26/02/2018

Evaporation
Evaporation is a processes in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point
through the transfer of heat energy.
Department of Civil Engineering • Evaporation is a cooling process in that the latent heat of
University of Malaya vaporization (about 585 cal/g of evaporated water) must be
provided by the water body.
Most takes place over open water surfaces such as lakes and
oceans
Course Code :KAEA 2155/ KIA 2005
The rate of evaporation is dependent on:
Course Name :Water Resources • The vapor pressure at the water surface and air above
• Air and water temperatures
Chapter 3 :Evapotranspiration • Wind speed
• Atmospheric pressure
• Quality of water
• Size of the water body

Prepared By :AP. Dr. Lai Sai Hin

Effect of vapor pressure: Effect of temperature:

The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between Other factors remaining constant,
saturation vapor pressure at the water temperature, ew and actual • The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the
vapor pressure in the air, ea and is expressed as: water temperature
• Although there is a general increase in the evaporation rate
EL  C ew  ea  with increasing air temperature, a high correlation
Where between evaporation rate and air temperature does not
exist.
EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day)
Effect of wind:
C = a constant
• The rate of evaporation increases with the wind speed up
ew = saturation vapor pressure at the water temperature (mm of Hg) to a critical speed beyond which any further increase in the
ea = actual vapor pressure in the air (mm of Hg) wind speed has no influence on the evaporation rate
• This critical wind speed value is a function of the size of the
The relationship above is called Daltons’ law of evaporation. water surface.
• Evaporation continues till ew = ea • For large water bodies high speed turbulent winds are
• Condensation takes place when ea > ew needed to cause maximum rate of evaporation

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Effect of atmospheric pressure: Effect of size of the water body:

Other factors remaining constant, Other factors remaining constant,
• Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow
• A decrease in the barometric pressure, as in high altitudes,
increases evaporation ones.
• A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer
Effect of water quality: and release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer
• A solute dissolved in water, causes a reduction in and more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake
evaporation rate exposed to a similar situation
• The percent reduction in evaporation is approximately Importance of estimation of evaporation:
corresponds to the percentage increase in the specific • Estimation of evaporation is of utmost importance in many
gravity hydrologic problems associated with planning and
• For example, More salinity means less evaporation, under operation of reservoir and irrigation system
identical conditions evaporation from sea water is about 2- • In arid zones, the estimation of evaporation is particularly
3% less then from fresh water important to conserve the scarce water resources

Estimation of evaporation: 1. Evaporimeters:

The amount of water evaporated from a water surface can be Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which are exposed to
measured/estimated by the following methods: the atmosphere and the loss of water by evaporation are
measured in them at regular intervals.
1. Evaporimeters
Many types of evaporimeters are in use. A few commonly used
2. Empirical evaporation equations pans are:
3. Analytical methods i. Class A Evaporation Pan
ii. Colorado Sunken Pan
Meteorological data such as humidity, wind movement, air and
water temperature and precipitation are also noted along with iii. US Geological Survey Floating Pan
evaporation measurements.

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1(i). Class A Evaporation Pan: 1(i). Class A Evaporation Pan:

• It is a standard pan of 1210 mm (4’) • measure daily water loss by adding
Water level
diameter and 255 mm (10”) depth water to same level
used by the US Weather Bureau
• Evap = change in water level -
• The depth of water is maintained precipitation
between 18 cm and 20 cm
• Pan evap > lake evap why?
• The pan is normally made of
unpainted galvanized iron sheet or Material, shallow water, …
anti-corrosive metal is used where • Use a pan coefficient (usually 0.6-
corrosion is a problem 0.8)
• The pan is placed on a wooden • Lake evaporation = pan evaporation
platform of 15 cm height above the x pan coefficient
ground to allow free circulation of air
below the pan
• Evaporation measurements are made
by measuring the drop in depth of
water with a hook gauge in a stilling
well
Wooden support Hook gauge 1210 mm diameter
15 cm height & 255 mm height

Self Reading Self Reading

1(ii). Colorado Sunken Pan: 1(iii) US Geological Survey Floating Pan:
The Colorado Sunken Pan is 920 mm  This square pan (900 mm side and 450 mm depth) is supported
square and 460 mm deep, made up by drum floats in the middle of a raft (4.25 m x 4.87 m) is set
of galvanized iron sheet and buried afloat in a lake.
into the ground.
Advantages:  The water level in the pan is kept at the same level as the lake
leaving a rim of 75 mm.
• The chief advantage of the
sunken pan is that radiation and  Diagonal baffles provided in the pan reduce the surging in the
aerodynamic characteristics are pan due to wave action
similar to those of a lake
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to detect leaks  This pan simulate the characteristics of large body of water
• Extra care is needed to keep the Disadvantages:
surrounding area free from tall  High cost of installation and maintenance
grass, dust, etc.
 Difficult to perform measurements
• Expensive to install

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Self Reading
US Geological Survey Floating Pan: Pan Coefficient Cp:
Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs and
therefore have the following drawbacks
• They differ in heat-storing and heat-transfer from the sides
and bottom.
• The evaporation from a pan depends to a certain extent on
its size.
• The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind
action over the surface. Also it casts a shadow of variable
magnitude over the water surface.
• The heat-transfer characteristics of the pan material is
different from that of the reservoir

Example 1:
Pan Coefficient Cp:
Calculate the daily evaporation (ETpan) from a Class A Pan if the rainfall and depth of
• In view of these drawbacks, the evaporation observed from a pan water added to raise the water level back to its original depth are shown in the table
has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar below.
climatic & exposure conditions.
• Thus a coefficient is introduced known as the pan coefficient (Cp)
defined as: (a negative sign indicates that water is removed from the pan.)
If the pan coefficient is 0.85, what is the potential evaporation? A pond close by has a
Cp = Lake evaporation / Pan evaporation surface area of 5 ha, what is the total volume of water evaporated (in m3) from this
pond during this seven days?
• Values used for different pans are shown in table below
Solution:
Types of pan Average value Range Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rain (mm) 0 1.5 1.1 1.2 0.5 0 12.4
Class A Pan 0.70 0.60-0.80 Water Added (mm) 6.2 2.7 4.5 5.6 4.5 4.9 -10.3 Total =
Colorado Sunken Pan 0.78 0.75-0.86 Water evaporated (mm) 6.2 4.2 5.6 6.8 5.0 4.9 2.1 34.8 mm

USGS Floating Pan 0.80 0.70-0.82 Ep = Cp x E = 0.85 x 34.8 = 29.58 mm

= 29.58/7 day = 4.2257 mm/day
Water evaporated = 4.2257 x 10-3 x 7 x 50000 = 1479 m3

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2. Empirical evaporation equations 2. Empirical evaporation equations

a. Meyer’s formula: b. Rohwer’s formula:

 u  EL  0.7711.465  0.000732 pa 0.44  0.0733 u0 (ew  ea )

EL  K M (ew  ea )1  9 
 16 
Where Where
Measure ??
EL = lake evaporation (in mm/day) EL = lake evaporation (in mm/day)
ew = saturated vapor pressure at water-surface temperature (in mm ew = saturated vapor pressure at water-surface temperature (in mm
of Hg) of Hg)
ea = actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height (in ea = actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height (in
mm of Hg) subjective mm of Hg)
KM = Coefficient accounting for various other factors with a value of pa = mean barometric reading (in mm of Hg)
0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small, shallow waters u0 = mean wind velocity at about ground level which can be taken to
u9 = monthly mean wind velocity at about 9 m above ground (in be the velocity at 0.6 m above the ground (in km/h)
km/h)
Why, how if don’t have
wind speed at 9m?

Note: Example 2:
• In using the empirical equations, the saturated vapor pressure at the A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following average
water surface temperature (ew) can be obtained from the equation values of parameters during a week: water temperature = 20oC, relative
below. Where, t is the temperature in oC humidity 40%, wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground = 16 km/h. Estimate
the average daily evaporation from the lake and the volume of water
 17.27t 
ew  4.584 exp   mm of Hg evaporated from the lake during that one week.
 237.3  t  Solution:
 17.27t  uh  C h1/ 7
• Often the wind velocity data would be available at an elevation ew  4.584 exp  
 237.3  t  Evaporated volume
other than that needed in the particular equation. However it is u9  u1 (9)1/ 7  16.0(9)1/ 7 in 7 days
 17 .27  20 
known than in the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of  4.584 exp    8.97
500 m above ground level, the wind velocity can be assumed to  237.3  20  21 .9 km/h  7  250  104
1000
follow the 1/7 power law  17.54 mm of Hg By Meyers’ formula:
 u   157,000 m3
EL  K M (ew  ea )1  9 
uh  C h1/ 7 ea
 0.4 (Relativehumidity)  16 
ew
 21.9 
Where, uh = wind velocity at a height h above the ground and C = a
ea  0.4  ew  0.4 17.54  0.3617.54  7.021  
constant. This equation can be used to determine the velocity at any  16 
 7.02 mm of Hg
desired height  8.97 mm/day

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3a. Water-budget method

3. Analytical methods for evaporation estimations Thus considering the daily average values for a lake, the continuity equation is
Analytical methods for the determination of lake evaporation written as:
can be broadly classified into three categories: 
EL  P  Vis  Vos   Vig  Vog  TL   S
a. Water-budget method Chapter 1 Where, EL = daily lake evaporation
P = daily precipitation
b. Energy-balance method Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake
c. Mass-transfer method Vig = daily groundwater inflow
Vos = daily surface outflow from the lake
Vog = daily seepage outflow
3a. Water-budget method S = increase in lake storage in a day
TL = daily transpiration loss
 The water budget method is the simplest of the
three analytical methods and is also least reliable • In the above equation all quantities are in units of volume (m 3) or depth (mm)
over a reference area
 It involves writing the hydrological continuity
• P, Vis, Vos, and S can be measured. However, it is not possible to measure Vig,
equation for the lake and determining the Vog and TL and therefore these quantities can only be estimated. Transpiration
evaporation from a knowledge or estimate of other losses can be considered to be insignificant in some reservoirs.
variables • In view of the various uncertainties in the estimated values and the possibilities
of errors in measured variables , the water-budget method cannot be expected
to give very accurate results.

3b. Energy-budget method

3b. Energy-balance method Considering the water body shown in the Figure, the energy balance to the
 The energy-budget method is an application of the law of evaporating surface in a period of one day can be written as:
conservation of energy H n  H a  H e  H g  H s  Hi …………(a)
 The energy available for evaporation is determined by Where,
considering the incoming energy, outgoing energy and energy Hn = net heat energy received by the water
surface = Hc(1r)Hb
stored in the water body over a known time interval. Hc(1r) = incoming solar radiation into a surface
 Estimation of evaporation in a lake by the energy balance of reflection coefficient (albedo) r
Hb = back radiation (long wave) from water
method has been found to give satisfactory results with errors body
of the order of 5% when applied to periods less than a week Ha = sensible heat transfer from water
surface to air
He = heat energy used up in evaporation
= r.L.EL where, r = density of water, L=
latent heat of evaporation, EL =
Evaporation in mm
Hg = heat flux into the ground
H s = heat stored in water body
Hi = net heat conducted out of the system
by water flow (advected energy)

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3b. Energy-budget method 3b. Energy-budget method

 All the energy terms are in calories/mm2/day
 From equation (a) and (b) EL can be evaluated as:
 If the time periods are short, the terms Hs and Hi can be neglected as
negligibly small H n  H g  H s  Hi
 All the terms except Ha can either be measure or evaluated indirectly EL  …………(c)
 The sensible heat term Ha which cannot be readily measured is estimated rL1  b 
using Bowen’s ratio b given as
Ha T T
 6.1104  pa w a …………(b) 3c. Mass-transfer method
b
rLEL ew  ea  Mass-transfer method is based on theories of turbulent mass transfer
in boundary layers to calculate the mass water vapor transfer from the
Where,
surface to the surrounding atmosphere.
Ha = sensible heat transfer from water surface to air
r = density of water
The input of energy required by a
L = latent heat of evaporation change of state from liquid to vapor
EL = evaporation in mm
pa = mean barometric reading (in mm of Hg)
ew = saturated vapor pressure (in mm of Hg)
ea = actual vapor pressure of air (in mm of Hg)
Tw = temperature of water surface in oC
Ta = temperature of air oC

Joke of the day Joke of the day

Jim and Mary were both patients in a Mental Hospital. One day Three professors were driving down the highway at a very slow
while they were walking past the hospital swimming pool, Jim speed. A policeman pulled them over and explained that driving so
suddenly jumped into the deep end. He sank to the bottom and slowly on the highway could be hazardous.
stayed there. Mary promptly jumped in to save him. She swam to The driver pointed out the sign that read "20." He explained that he
the bottom and pulled Jim out.
was going 20 mph because of the sign. The policeman pointed out
When the medical director became aware of Mary's heroic act he that the sign indicated they were driving on Highway 20.
immediately ordered her to be discharged from the hospital as he
Somewhat embarrassed the professor apologized and promised to
now considered her to be mentally stable. He said,
be more observant.
"Mary, I have good news and bad news. The good news is you're
being discharged because since you were able to jump in and save As the policeman turn to walk back to his car, he noticed the other
the life of another patient, I think you've regained your senses. two professors on the floor ...looking scared to death! He asked the
The bad news is Jim, hung himself with his bathrobe belt in the driver, "What's wrong with them?“
bathroom. I am so sorry, but he's dead." The driver replied,
Mary replied, "He didn't hang himself, I put him there to dry." "We just turned off Highway 205."

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Transpiration
Transpiration
 Transpiration (Evaporation from plants ) is the process by which water
leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water
vapor
 The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through
the leaves, Water vapor escapes when stomata open for photosynthesis.
 Transpiration is essentially confined to daylight hours and the rate of
transpiration depends upon the growth periods of the plant.
 Evaporation, on the other hand, continues all through the day and
night although the rates are different
Important factors affecting transpiration are
 Atmospheric vapor pressure • density and size of vegetation
 Temperature • soil moisture,
 Wind • etc
 Light intensity &
 Characteristics of plant (such as root and leaf system)

Evapotranspiration
• While transpiration takes place, the land area in which plant stand also
lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies.
• In hydrology and irrigation practice, it is found that evaporation and
transpiration processes can be considered advantageously under one
head as evapotranspiration
 If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering area, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
 The real evapotranspiration occuring in a specific situation is
called Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)
 Field Capacity is the maximum quantity of water that the soil can
retain against the force of gravity. Any higher moisture input to a
soil at field capacity simply drains away.
Evapotranspiration

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Measurement of evapotranspiration
 Permanent Wilting Point is the moisture content of a soil at The measurement of evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can
which the moisture is no longer available in sufficient be carried out in Lysimeters:
quantity to sustain the plants. • A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil
and installed in a field of growing plants.
 At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture,
• The plants grow in the lysimeter are the same as in the
it is so held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are surrounding field.
not able to extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the
• Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water
plants and consequently the plant wilt required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank
 The difference between field capacity and permanent measured either volumetrically or gravimetrically through an
arrangement made in the lysimeter.
wilting point is called Available Moisture, the moisture
• Lysimeters are designed to actually reproduce the soil conditions,
available for plant growth moisture contents, type and size of the vegetation of the
 The field capacity and permanent wilting point are surrounding area
dependent upon the soil characteristics • Either prevent seepage or collect and measure
• They are so placed (buried) that the soil is at the same level inside
and outside the container
• Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive

PET equations

• Penman- Monteith (based on radiation balance)

• Blaney-Criddle formula
• Thornthwaite (based on temperature)
• Priestly-Taylor (based on radiation balance)
• Hamon, Malstrom (based on T and saturated vapor
pressure)
• Jensen-Haise (developed for dry, intermountain
west)

Lysimeter

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Variables used in common Evapotranspiration equations

ET models Penman’s Equation:
Penman’s equation is based on sound theoretical reasoning and is
obtained by a combination of the energy-balance and mass-
transfer approach. Penman’s equation is expressed as:
Model T RH or e Lat Elev Rad. Wind AH n  Ea
PET  …………(d)
Penman x x x x x A
Priestly-Taylor x x
Where,
Jensen-Haise x x x PET = daily potential evapotranspiration (in mm/day)
Blainey-Criddle x x A = slope of the saturation vapor pressure versus temperature
Thornthwaite x curve at the mean air temperature (mm of Hg/oC) Table 1.
Hn = net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day (mm/day)
Ea = parameter including wind velocity and saturation defecit
 = psychrometric constant = 0.49 (mm of Hg/oC)

The net radiation Hn is estimated as:

The parameter Ea is estimated as:

H n  H a 1  r  a  b   Ta4 0.56  0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 

 n  n ………(e)  u 
 N  N Ea  0.351  2 ew  ea  …………(f)
 160 
Where,
Ha = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal surface
Where
expressed in mm of evaporated water/day. It is a function of the latitude (f)
and period of the year as indicated in Table 2 ew = saturated vapor pressure at mean air temperature (in mm of Hg)
a = a constant depending upon the latitude (f) and is given by a = 0.29Cosf ea = actual vapor pressure of air (in mm of Hg)
b = a constant with average value of 0.52
u2 = wind velocity at 2 m above ground (in km/h)
n = actual duration of bright sunshine (in hours)
N = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (it is a function of latitude as
indicated in Table 3)
r = reflection coefficient/ albedo. Usual range of values of r for different surface
conditions are given in Table 4
 = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 109 mm/day
ea = actual mean vapor pressure in the air (in mm of Hg)
Ta = mean air temperature in degree Kelvin = 273+? oC

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AH n  Ea
H n  H a 1  r  a  b   Ta4 0.56  0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 
PET   n  n
Example 3: Solution: A  N  N
Calculate the potential evapotranspiration for an area in the month  u 
Ea  0.351  2 ew  ea  From Table 3 by linear interpolation:
of November by Penman’s formula. The following data are  160  11.2  10.6
available: From Table 1 by linear interpolation: N  10.6  30  28.07 
30  20
1.05  0.95  10.716 hours
Latitude : 28o4’N A  1.05  (20.0  19.0)  1 mm/ oC or
20.0  17.5 n/N  9 / 10.716  0.840
Elevation : 230 m (above sea level) 1.05  0.95
 0.95  (19.0  17.5)  1 mm/ oC
Mean monthly temperature : 19oC 20.0  17.5 From given data:
ea
Mean relative humidity : 75%  0.75
 17.27t  ew
ew  4.584 exp  
Mean observed sunshine : 9h  237.3  t 
ea  0.75ew  0.75  16.5  12.38 mm of Hg
hours  17.27 19 
 4.584 exp 
 237.3  19 
 a  0.29Cosf  0.29Cos 28.07   0.2559
Wind velocity at 2 m height : 85 km/h
 16.5 mm of Hg b  0.52
Nature of surface cover : Close ground green crop (r =
0.25)   2.01 109 mm/day
From Table 2 by linear interpolation:
Ta  273  19  292 K
28 4'  28  4 / 60  28.07
11.2  9.1 Ta  14.613
H a  9.1  (30  28.07)
30  20 r  albedo for close ground green crop
 9.506 mm of water/day is taken as 0.25

Solution: Table 1: Saturation vapor pressure of water

Temperature Saturation vapor pressure ew A
From Eqn. (e) :
(oC) (mm of Hg) (mm/oC)
H n  H a 1  r  a  b   Ta4 0.56  0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 
 n  n 0 4.58 0.30
 N  N 5.0 6.54 0.45

 9.506  1  0.25  0.2559  0.52  0.84 7.5 7.78 0.54

10.0 9.21 0.60
 14.613  0.56  0.092 12.38  0.10  0.9  0.84 12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
 4.936  2.946
17.5 15.00 0.95
 1.990 mm of water/day 20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
From Eqn. (f) : From Eqn. (d) and noting that  25.0 23.76 1.40
=0.49 27.5 27.54 1.61
 u  AH n  Ea
Ea  0.351  2 ew  ea  PET  30.0 31.82 1.85
 160  A 32.5 36.68 2.07
 85 
 0.35  1    16.50  12.38 
1  1.990  2.208  0.49 35.0 42.81 2.35

1  0.49
37.5 48.36 2.62
 160  40.0 55.32 2.95
 2.208 mm/day  2.06 mm/day 45.0 71.20 3.66

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Table 2: Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere, Ha (in mm of evaporated Table 3: Mean monthly possible values of sunshine hours, N (hours) in north latitude
water/day)

North Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec North Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 14.5 15.0 15.2 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.5 14.2 14.9 15.0 14.6 14.3 0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
10 12.8 13.9 14.8 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.8 15.0 14.9 14.1 13.1 12.4 10 11.8 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
20 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.2 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.3 14.4 12.9 11.2 10.3 20 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
30 8.5 10.5 12.7 14.8 16.0 16.5 16.2 15.3 13.5 11.3 9.1 7.9 30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
40 6.0 8.3 11.0 13.9 15.9 16.7 16.3 14.8 12.2 9.3 6.7 5.4 40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
50 3.6 5.9 9.1 12.7 15.4 16.7 16.1 13.9 10.5 7.1 4.3 3.0 50 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1

Table 4: Usual range of reflection coefficient, r values

Surface Range of r values
Close ground green crops 0.150.25
Bare lands 0.050.45
Water surface 0.05
Snow 0.450.95

Empirical formulae for estimating PET

Table 5: Monthly daytime hours percentages Ph (hours) in north latitude for use in Blaney-
Blaney-Criddle formula: criddle formula
• This is purely an empirical formula based on data from arid western North Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
United States. This formula assumes that the PET is related to hours of Lat.
sunshine and temperature, which are taken as measures of solar 0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
radiation at an area.
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
• This formula is largely used by irrigation engineers to calculate the water
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
requirement of crops, which is taken as the difference between PET and
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
effective precipitation
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
• The equation is expressed as:
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
ET  2.54 K F 35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86

F   Ph T f / 100
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52

Where,
ET = PET in a crop season (in cm)
Ph = monthly percentage of annual day-time hours, depends on the latitude of the
place (Table 5)
K = an empirical coefficient depends on the type of the crop (Table 6)
F = sum of monthly consumptive use factor for the period
Tf = mean monthly temperature (in oF = 32+1.8T)

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Example 4:
Table 6: Values of K for selected crops for use in Blaney-Criddle formula
Estimate the PET of an area for the season November to February in which
Crop. Value of K Range of monthly values wheat is grown. The area is at a latitude of 30oN with mean monthly temperature
Rice 1.10 0.851.30 as below. Use the Blaney-Criddele formula
Wheat 0.65 0.500.75 Month Nov Dec Jan Feb
Maize 0.65 0.500.80 Temperature (oC) 16.5 13.0 11.0 14.5
Sugarcane 0.90 0.751.00
Cotton 0.65 0.500.90 Solution:
Potatoes 0.70 0.650.75 The temperature are converted to Fahrenheit and corresponding values of Ph for
30oN is read from Table 5. From Table 6 for wheat K = 0.65. The calculation are
Natural vegetation
shown in the table below.
Very dense 1.30
Dense 1.20 Month Tf Ph PhTf/100
Medium 1.00 Nov 61.7 7.19 4.44
Light 0.80
Dec 55.4 7.15 3.96
Jan 51.8 7.30 3.78 ET  2.54 K F
Feb 58.1 7.03 4.08  2.54  0.65  16.26
SPhTf/100 = 16.26  26.85 mm

Empirical formulae for estimating PET

Table 7: Adjustment factor La for use in Thornthwaite formula
Thornthwaite formula:
This formula was developed for the data of eastern USA and use only the North Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
mean monthly temperature with an adjustment for the day-light. The Lat.
equation is expressed as: 0 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
a a
  N  10T  10 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
ET  1.6 La  10T  ET  1.6   15 0.97 0.91 1.03 1.04 1.11 1.08 1.12 1.08 1.02 1.01 0.95 0.97
360 I
 t 
 It  20 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
12
It   i where i  T / 5 
1.514
 25
30
0.93
0.90
0.89
0.87
1.03
1.03
1.06
1.08
1.15
1.18
1.14
1.17
1.17
1.20
1.12
1.14
1.02
1.03
0.99
0.98
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.88
1
a  6.75  107 It3  7.71 105 It2 2 40 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
 1.792  10 It  0.49239
Where, N = mean number of daylight hours in a particular month
ET = monthly PET (in cm),
 = number of days in the month
T = mean monthly air temperature (in oC)
La = adjustment for the number of hours of daylight and days in the month
related to the latitude of a place (Table 7)
It = the total of 12 monthly values of heat index
a = an empirical constant

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Assignment: Assignment:
1. Given a Reservoir with the following information: 2. Calculate the daily evaporation from a Class A Pan if the rainfall and depth of
water added to raise the water level back to its original depth are shown in the
Surface area of pond = 500 ha table below.
Rainfall = 5 mm/day
Ground water inflow = 0.2 m3/s Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ground water outflow = 0 m3/s Rain (mm) 1 0 0 0 4.5 0.5 0
Daily transpiration loss = 10 m3/hr Water Added (mm) 4.8 6.5 6.7 6.2 0.5 3.0 6.0
Change in water level = +40 mm
Estimate daily evaporation from the reservoir. If the pan coefficient is 0.75, what is the potential evaporation? A swimming
A1 = 30 m2 pool close by has a surface area of 500 m2, and assumed that the initial water
Vavg1 = 0.60 m/s depth in the pool is 1.2 m and no incoming and outgoing flow is allowed from
the swimming pool. What will the water level in the swimming pool that can be
expected after this seven days?

A3 = 50 m2
Vavg2 = 0.50 m/s

A2 = 20 m2
Vavg2 = 0.45 m/s

Thank You

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