality.
If we had a garden, we could have a cat.
If I won a lot of money, I'd buy a big house in the country.
I wouldn't worry if I were you.

If clause:
Unreal Past (Past Subjunctive): to describe unlikely or impossible situations in the present.
Past Subjunctive in continuous form: was/were verb-ing: to describe unlikely or impossible
situations in progress in the unreal present.
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Main clause
Would+ bare infinitive: to show certainty.
Could+ bare infinitive: to show possibility.
Might+ bare infinitive: to show probability.
When if is followed by the verb be, it is grammatically correct to say if I were, if he were, if she
were and if it were. However, it is also common to hear these structures with was, especially in
the he/she form when the situation is not so unlikely.
If I were you, I wouldn't mention it.
If she was here, she would give you her opinion.
He would travel more if he were younger.
Third conditional
The third conditional is used to imagine a different past. We imagine a change in a past situation
and the different result of that change.
If I had understood the instructions properly, I would have passed the exam.
We wouldn't have got lost if my phone hadn't run out of battery.
If clauses:
Unreal Past Perfect: to indicate that we know what happened but are speculating about what
would have happened if the opposite had been true.
Unreal Past Perfect in continuous form: to indicate that we know what happened but are
speculating about what would have happened if the opposite had been true. The verb shows
that the action was in progress.
Main clause:
Modal Perfects
Would+have+verb in Past Participle: to show certainty in the past.
Could+have+verb in Past Participle: to show possibility in the past.
Might+have+verb in Past Participle: to show probability in the past.
Remember that the pronunciation of “have” must be weak and the /h/ sound must be dropped /əv/.
Mixed conditionals
We can use mixed conditionals when we imagine a past change with a result in the present or
a present change with a result in the past.
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1. Past/Present
Here's a sentence imagining how a change in a past situation would have a result in the present.
If I hadn't got the job in Tokyo, I wouldn't be with my current partner.
So the structure is: If + Unreal Past Perfect >> would/could/might + bare infinitive.
2. Present/Past
Here's a sentence imagining how a different situation in the present would mean that the past
was different as well.
It's really important. If it wasn't, I wouldn't have called you on your holiday.
And the structure is: If + Unreal Past Simple >> would/could/might have + Past Participle.
Variations
When and if
These words are similar in some languages but very different in English:
If Sally comes this evening, we’ll talk it over with her. (She may come.)
When Sally comes this evening, we’ll talk it over with her. (She is coming)
Alternatives to if in conditionals
So/As long as you promise not to tell, you can come too.
You can drive this car provided/providing (that) you’re fully insured.
Suppose/Supposing something goes wrong, what then?
I think I’ll accept it, assuming the offer’s still there.
Mario can’t come with us, even if he is your best friend.
If only we’d got there sooner, the accident would never have happened.
You can come in on condition that you don’t take long.
Unless Peter changes his attitude, he’s going to find himself in trouble.
Will/Won’t in the if-clause

We sometimes use will and won’t in the if-clauses with the meanings of refusal (won’t), polite
requests (will), or strong disapproval at someone’s insistence on doing something (will):
If he won’t go, there is nothing you can do about it. (Refusal)
If you’ll hold this end, I’ll take the other one. (Request)
If you will drive so fast, you must expect to have accidents. (Insistence)
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Would in if-clauses
We use would and wouldn’t in the if-clauses for polite requests and strong wishes that someone
would do something:
If you would be kind enough to lend me a hand, we could finish this very quickly.
If you would just calm down for a moment, you’d see what I’m talking about.
IF …are to/were to
We use be to in a fairly formal way to express conditions. It suggests that the speaker has no
influence ever whether the condition will be fulfilled or not. Are to, am to, and is to suggest the
condition may be fulfilled. Were to (or, informally, was to) emphasises that the condition is very
unlikely:
If we are to get rid of him, who will tell him?
Supposing you were to win the lottery, how would you spend the money?
If it hadn’t been for…

This phrase means “without her, your, etc. help, interference, etc.”. We can use the phrase If
it weren’t/wasn’t for… to refer to the present, though if the time reference is clear, it can
occasionally refer to the past:
If it wasn’t for the parking problem, I’d drive to work.
If it hadn’t been for you, we’d never have got there on time.
If it wasn’t for/hadn’t been for those delays on the motorway, we’d never have missed the
wedding.
Past conditionals without conditional words
We often use a Past conditional structure without using a conventional “conditional word” like if
or unless:
But for your help, we’d never have managed.
We’d have been completely lost without you.
You should have come – you’d have loved it.
The film would have been just as effective in black and white.
If you need further explanations on Conditionals,

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ACTIVITIES
A. Complete the sentences with the correct tenses of the verbs in brackets.
1. If you (make) a run for it, you’ll catch the train.

2. If Laura (not eat) so much, she wouldn’t have put on weight.
3. If they (have) their car serviced regularly, it never lets them down.
4. The earthquake would have caused less damage if the houses (be) of
stronger construction.
5. If there (be) a good breeze on Sunday, we’ll go hang-gliding.
6. You can get there more quickly if you (take) the short cut across the
playing field.
7. If you (leave) the milk out of the fridge in this weather, it’ll go off.
8. Would you contribute to the fund if I (ask) you?
9. If I (drop) Eve’s vase, she’d have been furious.
10. If you (be) really my friend, you’d lend me the money.
11. Had the councillors been re-elected, your proposal (be) accepted.
12. Productivity will improve if manufacturing procedures (be)
streamlined.
13. (Be) you to take out the relevant insurance policy, you would be
completely covered.
14. No matter what (happen), I’ll always stand by him!
15. Supposing the computer (break down), what would you do?
16. You can invite whoever you (like) to the barbecue.
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B. Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is as similar in
meaning as possible to the sentences before it.
1. We can get good seats providing it’s possible for you to get there early enough.
As…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. It seems we are leaving so I’d better get my coat off.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. We’ll see you at seven, unless we run into very heavy traffic.
Provided…………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Those are Dominic’s keys, aren’t they? Has he forgotten them?

If those………………………………………………………………….
5. Driving as fast as you normally do, it’s not surprising you had an accident.
If you will……………………………………………………………………………..
C. Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is as similar in

meaning as possible to the sentence before.
1. It’s lucky I know you or I’d be deeply offended.

If………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Fortunately, they’re on e-mail, otherwise they’d never have received the news in time.
If………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Could you hold my briefcase a minute so I can move this table?

If you would be……………………………………………………………………..
4. They may change their minds, in which case they’ll let us know.
If………………………………………………………………………………………
5. I don’t think we will, but if we did sell this flat, how much do you think we’d get?
If we happened………………………………………………………………………
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D. Fill each of the gaps with s suitable word or phrase.
1. Even if you………………….help you. I don’t think I would have been able to.
2. I……………up so early this morning if I’d known you weren’t coming until after lunch.
3. If you’d known then what you know now, …………………….done?
4. Had……………your timely intervention, they’d have given nearly all their money to that
con man.
5. If only………………………….to my father’s advice. I’d be a successful lawyer by now.

73
A. Read the following text carefully and highlight all the topic-related vocabulary.
B. Create your mind map including co-text from other units and discourse markers.
C. Deliver your oral presentation in class.
A guide to how gender-neutral language is developing around the world
By Miriam Berger
Dec. 15, 2019 at 8:00 a.m. GMT-3
What pronoun do you use to identify yourself? He? She? They? Something altogether
different?
It’s a question asked increasingly often as acceptance of a spectrum of gender and sexual
identities grows. Some languages, like Chinese and Persian, don’t assign nouns a gender or
already have a gender-neutral form for people built in. But in languages whose grammar is
traditionally based on exclusively male or female options, the answer to this question can
still require an explanation.
So how do you talk about being queer or non-binary or gender nonconforming in

grammatically gendered languages? In many ways, in fact.
In recent years, LGBTQ activists and linguists around the world have championed more
inclusive language, both by creating entirely new non-binary terms and by retooling already
existing words and grammar constructions. It’s not always easy. For some people, it can
74
be hard, scary or simply tiresome to keep explaining why they need more inclusive language.
And it can be dangerous: Just in the United States, hate crimes against the LGBTQ
community have been rising the last three years, according to the FBI.
So for the next time you ask or are asked around the world, here’s a look at some possible
answers in seven languages:
1. English: ‘They’ as singular and gender-neutral
English grammar doesn’t distinguish between genders except in assigning a masculine or

feminine singular pronoun.
In 2019 the Merriam-Webster dictionary added “they” as the pronoun to use for a “single
person whose gender identity is nonbinary.” Two years prior, in 2017, “they” as a gender-
neutral form was added to the Associated Press Stylebook, the gold standard of sorts
for journalists. The Washington Post, meanwhile, made the style guide change in 2015.
Critics of the change have argued that “they” as both singular and plural can be confusing
and muddy a sentence’s syntax. Shakespeare and Jane Austen, among many other famed
English writers, didn’t think so. They used singular “they” and “their,” as was the standard
in English until Victorian-era grammarians shifted course and imposed “he” above all.
2. Spanish: Alternative inclusive case endings such as ‘x’ or ‘@’ and ‘e’
Spanish has feminine and masculine cases added to all nouns. Even the word for “the”
differs if the noun is male (el) or female (la). Nonetheless, some Spanish speakers say it
doesn’t have to be that way.
In the United States, it’s now common to use “x” or "@” to create a gender-neutral noun:
that’s why you may have seen “Latinx,” or “Latin@,” instead of the binary of Latino (male)
and Latina (female). The popularized use of this form, however, has angered some Spanish
speakers, who see it as a token term imposed on Spanish by American English
speakers rather than an inclusive move from within.
Enter teens in Argentina, who, as The Post’s Samantha Schmidt reported, are leading the
charge to eliminate gender in their language.
“In classrooms and daily conversations, young people are changing the way they speak and
write — replacing the masculine “o” or the feminine “a” with the gender-neutral “e” in
certain words — to change what they see as a deeply gendered culture,” Schmidt wrote.
“Their efforts are at the center of a global debate over gender, amid the growing visibility
of non-binary identities and a wave of feminist movements worldwide.”
75
The movement made headlines in Argentina last year, after a young activist, Natalia Mira,
used the gender-inclusive language during an interview and was attacked by the male
journalist on the live broadcast.
Spanish is a language spoken widely around the world, so there’s also no set standard, as
different dialects and communities have their own preferences. Another form to know is
“elle” as a gender-neutral pronoun alongside ella (she) and él (he).
3. Arabic: The dual as neutral and gender-bending the binary
Arabic is another grammatically gendered language, with each verb, noun and adjective
always assigned either a male or female case. The male is the default in plurals, even if
it’s just one male in an otherwise female group.
Modern standard Arabic, based on Koranic classical Arabic, additionally has a dual option
for nouns and verbs that doesn’t imply a specific gender. Some people therefore use the
dual of they and you — “huma” (‫ )هما‬and “intuma” (‫ — )انتما‬as a gender-neutral alternative.
Colloquial Arabic spoken today has largely done away with the dual, so this form can sound
very formal to those not in the know.
Others play around with the language in different ways, such as interchanging masculine
and feminine pronouns or a speaker choosing to subvert the male case’s patriarchal
dominance and default to the female form. Arabic has many dialects, each with its own
distinct grammar constructions and words, so different communities have developed their
own colloquial codes. In some Tunisian dialects, for example, it’s already common to use
the feminine pronoun for everyone.
For queer and feminist communities in the Middle East, the fight to gain acceptance in
society has come in tandem with another conversation: how to define words like gay,
bisexual and transgender in Arabic. Some people default to a transliteration of the English
words in LGBTQ, others prefer the phrase “mujtama’a al meem” (‫ — )الميم مجتمع‬or the meem
community — a reference to the m-sounding Arabic letter that starts off these terms
when translated into Arabic. After years of efforts led by activists in Lebanon, the word
“mithly” (‫ )مثلي‬and “mithliya” (‫ )مثلية‬for gay is now standard for many media (replacing the
previous term, which translated as “deviant” or “pervert”).
Public awareness and tolerance of this inclusive language remains extremely low in Arabic-
speaking countries. To change that, Arabic speakers describe their efforts as part of a
broader move to de-Westernize and reorient the discussion around gender and sexuality.
Rather than just replicating words from English, they are working to cultivate and
normalize the language needed to talk about these topics from within Arabic’s rich lexicon
and history, such as drawing from poetry depicting same-sex relations in Medieval times.
76
This work is also being championed by feminist groups, such as Wiki Gender, a
collaborative platform creating a dictionary of gender-inclusive Arabic.
4. Hebrew: New gender-neutral endings for verbs and nouns
Hebrew, like Arabic, assigns a gender to verbs, nouns, and adjectives based on the noun.
LGBTQ and feminist activists in Hebrew have similarly championed inverting the gender
divides, such as defaulting to a feminine plural or using a “mixed” gender, sometimes male
and sometimes female for the same person.
Among Hebrew speakers in Israel and other Jewish communities, there are also now
several ways to grammatically eliminate the binary and express a verb or noun in gender-
neutral ways. The Nonbinary Hebrew Project, for example, has systemically built a third
gender in Hebrew, in part by drawing on non-binary and queer references in Jewish
texts like the Talmud and Torah. As the group argues: The male Rabbis writing the Mishna,
a third-century book of Jewish commentary, recognized several gender categories, so
modern-day Hebrew speakers surely can, too.
In Israel, a related approach is to put both the male and female cases on nouns and verbs,
sometimes with a period in between, so that all are fluidly included. For example, “I write”
— “kotev” (‫ )כותב‬in the masculine and “kotevet” (‫ )כותבת‬in the feminine — alternatively could
be ‫כותב‬.‫ ת‬in this form.
A Jewish summer camp in the United States devised another construction to include
campers who are trans or non-binary: along with “chanich” (‫)חניך‬, male camper, and
“chanichah” (‫)חניכה‬, female camper, they now have “chanichol” (‫)חניכול‬, a camper with an
unspecified gender. In addition to this new “ol” singular ending, they created a new plural
ending: “imot,” which combines the “im” at the end of masculine plural nouns and the “ot”
at the end of feminine ones.
Despite the many alternatives circulating, the Academy of the Hebrew Language
has declined to consider them.
5. German: Prioritizing gender-neutral terms
German’s notoriously complicated syntax includes male, female and neutral grammatical
genders. The neutral has usually not applied for people, with some notable exceptions.
That’s changing.
In January 2019, Hanover became the first German city to mandate that all official
communication, such as emails, fliers and forms, use gender-neutral nouns. Instead of
using the word for a male voter (wähler) and a female voter (wählerin), for example, the
77
municipality would instead use words that don’t convey one gender or another, like voting
person (wählende).
This was in keeping with previous moves by other German institutions, like the federal
justice ministry, which in 2014 mandated that all state bodies use gender-neutral
formulations in their paperwork, the Guardian reported.
Languages are rich and lively, so there are naturally other options around. As
Germany’s DW explained, “Traditionally, gender differentiation in German is signified by
the suffixes “r” or “rn” for men (singular and plural), and “in” or “innen” for women (singular
and plural) … Current attempts to shorten the space devoted to accepted forms of
differentiation have included the introduction of an uppercase “I” sandwiched in compound
nouns addressing both males and females at once. An asterisk, known as the “gender star”
has also been added to include citizens who do not consider themselves either."
As with other countries, the Association for German Language has rejected these
alternative forms.
6. French: Asterisks to make gender-neutral nouns
French also assigns a gender of male or female to all nouns referring to an individual;
references to a group of people are by default defined by male pronouns unless the group
is made up entirely of women. French’s storied linguistic gatekeeper, the Académie
Française, is very fine with this. Others are not.
“For years, a campaign led mostly by French feminists has sought to democratize this most
subtle of romance languages by pushing back against the gender rules that have
confounded Anglophone students for centuries,” The Post’s James McAuley reported in
2017. “ … Certain linguistic constructions, critics argue, efface women from being seen in
various personal and professional capacities.”
The idea is instead to use asterisks to combine case endings and create a more inclusive
gender-neutral plural — like “ami•e•s” for friends — a first step that neither privileges
the male as a norm nor excludes the male and a gender spectrum from the syntax.
Every action has a reaction, though, and in 2017 France’s government banned the use of
inclusive, gender-neutral language in official documents.
7. Swedish: ‘Hen’ as singular and gender-neutral
In 2015, Sweden added to the country’s official dictionary the word “hen” — a gender-
neutral pronoun that linguists had pushed as an alternative to the male pronoun “han” and
female “hon.”
78
As The Post’s Rick Noack reported then, “Five years ago, barely anyone in Sweden was
aware of the word. … According to experts, the ‘hen’-revolution in Sweden has two primary
origins: LGBT groups have promoted the pronoun as a way to raise awareness for their
cause. However, support for the idea has also come from a more unexpected
side: Nurseries, kindergartens and preschools such as Egalia increasingly argue that the
pronoun’s usage allows children to grow up without feeling the impact of gender biases.”
Rick Noack contributed from Berlin.
79
C) WRITING
REPORTS
A report is usually longer and more detailed than an article and is generally aimed at people
with some knowledge of the topic. It is a factual description of events or situations and may
include recommendations for further action. It may be written by one person or by a group, to
be read by a sponsor, employer or colleagues, for example, or it may be published. A report
should be written in a formal style, with a clear, business-like heading or title, and may have
appropriate section headings.
Useful phrases for writing reports

This report is intended to... It is based on...
It appears that... It was felt that...
According to... It is interesting to note that...
It is recommended that... In short/On balance/To summarise...
There are various types of reports, such as:
which present and evaluate the positive and/or

negative features of a person, place, plan, etc.;
assessment reports they also include your opinion and/or
recommendation;
which present information concerning a meeting

informative reports that has taken place, progress made on a
project, etc.;
which present and analyse information gathered

from door-to door surveys/questionnaires,
survey reports
including conclusions drawn from this
information and suggestions or
recommendations;
which present plans, decisions or suggestions

concerning possible future courses of action for
proposal reports
approval by one's superior at work, a bank
manager, members of a committee, etc.
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A successful report should consist of:
a) an introductory paragraph which clearly states the purpose and content of the report;
b) a main body in which the relevant information is presented in detail under suitable
subheadings; and
c) a conclusion which summarises the information given, and may include an opinion and/or
suggestion/recommendation
Points to consider:
 Reports should be written in a formal style (complex sentences, non-colloquial English,

frequent use of the passive, linking words/phrases).
 Before you write your report you should think of who the report is being written by and
who the report is addressed to.
 Give your report an appropriate subject title, then carefully plan the information you will
present. Think of suitable subheadings, then decide on the information you will include
under each subheading. Use linking words to join your ideas.
Model – Exercise
Read the task instructions and the model of an informative report below and identify the
topic of each paragraph then fill in the following sub-headings in the appropriate spaces.
Performing Artists/Groups
Catering and Ticket Sales
Purpose
Conclusion
Venue, Facilities and Equipment
Projected Costs
You’re organising a music concert, on behalf of a local charity which is going to

take place In three weeks.
Write a progress report for the next meeting of the chanty committee,
explaining what arrangements have been made and what remains to be done.
81
To: The Chairperson, Crowtree Care Group
From: Charlotte Morris, Events Organiser
Subject: Summer Concert
Date: July 29th 1997
1. ______________________ __
The purpose of this report is to outline the progress of arrangements for the concert to be held
on Sunday 17th August to raise funds for the Terminal Illness Research Fund.
2. ________________________ _
Auditions were held on 15th July to select local performers. In addition, two professional groups
have agreed to appear in the concert free of charge. Unfortunately, another band we had hoped
would appear is unavailable. However, our Director of Music, Ms Foxe, is confident that the
standard will be more than satisfactory, and states that rehearsals are progressing smoothly.
3. ______________________ ___
The concert will be held in the main area of Crowtree Park, which is easily accessible both by
private and public transport and has good public toilet facilities. Seating will be hired from a
local company, and a covered stage, to be erected in the centre of the park, has already been
constructed by volunteers under the supervision of Mr Wilson.
4. ________________________ __
Refreshments will be provided by local restaurants, who will make their own arrangements
regarding stalls and vendors. Mr Wilson's group of volunteers have agreed to sell tickets at the
Town Hall, as well as undertaking crowd control and ticket inspection during the concert itself.
5. ________________________ __
Permission has been granted by the council authorities for us to use the park free of charge,
and Harrison Rentals have agreed to a reduced price of £100 for the hire of chairs. Excluding
the cost of printing tickets and posters, the cost of the concert will be approximately £550.
6. ________________________ __
I am delighted to inform the committee that arrangements have proceeded faster than
anticipated, and the concert promises to be of a higher standard than last year's. However, it
must be pointed out that no arrangements have yet been made concerning publicity and
printing, which is now a matter of some urgency.
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Stress in simple words
The nature of stress
The nature of stress is simple enough: practically everyone would agree that the first syllable
of words like 'father', 'open', 'camera' is stressed, that the middle syllable is stressed in 'potato',
'apartment', 'relation', and that the final syllable is stressed in 'about', 'receive', 'perhaps'. Also,
most people feel they have some sort of idea of what the difference is between stressed and
unstressed syllables, although they might explain it in different ways.
We will mark a stressed syllable in transcription by placing a small vertical line (') high up,
just before the syllable it relates to; the words quoted above will thus be transcribed as
follows:
ˈfɑːðə |
ˈəʊpən |
ˈkæmərə |
pəˈteɪtəʊ |
əˈpɑːtmənt |
riˈleɪʃn̩ |
əˈbaʊt |
pəˈsiːv |
pəˈhæps |
What are the characteristics of stressed syllables that enable us to identify them? It is important
to understand that there are two different ways of approaching this question. One is to consider
what the speaker does in producing stressed syllables and the other is to consider what
characteristics of sound make a syllable seem to a listener to be stressed. In other words, we
can study stress from the points of view of production and of perception; the two are obviously
closely related but are not identical. The production of stress is generally believed to depend
on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. Measuring
muscular effort is difficult, but it seems possible, according to experimental studies, that when
we produce stressed syllables, the muscles that we use to expel air from the lungs are often
83
more active, producing higher subglottal pressure. It seems probable that similar things happen
with muscles in other parts of our vocal apparatus.
Many experiments have been carried out on the perception of stress, and it is clear that many
different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable recognisably stressed. From
the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, and that
is prominence. Stressed syllables are recognised as stressed because they are more
prominent than unstressed syllables. What makes a syllable prominent? At least four different
factors are important:
i) Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed
syllables; in other words, loudness is a component of prominence. In a sequence of
identical syllables (e.g. ba:ba:ba:ba:), if one syllable is made louder than the others,
it will be heard as stressed. However, it is important to realise that it is very difficult
for a speaker to make a syllable louder without changing other characteristics of the
syllable such as those explained below (ii-iv); if one literally changes only the
loudness, the perceptual effect is not very strong.
ii) The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence. If one of the
syllables in our "nonsense word" ba:ba:ba:ba: is made longer than the others, there
is quite a strong tendency for that syllable to be heard as stressed.
iii) Every voiced syllable is said on some pitch; pitch in speech is closely related to the
frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical notion of low- and high-
pitched notes. It is essentially a perceptual characteristic of speech. If one syllable of
our "nonsense word" is said with a pitch that is noticeably different from that of the
others, this will have a strong tendency to produce the effect of prominence. For
example, if all syllables are said with low pitch except for one said with high pitch,
then the high-pitched syllable will be heard as stressed and the others as unstressed.
To place some movement of pitch (e.g. rising or falling) on a syllable is even more
effective in making it sound prominent.
iv) A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality
from neighbouring vowels. If we change one of the vowels in our "nonsense word"
(e.g. ba:bi:ba:ba:) the "odd" syllable bi: will tend to be heard as stressed. This effect
is not very powerful, but there is one particular way in which it is relevant in English:
we can look on stressed syllables as occurring against a "background" of weak
syllables, so that their prominence is increased by contrast with these background
qualities.
Prominence, then, is produced by four main factors: (i) loudness, (ii) length, (iii) pitch and (iv)
quality. Generally, these four factors work together in combination, although syllables may
sometimes be made prominent by means of only one or two of them. Experimental work has
shown that these factors are not equally important; the strongest effect is produced by pitch,
and length is also a powerful factor. Loudness and quality have much less effect.
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Levels of stress
Up to this point we have talked about stress as though there were a simple distinction between
"stressed" and "unstressed" syllables with no intermediate levels; such a treatment would be a
two-level analysis of stress. Usually, however, we have to recognise one or more intermediate
levels. It should be remembered that we are dealing only with stress within the word. This
means that we are looking at words as they are said in isolation, which is a rather artificial
situation: we do not often say words in isolation, except for a few such as 'yes', 'no', 'possibly',
'please' and interrogative words such as 'what', 'who', etc. However, looking at words in isolation
does help us to see stress placement and stress levels more clearly than studying them in the
context of continuous speech.
Let us begin by looking at the word 'around' əˈraʊnd, where the stress always falls clearly on
the last syllable and the first syllable is weak. From the point of view of stress, the most
important fact about the way we pronounce this word is that on the second syllable the pitch of
the voice does not remain level, but usually falls from a higher to a lower pitch. The prominence
that results from this pitch movement, or tone, gives the strongest type of stress; this is called
primary stress.
In some words, we can observe a type of stress that is weaker than primary stress but stronger
than that of the first syllable of 'around'; for example, consider the first syllables of the words
'photographic' fəʊtəɡræfɪk 'anthropology' ænθrəpɒlədʒi. The stress in these words is called
secondary stress. It is usually represented in transcription with a low mark (ˌ) so that the
examples could be transcribed as ˌfəʊtəˈɡræfɪk, ˌænθrəˈpɒlədʒi .
We have now identified two levels of stress: primary and secondary; this also implies a third
level which can be called unstressed and is regarded as being the absence of any
recognisable amount of prominence. These are the three levels that we will use in describing
English stress. However, it is worth noting that unstressed syllables containing ə, ɪ, i, u, or a
syllabic consonant, will sound less prominent than an unstressed syllable containing some
other vowel. For example, the first syllable of 'poetic' pəʊˈetɪk is more prominent than the first
syllable of 'pathetic' pəˈθetɪk. This could be used as a basis for a further division of stress levels,
giving us a third ("tertiary") level. It is also possible to suggest a tertiary level of stress in some
polysyllabic words. To take an example, it has been suggested that the word 'indivisibility'
shows four different levels: the syllable bɪl is the strongest (carrying primary stress), the initial
syllable ɪn has secondary stress, while the third syllable vɪz has a level of stress which is weaker
than those two but stronger than the second, fourth, sixth and seventh syllable (which are all
unstressed). Using the symbol to mark this tertiary stress, the word could be represented like
this: ˌɪndi ̥vɪzəˈbɪləti. While this may be a phonetically correct account of some pronunciations,
the introduction of tertiary stress seems to introduce an unnecessary degree of complexity. We
will transcribe the word as ˌɪndiˌvɪzəˈbɪləti.
85
Placement of stress within the word
We now come to a question that causes a great deal of difficulty, particularly to foreign learners
(who cannot simply dismiss it as an academic question): how can one select the correct syllable
or syllables to stress in an English word? As is well known, English is not one of those
languages where word stress can be decided simply in relation to the syllables of the word, as
can be done in French (where the last syllable is usually stressed), Polish (where the syllable
before the last - the penultimate syllable - is usually stressed) or Czech (where the first syllable
is usually stressed). Many writers have said that English word stress is so difficult to predict
that it is best to treat stress placement as a property of the individual word, to be learned when
the word itself is learned. Certainly, anyone who tries to analyse English stress placement has
to recognise that it is a highly complex matter. However, it must also be recognised that in most
cases (though certainly not all), when English speakers come across an unfamiliar word, they
can pronounce it with the correct stress; in principle, it should be possible to discover what it is
that the English speaker knows and to write it in the form of rules. The following summary of
ideas on stress placement in nouns, verbs and adjectives is an attempt to present a few rules
in the simplest possible form. Nevertheless, practically all the rules have exceptions and
readers may feel that the rules are so complex that it would be easier to go back to the
idea of learning the stress for each word individually.
In order to decide on stress placement, it is necessary to make use of some or all of the following
information:
i) Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is complex as a result either of

containing one or more affixes (i.e. prefixes or suffixes) or of being a compound word.
ii) What the grammatical category of the word is (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).
iii) How many syllables the word has.
iv) What the phonological structure of those syllables is.
It is sometimes difficult to make the decision referred to in (i). The rules for complex words are
different from those for simple words and these will be dealt with in the following unit. Single-
syllable words present no problems: if they are pronounced in isolation they are said with
primary stress.
Point (iv) above is something that should be dealt with right away, since it affects many of the
other rules that we will look at later. We know that it is possible to divide syllables into two basic
categories: strong and weak. One component of a syllable is the rhyme, which contains the
syllable peak and the coda. A strong syllable has a rhyme with either
(i) a syllable peak which is a long vowel or diphthong, with or without a following consonant
(coda). Examples: 'die' daɪ 'heart' hɑːt 'see' siː
86
Or
(ii) a syllable peak which is a short vowel, one of ɪ,e,æ,ʌ,ɒ,ʊ, followed by at least
one consonant. Examples:
'bat' bæt 'much' mʌtʃ 'pull' pʊl
A weak syllable has a syllable peak which consists of one of the vowels ə, i, u and no coda
except when the vowel is a. Syllabic consonants are also weak.
Examples:
'fa' in 'sofa' ˈsəʊfə 'zy' in 'lazy' ˈleɪzi
'flu' in 'influence' ˈɪnflʊəns 'en' in 'sudden' ˈsʌdn̩
The vowel ɪ may also be the peak of a weak syllable if it occurs before a consonant that is initial
in the syllable that follows it.
Examples:
'bi' in 'herbicide' hɜːbɪsaɪd 'e' in 'event' iˈvent
(However, this vowel is also found frequently as the peak of stressed syllables, as in 'thinker'
ˈθɪŋkə, 'input' ˈɪnpʊt.)
The important point to remember is that, although we do find unstressed strong syllables (as in
the last syllable of 'dialect' ˈdaɪəlekt), only strong syllables can be stressed. Weak syllables are
always unstressed. This piece of knowledge does not by any means solve all the problems of
how to place English stress, but it does help in some cases.
Two-syllable words
In the case of simple two-syllable words, either the first or the second syllable will be stressed
- not both. There is a general tendency for verbs to be stressed nearer the end of a word
and for nouns to be stressed nearer the beginning. We will look first at verbs. If the final
syllable is weak, then the first syllable is stressed. Thus:
'enter' 'open' 'envy' 'equal'
ˈentə
ˈəʊpən
ˈenvi
ˈiːkwəl
A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains əʊ (e.g. 'follow' ,'borrow').

fɒləʊ
ˈbɒrəʊ
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If the final syllable is strong, then that syllable is stressed even if the first syllable is also strong.
Thus:
'apply' 'attract' 'rotate’ ‘arrive' 'assist' 'maintain'
əˈplaɪ
əˈtrækt
rəʊˈteɪt
əˈraɪv
əˈsɪst
meɪnˈteɪn
Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule, giving:
'lovely' 'divine' 'even' 'correct’ ‘hollow' 'alive'
ˈlʌvli
diˈvaɪn
ˈi:vn
kəˈrekt
ˈhɒləʊ
əˈlaɪv
As with most stress rules, there are exceptions; for example: 'honest' ˈɒnɪst, 'perfect' pəˈfekt,
both of which end with strong syllables but are stressed on the first syllable.
Nouns require a different rule: stress will fall on the first syllable unless the first syllable is weak
and the second syllable is strong. Thus:
'money' 'divan' 'product' 'balloon' 'larynx' 'design'
ˈmʌni
diˈvæn
ˈprɒdʌkt
ˈbælən
ˈlærɪŋks
diˈzaɪn
Other two-syllable words such as adverbs seem to behave like verbs and adjectives.
Three-syllable words
Here we find a more complicated picture. One problem is the difficulty of identifying three-
syllable words which are indisputably simple. In simple verbs, if the final syllable is strong, then
it will receive primary stress. Thus:
'entertain' 'resurrect'
ˌentəˈteɪn
ˌrezəˈrekt
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If the last syllable is weak, then it will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding
(penultimate) syllable if that syllable is strong. Thus:
'encounter' 'determine
ɪnˈkaʊntə
diˈtɜːmɪn
If both the second and third syllables are weak, then the stress falls on the initial syllable:
'parody' 'monitor'
ˈpærədi
ˈmɒnɪtə
Nouns require a slightly different rule. The general tendency is for stress to fall on the first
syllable unless it is weak. Thus:
'quantity' 'emperor' 'custody' 'enmity'
ˈkwɒntɪti
ˈempərə
ˈkʌstədi
ˈenmɪti
However, in words with a weak first syllable the stress comes on the next syllable:
'mimosa' 'disaster' 'potato' 'synopsis'
miˈməʊzə
diˈzɑːstə
pəˈteɪtəʊ
siˈnɒpsɪs
When a three-syllable noun has a strong final syllable, that syllable will not usually receive the
main stress:
'intellect' 'marigold' 'alkali' 'stalactite'
ˈɪntəlekt
ˈmærɪɡəʊld
ˈælkəlaɪ
ˈstæləktaɪt
Adjectives seem to need the same rule, to produce stress patterns such as:
'opportune' 'insolent' 'derelict' 'anthropoid'
ˈɒpətjuːn
ˈɪnsələnt
ˈderəlɪkt
ˈænθrəpɔɪd
The above rules certainly do not cover all English words. They apply only to major categories
of lexical words (nouns, verbs and adjectives in this chapter), not to function words such as
89
articles and prepositions. There is not enough space in this course to deal with simple words of
more than three syllables, nor with special cases of loan words (words brought into the
language from other languages comparatively recently). Complex and compound words are
dealt with in the following unit.
90
ACTIVITIES
A. Mark the stress on the following words:
Verbs
a) protect e) bellow
b) clamber f) menace
c) festoon g) disconnect
d) detest h) enter
Nouns
a) language e) event
b) captain f) jonquil
c) career g) injury
d) paper h) connection
B. Listen to track n.º 6 – which has been uploaded to the WebCampus – and write down
the word with their stresses.
Remember you should always write down the

transcription of words, with their stresses, every
time you study a text or come across new words.

91
MODULE III
Nuances of the language
Unit II
Examining the differences of World Englishes
A) GRAMMAR – INVERSION OF CONDITIONALS
Type 1
Standard conditional: If by any chance you should see him, can you give him a message?
Inversion: Should you see him, can you give him a message?
Type 2
Standard conditional: If I became president, my first act would be to help the poor.
Inversion: Were I to become president, my first act would be to help the poor.
Type 3
Standard conditional: If he had listened to her advice, he would have made a different decision.
Inversion: Had he listened to her advice, he would have made a different decision.
If you need further explanations on

Conditionals, check your additional study
resources.
92
ACTIVITIES
A. Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first one, using
1. Should you persist in your defiance of instructions, disciplinary action will be taken.
go
If you______________________________ disciplinary action.
2. If you changed your mind, you’d be welcome to join our staff

change
Were you______________________________ delighted to have you on
the staff.
3. If I find that what you’ve told me is true, I’ll resign my post,

out
Should your information______________________________ in my
resignation.
4. Because the evidence was withheld, the prisoner was found guilty,
presented
Had the evidence______________________________ acquitted.
5. If I hadn’t been driving slowly, I might have been involved in the accident.
not
_____________________________.
B. Finish the following sentence so that it has the same meaning of the sentence
before it.
1. If we don’t get the co-operation of the local authorities, the tax will never be collected.
Without ………………………………………………………………………………….
93
2. As you didn’t explain the situation to me, I put my foot in it.
Had ………………………………………………………………………………….
3. If the President is defeated, there will have to be a new election.
Should ………………………………………………………………………………….
4. If you explained the situation to him, I’m sure he would understand.
Were ………………………………………………………………………………….
5. If it hadn’t been for the rain, it would have been a nice picnic.
But ………………………………………………………………………………….

94
B) READING and LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
A. Read the following chapter “Why a global language”, taken from the book English
as a Global Language by David Crystal.
B. Highlight, using different colours, topic-related vocabulary and co-text.
C. Create your mind map and deliver your oral report in class.
1
Why a global language?
‘English is the global language’
A headline of this kind must have appeared in a thousand newspapers and magazines in
recent years. ‘English Rules’ is an actual example, presenting to the world an uncomplicated
scenario suggesting the universality of the language’s spread and the likelihood of its
continuation.1 A statement prominently displayed in the body of the associated article,
memorable chiefly for its alliterative ingenuity, reinforces the initial impression: ‘The
British Empire may be in full retreat with the handover of Hong Kong. But from Bengal to
Belize and Las Vegas to Lahore, the language of the sceptred isle is rapidly becoming the
first global lingua franca.’ Millennial retrospectives and prognostications continued in the
same vein, with several major newspapers and magazines finding in the subject of the
English language an apt symbol for the themes of globalization, diversification, progress
and identity addressed in their special editions.2 Television programmes and series, too,
addressed the issue, and achieved world-wide audiences.3 Certainly, by the turn of the
century, the topic must have made contact with millions of popular intuitions at a level
which had simply not existed a decade before.
These are the kinds of statement which seem so obvious that most people would give them
hardly a second thought. Of course, English is a global language, they would say. You hear
it on television spoken by politicians from all over the world. Wherever you travel, you see
English signs and advertisements. Whenever you enter a hotel or restaurant in a foreign
city, they will understand English, and there will be an English menu. Indeed, if there is
anything to wonder about at all, they might add, it is why such headlines should still be
newsworthy.
95
But English is news. The language continues to make news daily in many countries. And the
headline isn’t stating the obvious. For what does it mean, exactly? Is it saying that
everyone in the world speaks English? This is certainly not true, as we shall see. Is it
saying, then, that every country in the world recognizes English as an official language?
This is not true either. So what does it mean to say that a language is a global language?
Why is English the language which is usually cited in this connection? How did the situation
arise? And could it change? Or is it the case that, once a language becomes a global
language, it is there for ever?
These are fascinating questions to explore, whether your first language is English or not.
If English is your mother tongue, you may have mixed feelings about the way English is
spreading around the world. You may feel pride, that your language is the one which has
been so successful; but your pride may be tinged with concern, when you realize that
people in other countries may not want to use the language in the same way that you do,
and are changing it to suit themselves. We are all sensitive to the way other people use (it
is often said, abuse) ‘our’ language. Deeply held feelings of ownership begin to be
questioned. Indeed, if there is one predictable consequence of a language becoming a
global language, it is that nobody owns it anymore. Or rather, everyone who has learned it
now owns it – ‘has a share in it’ might be more accurate – and has the right to use it in the
way they want. This fact alone makes many people feel uncomfortable, even vaguely
resentful. ‘Look what the Americans have done to English’ is a not uncommon comment
found in the letter-columns of the British press. But similar comments can be heard in the
USA when people encounter the sometimes-striking variations in English which are
emerging all over the world.
And if English is not your mother tongue, you may still have mixed feelings about it. You
may be strongly motivated to learn it, because you know it will put you in touch with more
people than any other language; but at the same time you know it will take a great deal of
effort to master it,and you may begrudge that effort. Having made progress, you will feel
pride in your achievement, and savour the communicative power you have at your disposal,
but may none the less feel that mother-tongue speakers of English have an unfair
advantage over you. And if you live in a country where the survival of your own language is
threatened by the success of English, you may feel envious, resentful, or angry. You may
strongly object to the naivety of the populist account, with its simplistic and often
suggestively triumphalist tone.
These feelings are natural and would arise whichever language emerged as a global
language. They are feelings which give rise to fears, whether real or imaginary, and fears
lead to conflict. Language marches, language hunger-strikes, language rioting and language
deaths are a fact, in several countries. Political differences over language economics,
education, laws and rights are a daily encounter for millions. Language is always in the
96
news, and the nearer a language moves to becoming a global language, the more newsworthy
it is. So how does a language come to achieve global status?
1. Globe and Mail, Toronto, 12 July 1997.

2. Ryan (1999).
3 For example, Back to Babel, a four-part (four-hour) series made in 2001 by Infonation, the film-making centre
within the British Foreign and Com- monwealth Office,had sold to sixty-four countries by 2002. The series was
notable for its range of interviews eliciting the attitudes towards English of users in several countries. It was also
the first series to devote a significant part of a programme to the consequences for endangered languages (see
below, p. 20). The series became available, with extra footage, on DVD in 2002: www.infonation.org.uk.
D. Listen to the talk World Englishes delivered by David Crystal –which has been
uploaded to the WebCampus– and complete the activities below.
E. Listen to the talk Will English always be a global language delivered by David
Crystal Crystal –which has been uploaded to the WebCampus– and complete the
activities below.
97
ACTIVITIES
Guided note-taking
1. David Crystal asserts that as a country………………………………………….., it

………………………………….it and immediately …………………………………..it, to
……………………….circumstances.
2. Countries apparently want to have an………………………………………. that

reflects………………..................................................................................................
3. He gives the example of American English in an attempt

to………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. New words were coined in America as a result of………………….……and spread into

England……………………………………………………………………
5. The adaptation of English is soon seen in……………………………………which shows

the……………………………………………….of that country.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why does he use the simple present tense to narrate his anecdote in South Africa?
2. Why didn’t he understand the sign in South Africa?
3. What happens when English goes to a new part of the world?
4. Is it determining to know a speaker’s cultural background to understand his/her English?

Why? Why not?
98
1. Will English always be a global language?
Listening and paraphrasing: the following statements were intentionally written using flat
language and INCORRENT tenses, and sometimes wrong content too. Paraphrase them using
appropriate tenses and interesting structures and correct content if needed.
1. If you said that Greek will not be a global language today, people will say you were mad.
2. David Crystal is sure English is a global language in 10 years’ time.
3. Power had nothing to do with language.
4. English becomes global just because of the power of the British Empire.
5. Apart from a number of examples that show the power of English, The Internet is
becoming multilingual.
6. As long as England is powerful, English will be remaining so.
7. Spanish has become very widely used so, one day, it can become global.
8. It is the first time a language is adopted by so many non-native speakers.
Note- taking
1. Listen to the questions being asked and jot down the most important information to
transmit clear ideas.
2. Listen to this part again and complete your notes with further concepts.
3. Organise your ideas and report them orally in class.

99
C) WRITING
REPORTS
Model – Exercises
Read the model of assessment report below, and fill in the appropriate sub-headings
(Purpose, Recommendation, Leadership, Qualities, Personal Qualities, Achievements). Then
underline the most suitable word or phrase in bold.
As supervisor of a children's summer camp, you have been asked by the managing director to
write an assessment of one of the group leaders who is being considered for promotion to group
coordinator. Write your report describing the employee and saying whether you would
recommend him/her for the position.
To: John Wood, Managing Director

From: Amanda Hall, Camp Supervisor
Subject: Assessment of Victoria Collins
Date:14th August 1997
A ................................................... .
As requested, this report is an assessment of the suitability of Victoria Collins for promotion to
group coordinator. The report summarises her personal qualities, leadership qualities and work-
related achievements, on the basis of which her suitability depends.
B ................................................... .
Victoria is a very enthusiastic member of staff who is always pleasant and considerate and
whose punctuality record is commendable. She has proved herself to be reliable and helpful
with a positive attitude towards all aspects of her work. For this she is admired and respected
by her colleagues. (1) In addition/As well as she has a wonderful rapport with children. (2)
Nevertheless/Despite the fact that she has a tendency towards timidity, this does not seem
to have affected the quality of her work.
100
C ................................................... .
(3) Besides this/Although Victoria has only been employed here for a short time, she has
already demonstrated good leadership qualities. (4) In spite of/Moreover her shyness, she
has (5) despite/nonetheless shown that she possesses the ability to assert herself over her
group in a constructive way whenever the need arises. Her organisational skills are outstanding;
(6) to sum up/furthermore, she is able to work in a calm and methodical manner to achieve
the desired results quickly and efficiently, even under pressure.
D .................................................. ..
Over the course of this summer, Victoria has voluntarily taken on many extra responsibilities
involving the planning and organisation of new entertainment. (7) For instance/Therefore, she
recently helped to plan a series of new activities which proved extremely successful and also
very popular with the children. (8) For example/Moreover, many of her innovative ideas have
been added to our existing programme, (9) despite/thus providing group leaders and camp
guests with a much wider variety of activity options to choose from.
E ................................................... .
(10) Additionally/In conclusion, I strongly recommend that Victoria should be promoted to the
position of group coordinator. I feel she is an excellent candidate for the job and would be a
valuable addition to the team
101
ACTIVITIES
A. Choose one of the following and write a 300-word report.
1. You work for a large travel agency and have just spent a week on a small island to see
if it would be a suitable destination for package holidays. Write a report for your employer
describing such things as the place itself, how to get there, available accommodation,
restaurants, transport, tourist attractions and so on, and state your recommendation
concerning its suitability.
2. As secretary of the school/college photography club, write a report for the club's annual
meeting. You should report on such matters as membership, special projects and
activities during the past year, and what has already been proposed for next year.
If you need further explanations on Reports,


102
Complex words
In the previous unit the nature of stress was explained, and some broad general rules were
given for deciding which syllable in a word should receive primary stress. The words that were
described were called "simple" words; "simple" in this context means "not composed of more
than one grammatical unit", so that, for example, the word 'care' is simple while 'careful' and
'careless' (being composed of two grammatical units each) are complex; 'care-fully' and
'carelessness' are also complex and are composed of three grammatical units each.
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to decide whether a word should be treated as complex or
simple. The majority of English words of more than one syllable (polysyllabic words) have
come from other languages whose way of constructing words is easily recognisable; for
example, we can see how combining 'mit' with the prefixes 'per-', 'sub-', 'com-' produced 'permit',
'submit', 'commit' - words which have come into English from Latin. Similarly, Greek has given
us 'catalogue', 'analogue', 'dialogue', 'monologue', in which the prefixes 'cata-', 'ana-', 'dia-',
'mono-' are recognisable. But we cannot automatically treat the separate grammatical units of
other languages as if they were separate grammatical units of English. If we did, we would not
be able to study English morphology without first studying the morphology of five or six other
languages, and we would be forced into ridiculous analyses such as that the English word
'parallelepiped' is composed of four or five grammatical units (which is the case in Ancient
Greek). We must accept, then, that the distinction between "simple" and "complex" words is
difficult to draw.
Complex words are of two major types:
ii) words made from a basic word form (which we will call the stem), with the addition of an
affix; and
iii) compound words, which are made of two (or occasionally more) independent English
words (e.g. 'ice cream', 'armchair').
We will look first at the words made with affixes. Affixes are of two sorts in English: prefixes,
which come before the stem (e.g. prefix 'un-' + stem 'pleasant' —> 'unpleasant') and suffixes,
which come after the stem (e.g. stem 'good' + suffix '-ness' —> 'goodness').
103
Affixes have one of three possible effects on word stress:
a) The affix itself receives the primary stress (e.g. 'semi-' + 'circle' sɜːkl̩ —> 'semicircle'
ˈsemɪsɜːkl̩ '-ality' + 'person' pɜːsən—> 'personality' ˌpɜːsəˈnælɪti
b) The word is stressed as if the affix were not there (e.g. 'pleasant' ˈpleznt, 'unpleasant'
ʌnˈpleznt; 'market' ˈmɑːkɪt , 'marketing' ˈmɑːkɪtɪŋ).
c) The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable (e.g.
'magnet' ˈmæɡnɪt , 'magnetic' mæɡˈnetɪk).
Suffixes
There are so many suffixes that it will only be possible here to examine a small proportion of
them: we will concentrate on those which are common and productive - that is, are applied to
a considerable number of stems and could be applied to more to make new English words. In
the case of the others, foreign learners would probably be better advised to learn the 'stem +
affix' combination as an individual item.
One of the problems that we encounter is that we find words which are obviously complex but
which, when we try to divide them into stem + affix, turn out to have a stem that is difficult to
imagine as an English word. For example, the word 'audacity' seems to be a complex word -
but what is its stem? Another problem is that it is difficult in some cases to know whether a word
has one, or more than one, suffix: for example, should we analyse 'personality' from the point
of view of stress assignment, as pɜːsən + ælɪti or as pɜːsən + æl + ɪti? In the study of English
word formation at a deeper level than we can go into here, it is necessary for such reasons to
distinguish between a stem (which is what remains when affixes are removed), and a root,
which is the smallest piece of lexical material that a stem can be reduced to. So, in 'personality',
we could say that the suffix '-ity' is attached to the stem 'personal' which contains the root
'person' and the suffix 'al'. We will not spend more time here on looking at these problems, but
go on to look at some generalisations about suffixes and stress, using only the term 'stem' for
the sake of simplicity. The suffixes are referred to in their spelling form.
Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves
In the examples given, which seem to be the most common, the primary stress is on the first
syllable of the suffix. If the stem consists of more than one syllable, there will be a secondary
stress on one of the syllables of the stem. This cannot fall on the last syllable of the stem and
is, if necessary, moved to an earlier syllable. For example, in 'Japan' dʒəˈpæn the primary
stress is on the last syllable, but when we add the stress-carrying suffix'-ese' the primary stress
is on the suffix and the secondary stress is placed not on the second syllable but on the first:
'Japanese' ˌdʒæpəˈniːz.
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 '-ee': 'refugee' ˌrefjʊˈdʒiː
 '-eer': 'mountaineer' ˌmaʊntɪˈnɪə
 '-ese': 'Portuguese' ˌpɔːtʃəˈɡiːz
 '-ette': 'cigarette' ˌsɪɡəˈret
 'esque': 'picturesque' ˌpɪktʃəˈresk
Suffixes that do not affect stress placement
 '-able': 'comfort' ˈkʌmfət; 'comfortable' ˈkʌmftəbl̩

 '-age': 'anchor' ˈæŋkə ;'anchorage' ˈæŋkərɪdʒ
 '-al': 'refuse' (verb) riˈfjuːz ; 'refusal' riˈfjuːzl̩
 '-en': 'wide' waɪd ; 'widen' ˈwaɪdn̩
 '-ful': 'wonder' ˈwʌndə; 'wonderful' ˈwʌndəfəl
 '-ing': 'amaze' əˈmeɪz ; 'amazing' əˈmeɪzɪŋ
 '-like': 'bird' bɜːd 'birdlike' bɜːdlaɪk
 '-less': 'power' ˈpaʊə ; 'powerless' ˈpaʊələs
 '-ly': 'hurried' ˈhʌrɪd ; 'hurriedly' hʌrɪdli
 '-ment' (noun): 'punish' ˈpʌnɪʃ ; 'punishment' ˈpʌnɪʃmənt
 '-ness': 'yellow' ˈjeləʊ; 'yellowness' ˈjeləʊnəs
 '-ous': 'poison' 'ˈpɔɪzn̩ ; 'poisonous' ˈpɔɪzənəs
 '-fy: 'glory' ˈɡlɔːri ; 'glorify' ˈɡlɔːrɪfaɪ
 '-wise': 'other' ˈʌðə ;'otherwise' ˈʌðəwaɪz
 '-y' (adjective or noun): 'fun' fʌn ; 'funny' ˈfʌni
 ('-ish' in the case of adjectives does not affect stress placement: 'devil' ˈdevl̩ ; 'devilish'
ˈdevəlɪʃ ; however, verbs with stems of more than one syllable always have the stress
on the syllable immediately preceding 'ish' - for example, 'replenish' riˈplenɪʃ, 'demolish'
diˈmɒlɪʃ )
Suffixes that influence stress in the stem
In these examples primary stress is on the last syllable of the stem.
 '-eous': 'advantage' ədˈvɑːntɪdʒ 'advantageous' ˌædvənˈteɪdʒəs

 '-graphy': 'photo' 'ˈfəʊtəʊ ; 'photography' fəˈtɒɡrəfi
 '-ial': 'proverb' 'ˈprɒvɜːb ; 'proverbial' prəˈvɜːbɪəl
 '-ic': 'climate' 'ˈklaɪmət ; 'climatic' klaɪˈmætɪk
 '-ion': 'perfect' 'pəˈfekt ; 'perfection' pəˈfekʃn̩
 '-ious': 'injure' 'ˈɪndʒə ; 'injurious' ɪnˈdʒʊərɪəs
 '- ty': 'tranquil' 'ˈtræŋkwɪl ; 'tranquillity' træŋˈkwɪlɪti
 '-ive': 'reflex' ˈriːfleks; 'reflexive' riˈfleksɪv
Finally, when the suffixes '-ance', '-ant' and '-ary' are attached to single-syllable stems, the
stress is almost always placed on the stem (e.g. 'guidance', 'sealant', 'dietary'). When the stem
105
has more than one syllable, the stress is on one of the syllables in the stem. To explain this, we
need to use a rule based on syllable structure, as was done for simple words in the previous
chapter. If the final syllable of the stem is strong, that syllable receives the stress. For example:
'importance' ɪmˈpɔːtns , 'centenary' senˈtiːnəri. Otherwise the syllable before the last one
receives the stress: 'inheritance' ɪnˈherɪtəns , 'military' ˈmɪlɪtri .
Prefixes
We will look only briefly at prefixes. Their effect on stress does not have the comparative
regularity, independence and predictability of suffixes, and there is no prefix of one or two
syllables that always carries primary stress. Consequently, the best treatment seems to be to
say that stress in words with prefixes is governed by the same rules as those for polysyllabic
words without prefixes.
Compound words
The words discussed so far in this chapter have all consisted of a stem plus an affix. We now
pass on to another type of word. This is called compound, and its main characteristic is that it
can be analysed into two words, both of which can exist independently as English words. Some
compounds are made of more than two words, but we will not consider these. As with many of
the distinctions being made in connection with stress, there are areas of uncertainty. For
example, it could be argued that 'photograph' may be divided into two independent words,
'photo' and 'graph'; yet we usually do not regard it as a compound, but as a simple word. If,
however, someone drew a graph displaying numerical information about photos, this would
perhaps be called a 'photo-graph' and the word would then be regarded as a compound.
Compounds are written in different ways: sometimes they are written as one word (e.g.
'armchair', 'sunflower'); sometimes with the words separated by a hyphen (e.g. 'open-minded',
'cost-effective'); and sometimes with two words separated by a space (e.g. 'desk lamp', 'battery
charger'). In this last case there would be no indication to the foreign learner that the pair of
words was to be treated as a compound. There is no clear dividing line between two-word
compounds and pairs of words that simply happen to occur together quite frequently.
As far as stress is concerned, the question is quite simple. When is primary stress placed on
the first constituent word of the compound and when on the second? Both patterns are found.
A few rules can be given, although these are not completely reliable. Perhaps the most familiar
type of compound is the one which combines two nouns and which normally has the stress on
the first element, as in: 'typewriter
It is probably safest to assume that stress will normally fall in this way on other compounds;
however, a number of compounds receive stress instead on the second element. The first words
in such compounds often have secondary stress. For example, compounds with an adjectival
first element and the -ed morpheme at the end have this pattern (given in spelling only):
106
.bad-'tempered
,half-'timbered
,heavy-'handed
Compounds in which the first element is a number in some form also tend to have final stress:
,three-'wheeler
,second-'class
,five-'finger
Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed:

,head'first
,North-'East
,down'stream
Finally, compounds which function as verbs and have an adverbial first element take final
stress:
,down'grade
.back-'pedal
.ill-9'treat
Variable stress
It would be wrong to imagine that the stress pattern is always fixed and unchanging in English
words. Stress position may vary for one of two reasons: either as a result of the stress on other
words occurring next to the word in question, or because not all speakers agree on the
placement of stress in some words. The main effect is that the stress on a final-stressed
compound tends to move to a preceding syllable and change to secondary stress if the following
word begins with a strongly stressed syllable. Thus (using some examples from the previous
section):
,bad-'tempered but a ,bad-tempered 'teacher

.half-'timbered but a ,half-timbered 'house
.heavy-'handed but a .heavy-handed 'sentence
You must also study the PowerPoint

presentation which has been uploaded to the
WebCampus.
107
ACTIVITIES
A. Put stress marks on the following words (try to put secondary stress marks on as
well).
a) shopkeeper
b) open-ended
c) Javanese
d) birthmark
e) anti-clockwise
f) confirmation
g) eight-sided
h) fruitcake
i) defective
j) roof timber
B. Write the words in phonemic transcription, including the stress marks.
C. Complete the exercise from the PowerPoint presentation and check it using
the key.
Remember you should revise the concepts of

stress marks which were studied in English
Language and Phonology II.
108
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MÓDULO I
BADGER, I. (2014). Listening. Collins English for Life. London: HarperCollins Publishers
Childhood stimulation key to brain development, study finds. [online]. [Retrieved: 7th April,
2021]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/oct/14/childhood-
stimulation-key-brain-development
CROFT, S. (2002). Revise GCSE – English Language & Literature. London: Letts
Educational.
Guidelines for writing a summary with in-text citations. [online]. [Retrieved on 28th April,
2021]. Available at http://academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer-
ramazani/AEP/EN104/summary.htm
HEWINGS, M. (2007). English Pronunciation in Use. Advanced. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
“More views, angles and perspective: Why community journalism may be the future of
news. [online]. [Retrieved on 28th April, 2021]. Available at
https://www.journalism.co.uk/news/-more-views-angles-and-perspective-why-
community-journalism-may-be-the-future-of-news/s2/a716197/
NAYLOR, H. & HAGGER, S. (1992). Paths to Proficiency. London: Longman.
WEST, C. (2007). Recycling Advanced English – Revised Edition. Jersey: Georgian
Press.
Writing and Communication Centre-Summary, University of Waterloo. [online] [Retrieved
on 28th April, 2021]. Available at https://uwaterloo.ca/writing-and-communication-
centre/summary
MÓDULO II
CROFT, S. (2002). Revise GCSE – English Language & Literature. London: Letts
Educational.
CRUTTENDEN, A. (2014). Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. 8th Edition. Routledge:
Londres y Nueva York.
EVANS, V. (1999). Successful Writing Proficiency. UK: Express Publishing.
University Press.
109
LINDSEY, G. Dr. Geoff Lindsey Speech Coach. [online]. Available at
https://www.youtube.com/user/englishspeechservice
MEIER, P. (2013). The Standard British English Dialect. USA: Paul Meier Dialect
Service
Opinion essays. [online]. [Retrieved: 17th May, 2021]. Available at https://ielts-
up.com/writing/ielts-essay-sample-1.html
ORTÍZ LIRA, H. (1998). Practical English phonetics. Santiago de Chile: UMSE.
POE, E. The Masque of the Red Death. [online]. [Retrieved: 14th April, 2021]. Available
at https://www.poemuseum.org/the-masque-of-the-red-death
ROACH, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology- A practical course 4th Edition. UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Reporting verbs. [online] [Retrieved: 19th April, 2021]. Available at
https://www.grammaring.com/reporting-verb-that-clause-with-the-present-
subjunctive
Thinking of language, Love and Loss with Nina Raine’s Tribes. [online] [Retrieved: 12th
May, 2021]. Available at https://3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2018/09/thinking-
of-language-love-and-loss-with-nina-raines-tribes.html
VAUGHAN-REES, M. (2002). Test your pronunciation. Essex: Person Education
Limited.
Press.
MÓDULO III
A guide to how gender-neutral language is developing around the world. [online].

[Retrieved: 27th May 2021]. Available
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/15/guide-how-gender-neutral-
language-is-developing-around-world/
Conditionals. [online]. [Retrieved 2nd June 2021]. Available at
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/intermediate-to-upper-
intermediate/conditionals-1
CRYSTAL, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. Second Edition. Cambridge:
-------- (2013). World Englishes. [online]. [Retrieved 27th May 2021]- Available at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_q9b9YqGRY
-------- (2013). Will English always be a global language? [online]. [Retrieved 27th May
2021]- Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Kvs8SxN8mc
110
University Press.
ROACH, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology- A practical course 4th Edition. UK:
SIDE, R. & WELLMAN, G. (1999). Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced
and Proficiency. England: Longman.
Press.
111
KEY TO EXERCISES
MODULE I
UNIT I
GRAMMAR
Ex.1 Ex.3
1 was originally used
1.New words are constantly being
2 being put
3 is known added to dictionaries by lexicographers.
4 was/has been successfully 2. English has been adapted by some
deployed countries, so it is hardly recognisable as
5 is involved the same language.
6 be laid out 3. French had been used by the Court in
7 was ended London before English became an
8 were punctured acceptable language for polite society.
9 is hoped 4. The distinction between “fewer” and
10 be caught “less” ought to have been kept.
5. A language can be learned/learnt by
ear without having been taught it.
Ex.2
Ex.4
1 had been found
2 were discovered
3 were/have been pronounced 1.It would have been impossible to have
4 were not made got/had the car repaired in time.
5 be carried out 2. It’s no good, you will have to get/have
6 was thrown it cut.
7 were made 3. Are you going to get/have your hair
8 was published permed this time by me?
9 are handed over 4. He should have got/had this job done
10 be regarded by professionals.
READING COMPREHENSION
Ex.1
Childhood stimulation – to measure cognitive stimulation – better cognitive
cognitive stimulation (from parents) – to stimulation
get mental stimulation – the child’s
112
To be key to / to influence/ to have an INFLUENTIAL: To be especially ~
effect on brain development – brain REGARDLESS: to have an effect on
scans of participants – to leave positive something ~ of something else
fingerprints on a person’s brain – parts of ROLE: to highlight the tremendous ~ that
the brain dedicated to language and someone has to play in doing something
cognition – on the outside of the brain – ENABLE: the role someone has to play
to have brains scanned – the brain in ~ing someone else to do something
matures during childhood and
adolescence – brain cells in the cortex Ex. 4
are pruned back – on the surface of the 1.Parallel increase: the + adjective in
brain comparative form + a clause, the+
The most critical aspect of cortex adjective in comparative form + a clause
development – thinner cortex – more 2. Impersonal Passive Voice: It + verb to
developed cortex – the development of be (in a tense) + a reporting verb + that
several parts of the cortex – optimal clause
development of the cortex - the lateral 3. Past Perfect tense: subject+ had+ verb
left temporal cortex - in Past Participle
Study finds – a two-decade-long 4. Causative use of have/get: someone+
research study – to lead the latest study have/get (in a tense) + something + verb
– the study suggested that… - in Past Participle
A normal range of experiences in 5. Auxiliary verb used in affirmative for
childhood- childhood stimulation – emphasis: She/he/ it does + verb in bare
childhood experiences influence brain infinitive + complement
development 6. Connector “yet”: Yet, + a clause
7. First conditional with “unless”:
Ex. 2 Conditional clauses can begin
There is no key to this exercise as with unless. Unless means something
different students may provide various similar to ‘if … not’ or ‘except if’.
options. The purpose is to understand The verb forms in the examples are
the main idea of each paragraph. The similar to sentences with if: we use the
present simple in the unless-clause
answers will be discussed in class.
and shall, should, will, would, can, could,
may or might in the main clause:
Ex.3
CARRY OUT: to ~ surveys, to ~ brain
scans
FACTOR: to be a key ~ in doing
something
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Ex.1 bæŋk
mʌnθ əˈɡəʊ
ɡɒn ˈʃʊɡə
113
met (fu: d = food; fɔːd = ford)
sʌŋ (tɔːk = talk/torque)
ˈsɪmbl̩
ˈsɪnəmə Ex.3
ˈeni 1. pin /pɪn/ /pen/
2. send /send/ /sænd/
Ex.2 3. golf /gɔ:lf/ /gɒlf/
(hɑːm = harm) 4. part /pɑ:t/ /pæt/
(bi:t = beat/beet; bu:t = boot; bɔːt = 5. full /fu:l/ /fʊl/
bought) 6. hurt /hɜ:t/ /hɑ:t/
(p3 : S = purse; pi: s = piece/peace) 7. order /ˈɒdə/ /ˈɔ:də/
Ex.4
Ex.5 2.Adjacency pairs: every time each

speaker makes a question, it is
Suggested answers answered by the other.
1.Turn-taking: the conventions of turn- 3. Pauses: “Yes, we do have availability
taking are respected in this for you this evening … and the rate will
conversation. be 250 dollars.”
114
4. Voice-filled pauses: “Hi, there, I … uh 10. End-clipping: “Is that right?” (Glottal
… don’t have a booking. I wondered if stop: the final /t/ has been replaced by a
… um … there was any chance you had glottal stop).
availability this evening? 11. There are no cases of false starts.
5.Fillers: “yeah” (in the case of the
customer)
6. Overlaps: “Oh okay, so if you don’t
leave the credit open, then…” (In this
case, the receptionist completes the
idea. There is not a moment in which
both speak at the same time.)
7. Repetitions: “Uh, what does – what
does that mean?”
8. Contractions: “Okay, certainly. What
I’ll need from you, madam, is just your
… passport and also if you’d like to pay
cash or card.”
9. Colloquial language: “Okay, then I
think, if that’s alright, I’ll probably wanna
go with that, yeah.”
MODULE I - UNIT II
GRAMMAR
Ex.1 Ex. 2
1.An early childhood (which is)
1 ... are expected to be
surrounded by books and educational
announced ...
2 ... are understood to be toys…
going u p ... 2. It is known that childhood experience
3 ... is said to have had ... influences brain development…
4 ... are feared (to have been) 3.… children who had been abused…
lost... 4.Farah took data from surveys of
5 ... was considered/thought/ home life and brain scans of 64
judged to be ... participants (which were) carried out
6 ... cannot be denied/is true/ over the course of 20 year.
is undeniable that certain 5.Her results, (which were) presented
mistakes were ... on Sunday at the annual meeting of
7 ... was reported to have the Society for Neuroscience in New
been helping...
Orleans,…
8 ... was alleged that the
accused had...
115
6.The participants had been tracked child's cognitive stimulation at the age
since they were four years old. of four.
7.…they had their brains scanned. 9.… brain cells in the cortex are
(Causative use of “get/have”) pruned back and, as unnecessary
8. Farah's results showed that the cells are eliminated…
development of the cortex in late 10.…they were also given language
teens was closely correlated with a tests…
READING COMPREHENSION
2. To address gaps in, to partner with, the best chance of understanding, to better understand,
to understand.
3. Media: in the mainstream ~, social ~ is (not) about sth, the traditional ~, to publish content
on social ~ platforms, the ~.
Journalism: community ~, development happen in mobile ~, community ~ conference
Agenda: national news ~
Broadcast: to need major ~ing platforms, to need ~ equipment, a ~er
Content: to publish ~ on social media platforms, to publish ~ to people, to shoot ~, to edit ~,
to make ~, to use a platform as a ~management system
Platform: a major broadcasting ~, to use a ~, social media ~
News: ~ organisations, to distribute ~, to send community ~, to be the future of ~, the local ~
coverage, national ~ agenda, to find local ~, to get your ~, fake ~.
Mobile: in ~ journalism, to use ~tools, to tell stories in their ~phones
Press: to need a printing ~
Viral: to go ~
Footage: hand-held ~, 8K video ~
Updates: to give people ~ in their local area, to get ~ from places
Digital: advancements in ~ technology, the ~ divide.

Ex. 1
ˈfeðə- ˈspeʃl̩ – ˈhʌŋgə – ˈɪndʒəri – ˈbi:tʃ – drɪŋk – kæʃ – ˈsiːʒə – bɑ:θ – jes – ˈtreʒə – ˈdeɪndʒər
əs – ˈfiːtʃə – ɔːlˈðəʊ – jʌŋ –ˈjuːʒʊəl |
Ex.2
ðæts ˈveri kaɪnd əv ju |
ˈaɪ ˈθɪŋk ˈðeɪd lʌv tə hæv ði ˌɪnviˈteɪʃn̩ |
bət aɪ ˈrɑːðə daʊt ˈweðər ˈaɪðər əv ðəm wʊd fiːl breɪv iˈnʌf |
ˈfænsi ðæt ˈdʒɜːni ɪn ə nɒt ˈveri ˈkʌmftəbl̩ kɑː wɪð θri: ˈtʃɪldrən |
116
bət lɑːst ˈtaɪm ðə ˈweðə wəz ˈɔːfl̩ ənd ðə fuːd ˈterəbl̩ |
bət ðeɪ ˈθɔːt ðət ˈevriθɪŋ wəz ˈlʌvli |
Ex.3
lʊks pleɪz
lʊkt pleɪd
wɒtʃɪz dʒʌdʒɪz
wɒtʃt dʒʌdʒd
Ex. 4
Emotive language, exclamations, repetition (the word “right”, for example), lists,
rhetorical questions.
MODULE II
UNIT I
GRAMMAR
A.
1. Seldom had they participated in such a fascinating ceremony.
2. Under no circumstances will Miss Weaver be offered the job.
3. So surprised was he to be addressed by the Queen that he didn’t answer at once.
4. Hardly had he entered the house when the police arrested him.
5. Never for one moment did I think the consequences would be so far-reaching.
6. Rarely has she travelled more than fifty miles from her village.
7. On no account must you lift heavy weights like that again.
8. Scarcely had I put the phone down when it rang again.
9. In no way did the defendant express his misgivings.
10. So difficult was the task that expert assistance was required.
B.
1. Never have I seen such brilliant acting.
2. Not only does Jon play the piano, but he also plays the clarinet.
3. Hardly had we left the building when it caught fire.
4. Not until ten years later did they find out the truth.
5. Only if both sides agree will the settlement be reached.
117
A. ɑːnt | kɑːnt |ˈkʊdnt | deənt | ˈdɪdnt | ˈdʌznt | dəʊnt | ˈhædnt | ˈhæznt | ˈhævn̩t | ˈɪznt |
ˈmeɪ(ə)nt | ˈmaɪtnt | ˈmʌsnt | ˈniːdnt | ˈɔːtnt | ʃɑːnt | ˈʃʊdnt | ˈwɒznt | wɜːnt | wəʊnt |
ˈwʊdn̩t |
B.
1. wi kən weɪt fə ðə bʌs |
2. haʊ də ðə laɪts wɜːk |
3. ðər ə səm nju: bʊks aɪ məst riːd |
4. ʃi tʊk ər ɑ:nt fər ə draɪv |
5. ðə ˈbɑːskɪt wəz ˈfʊl əv ˈθɪŋz tu iːt |
6. waɪ ʃəd ə mæn ɜːn mɔː ðən ə ˈwʊmən |
7. ju ɔːt tə hæv jər əʊn kɑː |
8. hi wɒnts tə kʌm ənd si: əs ət həʊm |
9. hæv ju ˈteɪkən ðəm frəm ðæt bɒks |
10. ɪts tru: ðət i wəz leɪt | bət ɪz kɑ: kəd əv brəʊkən daʊn |
11. aɪ ʃl teɪk əz mʌtʃ əz aɪ wɒnt |
12. waɪ əm aɪ tuː leɪt tə si: ɪm təˈdeɪ |
C.
1. Would you like to go to the canteen for a sandwich?
2. I’m going to town for half an hour.
3. I’ve got a present from my father.
4. I think they must have gone to the library.
5. I’d like a glass or two of water.
6. They thanked me for helping them to find the money.
7. Do you know where Mary is?
8. Last time I saw her she was on her way to town.
9. If I’d been sensible, I would have listened to my teacher.
10. Last night we went to a place where there were lots of cafes.
D. To be discussed in class.
E.
1. əv ɔ:l ðə prəˈpəʊzl̩ z | ðə wʌn ðət ju meɪd ɪz ðə ˈsɪlɪɪst |
2. dʒeɪn ənd bɪl kəd əv ˈdrɪvn̩ ðəm tu ənd frɒm ðə ˈpɑːti |
3. tə ˈkʌm tə ðə pɔɪnt |wɒt ʃəd wi du: fə ðə rest əv ðə wiːk |
4. hæz ˈeniwʌn ɡɒt ən aɪˈdɪə weər ɪt keɪm frɒm |
5. iːtʃ wʌn wəz ə ˈpɜ:fɪkt ɪɡˈzɑːmpl̩ əv ði ɑ:t ðət əd biːn diˈveləpt ðeə |
118
MODULE II
UNIT II
GRAMMAR
A.
1D 2B 3A 4H 5C 6E 7G 81 9J 10F
1 She boasted (that) she had had better marks than anyone else all term.
2 She accused me of stealing her watch.
1. She threatened to hit me if I didn’t give her my money.
2. She apologised for not getting round/not having got round to writing earlier.
3. She suggested (that) we should all go for a drive in the country/going for a drive in the
country.
4. She insisted on seeing the manager at once.
5. She begged me not to tell anyone I had/i’d seen her.
6. She confirmed (that) my flight was taking off at midnight.
7. She reminded me to bring the binoculars.
8. She estimated that Mexico City had about 20 million inhabitants.
B.
1I 2L 3A 4K 5J 6H 7C 8F 9D 10G 11B 12E
1. He pointed out that it was already five o’clock.

2. He agreed to help.
3. He assured me (that) there would be no difficulty.
4. He thanked me for bringing the flowers.
5. He advised me to keep it under my hat.
6. He added (that) there would be a 2% surcharge.
7. He denied robbing/having robbed the old lady.
8. He refused to make a speech.
9. He warned me to be careful when I crossed the road.
10. He congratulated me on passing the test first time.
11. He blamed Charlotte for letting them down.
12. He admitted causing/having caused/(that) he had caused the accident.
C.
1. She said that if she had known, she would have come earlier.
2. He said that unless John told the truth, somebody would hurt.
3. She said (that) she really thought (that) I should join the tennis club that summer.
4. Her teacher said that if she practised more, she might be able to make a career out of
music.
5. He said that he wouldn’t have had the accident if the brakes had been repaired
properly.
6. The magistrate said (that) he would be sent to prison if he committed a further offence.
7. He said (that) I could stay there as long as I liked.
8. Maggie said (that) she wished Bob would buy himself a new suit.
119
D.
1. I asked how far it was to the station.
2. OK
3. She asked me if I could do the shopping for her.
4. Her father asked if what she had told him was true.
5. OK
6. The traffic warden asked why I had parked there.
7. I asked the old man what his recipe for long life was.
8. We wondered how our neighbours managed to keep their garden so neat.
9. The officials asked him what he wanted.
10. OK
E.
1 ... congratulated me on passing...
2 ... apologised for forgetting to...
3 ... (that) Jim should put off his marketing trip...
4 ... me to put/enclose a cheque in...
5 ... me to run through my speech...
WRITING
A. 1. recently
2. as a result
3. furthermore
4. on the other hand
5. in conclusion
B. 1. nowadays
2 consequently, therefore
3. moreover, in addition
4. however, nevertheless
5. to sum up, finally
C.
1. such as, like
2. personally
3. think so
4. firstly
5. besides
6. secondly
7. although
8. like, such as
9. just
10. to sum up
120
A.
1.My mother can´t answer all her morning calls on her old phone.
2. Chicago´s called the Windy City. It blows hardest on the shore.
3. Snow flurries fall fast and always when the ground is frosty.
4.Gary always laughingly disparaged her old, gaudy wardrobe.
5.We all knew that Houston was the centre of the Apollo program.
6.Clarence Darrow was a noted lawyer who argued awfully long and hard,
7. I assume we all concur on the importance of the matter.
8. A most severe ground frost hurt the potato and corn crops.
9. The old, grumpy barman called for last orders.
10. We can´t pass over New York without visiting her aunt Martha.
B.
(1) maɪ ˈmʌðə kʰɑːntʰ ˈɑːnsər ɔ:l ə ˈmɔ:nɪŋ kʰɔːlz ɒn ər əʊld fəʊn |
(2) ʃiˈkʰɑːɡəʊz kʰɔːld ðə ˈwindi ˈsɪt̄i | ɪt bləʊz ˈhɑːdɪst ɒn ðə ʃɔː |
(3) snəʊ ˈflʌrɪz fɔːl fɑːst̄ ənd ˈɔːlweɪz wen ðə graʊndz ˈfrɒst̄i |
(4) ˈɡæri ˈɔːlweɪz ˈlɑːfɪŋli diˈsp=ærɪdʒd ər
b̥
əʊld ˈɡɔːdi ˈwɔːdrəʊb |
(5) wi ɔ:l njuː ðət ˈhjuːstn̩ wəz ðə sentər əv ði əˈpʰɒləʊ ˈpɹ̥əʊɡræm |

(6)ˈkɬærəns ˈdærəʊ wəz ə ˈnəʊt̄ɪd ˈlɔːjə ˈhu ˈɑːɡjuːd ˈɔːfli lɒŋ ən hɑːd |
(7) aɪ əˈsjuːm wi ɔ:l k̄ənˈkʰɜːr ˈɒn ði ɪmˈpʰɔːtns əv ðə ˈmæt̄ə |
(8) ə məʊst siˈvɪə graʊn ˈfrɒst hɜːt ðə p̄əˈtʰeɪt̄əʊ ən kʰɔ:n kɹ̥ɒps |
(9) ði əʊldˈɡrʌmp̄i ˈbɑːmən kʰɔːld fə lɑːs ˈɔːdəz |
(10) wi kʰɑːnt pʰɑːs ˈəʊvə nju: jɔ:k wɪðˈaʊt ˈvɪzɪtɪŋ ər ɑ:nt ˈmɑːθə |
C.
Well, to speak with perfect candour, Cecily, I wished that you were fully forty-two and more than
usually plain for your age. Ernest has a strong upright nature. He is the soul of truth and honour.
Disloyalty would be as impossible to him as deception. But even men of the noblest possible
moral character are extremely susceptible to the influence of the physical charm of others.
Modern, not less than Ancient History, supplies us with many most painful examples of what I
refer to. If it were not so, indeed, History would be quite unreadable.
wel tə sp=iːk wɪð p-əˈfekt ˈkʰændə ˈsesəli

b̥
| aɪ wɪʃt ðət ju wə fʊli fɔ:t-i tʰu: | ənd mɔː ðn̩ˈjuːʒəli ˈpɬeɪn fə jɔ:r eɪdʒ | ˈɜːnɪst hæz ə strɒŋ ˈʌpraɪt
ˈneɪtʃə |hi ɪz ðə ˈsəʊl əv tɹ̥uːθ ənd ˈɒnə| dɪsˈlɔɪəlt-i wʊd bi əz ɪmˈpʰɒsəbl̩ t-u ɪm əz diˈsepʃn̩
| bətʰ i:vn men əv ðə ˈnəʊblɪst ˈpʰɒsəbl̩ ˈmɒrəl ˈkʰærəktər ər ɪkˈstriːmli səˈsept-əbl̩ tə ði ˈɪnflʊəns
əv ðə ˈfɪzɪkl̩ tʃɑːm əv ˈʌðəz |ˈmɒdn̩ | nɒt les ðn̩ ˈeɪnʃənt ˈhɪstr̩i |səˈpɬaɪz əs wɪð ˈmeni məʊs
ˈpʰeɪnfəl ɪɡˈzɑːmpl̩ z əv wɒt aɪ riˈfɜː t-u | ɪf ɪt wə nɒt səʊ | ɪnˈdiːd |ˈhɪstr̩i wʊd bi kʍaɪt ˌʌnˈriːdəbl̩
|
121
MÓDULO III
UNIT 1
GRAMMAR
A.
1. make
2. hadn’t eaten
3. have
4. had been
5. is
6. take
7. leave
8. asked
9. had dropped
10. were
11. would have been/would be
12. are
13. Were
14. happens
15. broke down6 like
B.
1. Long as you can get there early enough, we can(will be able to get good seats.
2. We are leaving, I’d better get my coat.
3. (that) we don’t run into heavy traffic, we’ll see you at seven.
4. Are Dominic’s keys, he must have forgotten them.
5. Drive so/that fast, it’s not surprising you had an accident.
C.
1. I didin’t know you, I’be deeply offended.
2. They were not on e-mail, they’d never have received the news on time.
3. So kind as to (or: kind enough to) hold my briefcase a minute, I can move this table.
4. They change their minds, they’ll let us know.
5. To sell this flat, how much do you think we’d get?
D.
1. had asked me to
2. wouldn’t have got
3. it not been for
4. what would you have
5. I had listened
122
WRITING
1. Purpose
2. Performing Artists/Groups
3. Venue, Facilities and Equipment
4. Catering and Ticket Sales
5. Project Costs
6. Conclusión
PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY

A.
prəˈtekt |
ˈklæmbə | ˈkæptɪn |
feˈstuːn | kəˈrɪə |
diˈtest | ˈpeɪpə |
ˈbeləʊ | iˈvent |
ˈmenəs | ˈdʒɒŋkwɪl |
ˌdɪskəˈnekt | ˈɪndʒəri |
ˈentə | kəˈnekʃn̩ |
ˈlæŋɡwɪdʒ |
B.
ˈteɪbl̩ |
iˈlekt | kəˈlekt |
ˈkænsəl | ˈlɪmɪt |
riˈpiːt | ˈvænɪʃ |
ˈedɪt | ˈpɪktʃə |
ˈtiːtʃə | fəˈɡɪv |
səˈpraɪz | ˈfʌni |
ˈmænɪdʒ | biˈliːv |
ˈbɒtl̩ | ˈvɪlɪdʒ |
ˈlɪsn̩ | ˈswiːtn̩ |
biˈləʊ | priˈfɜː |
əˈbʌv | ˈkʌvə |
ˈʌndə | ˈɑːftə |
ˈrɔɪəl | ˈlʌki |
pəˈspəʊn | ˈfɔːmə |
əˈlaʊ | ˈləʊkl̩ |
123
MODULE III, UNIT II
GRAMMAR
A.
1 ... go on defying instructions, there will be/we will take...
2 ... to change your mind, we would be ...
3 ... turn out to be true, I’ll hand...
4 ... been presented, the prisoner might/would have been...
5 Had I not been driving slowly, I might have been involved in the accident.
B.
1. the co-operation of the local authorities, the tax will never be collected.
2. you explained the situation to me, I wouldn’t have put my foot in it.
3. the president be defeated, there will have to be a new election.
4. you to explain the situation to him, I’m sure he would understand.
5. for the rain, it would have been a nice picnic.
READING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION

E.
1. Takes up the English language– adopts – adapts – suit
2. English – your local interests, your history, the things that happen around you
3. Illustrate how English can be adopted and adapted to describe new realities.
4. The need of naming new realities and objects – through the letters the settlers sent to
their relatives back in England.
5. Vocabulary – the reality
1. He uses the Simple Present to make that anecdote sound more vivid.
2. Because even though he is a native English speaker, that word was used in a different
way, with a different meaning, in the South African culture.
3. It is adapted by the speakers from that place to describe their own realities.
4. Yes, because English has become a global language, and, as such, it is adapted by
different cultures which may use it in ways that are not even predictable by English native
speakers.
F. Suggested answers
1. Hardly anybody could have predicted a thousand years ago that Latin would no longer
be used in a thousand years’ time.
2. David Crystal cannot predict whether English will be a global language in 10 years’ time.
3. Power always drives language.
4. English has become global for a whole variety of reason: The power of the British
Empire, the American Imperialism, the Industrial Revolution, money (the pound and the
dollar), and cultural power.
124
5. Unlike its beginnings, nowadays, Internet is multilingual.
6. As long as the nations recognised as the most powerful in the world continue using
English, the power of this language will not diminish.
7. Spanish is the fastest growing language in the world, so we can imagine a scenario when
one day everybody speaks Spanish.
8. It is the first time a language has been adopted by so many non-native speakers.
Note-taking
It will be discussed in class.
WRITING
A. Purpose
B. Personal Qualities
C. Leadership Qualities
D. Achievements
E. Recommendation
1. In addition
2. Despite the fact that
3. Although
4. In spite of
5. Nonetheless
6. Furthermore
7. For instance
8. Moreover
9. Thus
10. In conclusion
PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY

A. ˈʃɒpkiːpə
ˌəʊpən ˈendɪd
ˌdʒɑːvəˈniːz
ˈbɜːθmɑːk
ˌæntiˈklɒkwaɪz
ˌkɒnfəˈmeɪʃn̩ |
ˌeɪtˈsaɪdɪd |
ˈfruːtkeɪk |
diˈfektɪv |
ˈru:f ˌtɪmbə |
125

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INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LETRAS

EDUARDO MALLEA (A-1369)

PROYECTO DE EDUCACIÓN ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

Tecnicatura Superior en la Traducción de

Lengua y Fonología Inglesa II

Primer año, segundo cuatrimestre

1. Lingüística. Coordinadora: Magíster Lina Mundet

® INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LETRAS

Tel.: 4541-6597/ 4544-8214

RECTORA: Magíster Lina Mundet

SECRETARIO ACADÉMICO: Lic. Gonzalo J. Lemme

PROSECRETARIA: Lic. Guadalupe Giménez Milán

QUEDAN RIGUROSAMENTE PROHIBIDAS, SIN LA

ICON DESCRIPTION AND USE

ESSENTIAL RESOURCES TO STUDY THIS SUBJECT

Online mono- https://dictionary.cambridge.org/

Students should be able to:

 Make effective oral presentations in a range of topics.

 Read, analyse, and summarise effectively information from different sources.

 Use spelling, punctuation, and grammar accurately to convey clear messages.

 Paraphrase ideas resorting to a wide range of vocabulary and advanced grammar

 Analyse the nuances of texts to deeply comprehend ideas.

 Apply the concepts of weak forms to their oral skills.

MODULE I: Exploring non-fiction texts

UNIT 1: Studying the media.

UNIT 2: Understanding multiple perspectives in the media.

MODULE II: The great richness of fiction texts.

UNIT 1: Analysing fiction texts: Plays.

A) Grammar: Negative inversion

UNIT 2: Analysing fiction texts: Short stories.

A) Grammar: Reported speech (general review, introductory and summarising verbs)

UNIT 1: Decoding gender-inclusive language.

A) Grammar: Conditionals (general review, variations)

UNIT 2: Examining the differences of World Englishes.

A) Grammar: conditionals (inversion)

A) GRAMMAR – GENERAL REVIEW OF PASSIVE VOICE & CAUSATIVE

By + the agent is used only if it contributes important information:

After modal verbs, passive infinitives are used:

Passive -ing forms are possible:

In spoken English, we can sometimes use get instead of have:

If you need further explanations on Passive Voice,

B. Follow the same instructions as for Exercise A.

1. Lexicographers are constantly adding new words to dictionaries.

D. Covert the following constructions using ·have/get something done”, starting as

If you have any doubts, contact your tutor.

4. Could you name the grammar structures in bold?

Childhood stimulation key to brain development, study finds

Twenty-year research project shows that most

Before writing the summary:

o highlight the topic sentence

2. Take notes on the following:

Writing your summary-Steps:

In the article, ____________ (author's last name) (year) argues (claims/reports/argues)

In an interview, __________________ (first name last name) stated that

Strong Argument: argue, assert, claim, contend, maintain, insist, posit

Neutral: state, note, report, explain, discuss, illustrate, observe

Counterargument: refute the claim, argue against

Suggestion: suggest, recommend

Indicating research results: show, demonstrate, illustrate, indicate, point out,