Vermeulen - Introduction To English Literature (Student Version) - 123024

Module Companion Introduction to English Literature Student Version
Autor: Erik Vermeulen
SEBENTA
Introdução aos Estudos Literários de Inglês
Universidade Pedagógica
Beira
Departamento de Ciências de Linguagem, Comunicação e Artes -Curso de Inglês
2015
1
CONTENTS page number
General Introduction 4
0.1 The Concept “Literature” 4
0.2 Is literature important? Why do we Read it? 4
A. Student Activities 4
UNIT 1 THE AFRICAN ORAL TRADITION
1.1. The Oral Tradition and Education 5
B. Student Activities 6
1.2. General Classification of Oral Literature 6
C. Student Activities 6
1.3. The Art of Storytellers and their Audiences 7
D. Student Activities 8
1.4. Fables 8
‘The Lion and the Jackal’ 8
E. Student Activities 9
1.5. A Tale - ‘The Disobedient Daughter who Married a Skull’ 9
F. Student Activities 11
1.6. Riddles 11
G. Students Activities 12
1.7.1. Proverbs 12
H. Student Activities 13
1.7.2. Communalism or Individualism 13
I. Student Activities 14
UNIT 2 WRITTEN SHORT STORIES 15
2.1. Short Stories 15
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2.2. Defining Different Sub Genres of short Stories 15
J. Student Activities 15
2.3. Features of Short Stories 16
2.4. Openings - What makes a good ‘opening’? 17
K. Student Activities 17
L. Student Activities 19
2.5. What makes a good ‘closing’? 19
M. Student Activities 19
2.6. Plot Development and Suspense 20
N. Student Activities 20
2.7. The Five Stages or “Acts” of Plot. 22
O. Student Activities 23
2.8. Characterisation in Narrative Fiction 23
2.8.1. Direct Description 23
2.8.2. Indirect Description 23
P. Student activities 24
2.9. Setting 25
Q. Student Activities
25
2.10. Moral, Meaning or Theme 27
R. Student Activities 27
UNIT 3 DRAMA
3.1. Kinjeketile 28
S. Student Activities 31
APPENDIX 1 Mr James and his Daughter Sonia 33
APPENDIX2 ‘The Rain Came’ by Grace Ogot 34
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General Introduction
0.3 The Concept “Literature”
Mini-lecture
Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking,
"literature" is used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works
(e.g. scientific journals, textbooks, or even magazines, etc.).
However, in this course we understand “literature” as used in the following way: works of the
creative imagination of recognized artistic value, i.e. works of poetry, prose fiction, or drama. Prose
fiction can be sub-divided into short stories and novels. So, literature is an art form like painting,
sculpture and music and represents a people’s culture and traditions. It aims at being aesthetically
beautiful as regards content and form (language). In Unit 1, we will explore a special form of
literature, from which all written literature originates, that is, oral literature, specifically oral
literature from Africa. In Unit 2 we learn about the typical features of written short stories and in
Unit 3 we take a closer look at how drama is a unique form of literature, which is, in fact, not very
different from the art of the ancient storytellers who were not just narrators but actors at the same
time.
0.4 Is literature important? Why do we Read it?
We read newspapers, scientific journals or emails, etc. for factual information or social contact and
communication purposes that we need in our jobs or to get on with our daily lives. But literature,
poems, stories and novels can enrich our minds at a much broader and deeper level. Some reasons
for reading literature could be, for pleasure, or to emerge in a world of fantasy, to imagine what
life could be like if we had a chance to change or be another person, for example, people living in
other countries or other cultures or even in previous centuries, or imagine what it is to be very rich
or very poor. We may imagine the predicaments of people involved in conflicts or tragedies or the
happy feelings of passion in love and romance; in other words what goes on in the “hearts” of
people.
A. Student Activities
Answer individually:
i. Would or do you ever read literature?
ii. Why would/do you ever read poetry, or stories and novels?
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UNIT 1 THE AFRICAN ORAL TRADITION
1.1. The Oral Tradition and Education
Mini-lecture
Since ancient times until colonial occupation, most African peoples south of the Sahara had
no script like the alphabet and did not write or read. Although written history existed for centuries
in West Africa, most writing was in Arabic, and the majority of people did not read or write in
Arabic. An exception was Ethiopia that has had a long written history in the language Amharic. So
Africans south of the Sahara did not keep written records of their history and literature, etc. and
had to pass it from one generation to another, by word of mouth. Religious beliefs, history, stories,
folktales, in fact all their wisdom, were learnt and remembered by traditional story tellers.
Africans have been primarily vocal people throughout their history. Language is regarded
as a powerful force. Although there are many ethnic languages that coexist in Africa, (researchers
say there may be as many as 1000), African stories and folklore were communicated across
different regions. Oral tradition relies on the human voice to communicate varied messages. The
human voice is the key element in Oral tradition. Voice was the vehicle in which knowledge was
passed on from one generation to another. Voice unified a family, clan, or community.
Enforcement of customs depended on voice. When a person died, his or her voice was no longer to
be heard, it was as if a whole library had been destroyed. Voice was important.
African peoples depended upon oral tradition to teach the listeners important traditional
values and morals pertaining to how to live. Oral tradition delivers explanations to the mysteries of
the universe and the meaning of life on earth. In African religion, it is the guiding principle in which
to make sense of the world. The transmission of wisdom to children is a community
responsibility and children and youngsters were told tales, riddles and sang songs to learn how to
behave in an acceptable way. Storytelling provides entertainment, develops the imagination, and
teaches important lessons about everyday life. Many tales often have a lesson or a value, giving
people a sense of place and purpose and guide them socially and morally.
Parents, grandparents, and relatives take part in the process of passing down the
knowledge of culture and history. Within families, it is the fathers who bring up the sons and the
mothers who bring up the daughters. The grandparents are also responsible in oral teaching. It
has been said that the grandmother is the most competent teacher of oral transmission of
knowledge. Her human experience makes her a living library. Storytelling is an important shared
event with people sitting together, listening to tales and fables or even participating in accounts of
past deeds, beliefs, taboos, and myths.
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The elderly of the village had the important responsibility to educate the children, passing
on information from one generation to the next. Any elderly person can intervene in the
transmission of tradition.
In West Africa storytellers are called griots. The Griot is the keeper of facts and important
events of his time. It is his responsibility to pass this knowledge on to future generations, as well
as that of past times passed down to him by his ancestors. They perform epics that can be hours
or even days long that relate history and genealogy, battles and political uprisings of a community.
They use riddles, proverbs and myths to educate and entertain. Griots are also advisors,
ambassadors, negotiators, mediators and advocates of the king to his allies and noble families.
B. Student Activities
In pairs, find answers to the following questions:
i. How were Africans south of the Sahara able to know their history and teach it to younger
generations before the era of colonialism began?
ii. How were these cultures very different from those in Europe?
iii. What was the significance of storytelling in these cultures?
1.2. General Classification of Oral Literature
Mini-lecture
The oral tradition can be categorised in genres. It is important to realise that these genres
were not strictly separated and tales often had songs in them, while epic poetry could be chanted
or sung, along with musical accompaniment on a certain instrument. Therefore, one could say that
storytellers were also folk musicians as well as historians, tradition-bearers spiritual and moral
teachers, or healers, for which the stories and music were vehicles. Still, we can distinguish the
following main oral categories (genres):
1. Oral narratives
a. Tales
b. Fables
c. Myths
2. History
a. Legends
b. Praise poems
c. Genealogies
3. Witticisms
a. Proverbs
b. Riddles
4. Song and Dance
a. Songs
b. Dance and ritual
It is also important to realise that there was no strict division between fiction and non-fiction.
Historical narratives contained some mythical elements and fact existed beside fiction.
C. Student Activities
i. Storytellers had a special status in pre-colonial days and played many different roles in
their communities. What roles?
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ii. Find and write down the definitions of the different genres and sub-genres.
1.3. The Art of Storytellers and their Audiences
Mini-lecture
A storyteller’s tools are not just words, but also intonation, rhyme and rhythm, imitation of
voices or sounds, gestures, singing, facial expressions, body movements and acting to make
stories memorable and interesting.

Sometimes masks and costumes are used to enhance a performance. Oral storytelling emphasizes
repetition of the language and rhythm, which are two of its most important characteristics.
Storytellers often repeat words, phrases, refrains, sounds, whole lines and even stanzas. The use
of repetition helps the audience remember the chorus and allows them to join in with the
storyteller. A storyteller pays close attention to the beat and how the words sound. Using short
phrases makes the stories easier to understand and recall from memory.
In West Africa, Griots (pronounced “gree-OH”) have been practicing their craft for
hundreds of years. In these cultures, unlike in Southern Africa, storytelling arts are
professionalized. They have mastered many complex verbal, musical, and memory skills after years
of specialized training. They are rewarded for their service to individuals and the community. Their
fee varies and ranges from a few coins or a blanket to more substantial payments depending on
the audience and the skill and popularity of the storyteller.
Gifted or well-known storytellers may repeat the story with the same words and same
expressions in each performance as they travel. But the same gifted African oral storyteller does
not simply memorize and repeat the same way each time. Storytellers will alternate between set
text and improvisation. Within open-ended narrative and poetic formulas, he creates, embellishes,
adapts to the occasion, and plays to the need and interests of particular audiences. They also add
new material to an old story to make it more interesting or meaningful to different audiences.
Orators, like the culture that produce them, constantly evolve and change across time, culture,
place and regional style, performer, and audience for a variety of reasons. For example, if a story
loses its relevance because of changing values and social conditions, it is discarded or modified,
and new stories are born.
Oral African storytelling is essentially a communal participatory experience. Everyone in
most traditional African societies participates in formal and informal storytelling as interactive oral
performance—such participation is an essential part of traditional African communal life, and basic
training in a particular culture’s oral arts and skills is an essential part of children’s traditional
indigenous education on their way to initiation into full humanness.”
The storyteller manipulated and exploited the audience with her words who were emotionally
and psychologically drawn into the story by the storyteller’s talents not just using verbal as well as
nonverbal modes such as body movements, gestures and voice modulation or intonation. In oral
performances characters were given flesh and bones not by descriptions of them, but by the
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storyteller herself acting out her own characters, mimicking their movements, gestures and voices.
The audience would often react verbally occasionally complementing the storyteller’s performance,
thus giving the story a dramatic quality acted out by the storyteller backed up by members of the
audience reacting or singing the songs accompanying the stories. Their reactions would also show
whether they judged the storyteller’s performance as great, mediocre or even bad and audience
members often feel free to interrupt less talented or respected secular performers to suggest
improvements or voice criticisms.” Aesthetic standards of what constitutes "good art" in a
particular society are learned and culturally-determined. Thus, Western learned concepts of what
constitutes a good story or great music can differ significantly from the aesthetic ideals of the
African cultures.
D. Student Activities
In pairs find answers to the following questions:
i. Storytelling implied much more than just the use of words or language. What other
techniques formed part of the storyteller’s performance?
ii. Why did storytellers use a lot of repetition?
iii. What was/is the great advantage that storytellers have in their relation with an audience
when compared to authors of written narratives?
iv. Can you also think of disadvantages that storytellers have in comparison with writers?
v. What was the ‘mechanism’ by which storytellers and their performances were evaluated?
1.4. Fables
Mini-lecture
African Fables often feature an animal hero. The standard definition of fable is a usually short
allegorical narrative making an edifying, moral or cautionary point and usually employing animals
as characters that speak and act like humans. In Africa, fables of a trickster-hero (in the form of a
spider, tortoise, rabbit, human, or god) are most popular. They are full of wisdom and generally
convey a moral or teach a lesson. Often these lessons are ones of resourcefulness, independence,
and illustrate the rewards of courage.
Secular tricksters like Tortoise often project the kinds of evil forces and bad behaviours against
which the human community must contend to survive and which must be kept in check. This goal
is rehearsed and achieved in communal performances of African proverbs and folktales, wherein
the trickster’s bad anti-social behaviours are usually punished, and the evil forces unleashed are
controlled or defeated. Thus, for example, recounting Tortoise stories in African communities can
function to reaffirm the priority and wisdom of the community, reassure its members that balance
and harmony can and should be restored, and that the community will survive and prevail.
Following is an example of a fable
‘The Lion and the Jackal’
Shortly after the lion and the jackal set off hunting together, the lion killed a fine fat gazelle. 'Run
back to my house while I look for more game,' said the lion 'and tell my children to come and carry
home the meat.' But the jackal ran quickly to his own house and called his own children who soon
carried away all the meat. The lion could find no more game, so he stopped hunting and went
home.
'Is that not a fine gazelle I killed?' he boasted to wife the lioness. She looked puzzled.
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'We see no gazelle,' she growled.
'What? Did not the jackal come and tell the children to carry home the meat?' he asked.
'He did not, and we are starving,' was the reply. The lion was furious. He strode to the jackal's
home, which was high up on a rocky ledge, and could only be reached by a rope.
In a little while, the jackal came down to drink after his large meal, and out jumped the lion. The
jackal ran with all his might and just managed to dodge down a small hole, but not before the lion
grabbed him by his tail.
'Now I've got you!' he roared.
'What do you mean?' returned the jackal, 'That is not my tail you are pulling, it is just an old root.
If you don’t believe me, hit it with a stone and see if it bleeds.’
The lion thought this would be wise and went look for stones, which, however, were not plentiful.
When he returned the jackal was long gone. On finding that he had been tricked, the lion was
furious, and went rampaging off to the jackal's rocky stronghold. ‘Ho there, little jackal,' he
roared. The jackal peeped over the edge. He was safe, so he was cheeky.
'Who are you?' he shouted back. 'What is your name? Whose son are you? Who was your father?
Where are you from? Where are you going? Who do you want? Why?'
The lion replied, 'I have merely come to see you. Just let down the rope so I can come up.' The
little jackal let down a rope of mouse skins, and when the lion climbed a good way up, it broke and
he fell. The jackal laughed, and the poor lion went home to nurse a very sore head.
E. Student Activities
In pairs answer the following questions:

i. Find the meanings of the underlined words.
ii. In what way do/did many fables have a moral function in the communities?
iii. What do you think the ‘moral’ of the fable above is and explain why you think so?
iv. Tell your colleagues a fable that you remember and allow them to give their opinions about
the message of your fable.
v. A lot of fables have titles such as: “How the leopard got its Spots”. What are these tales or
fables told for do you think? Can you think of other similar titles?
1.5. A Tale - ‘The Disobedient Daughter who Married a Skull’
EFFIONG Edem was a native of Cobham Town. He had a very fine daughter, whose name was
Afiong. All the young men in the country wanted to marry her on account of her beauty; but she
refused all offers of marriage in spite of repeated appeals from her parents, as she was very vain,
and said she would only marry the best-looking man in the country, who would have to be young
and strong, and capable of loving her properly. Most of the men her parents wanted her to marry,
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although they were rich, were old men and ugly, so the girl continued to disobey her parents, at
which they were very sad.
The skull, who lived in the spirit land, heard of the beauty of this Calabar virgin, and
thought he would like to possess her; so he went about amongst his friends and borrowed
different parts of the body from them, all of the best. From one he got a good head, another lent
him a body, a third gave him strong arms, and a fourth lent him a fine pair of legs. At last he was
complete, and was a very perfect specimen of manhood. He then left the spirit land and went to
Cobham market, where he saw Afiong, and admired her very much.
About this time Afiong heard that a very fine man had been seen in the market, who was
better-looking than any of the natives. She therefore went to the market at once, and directly she
saw the Skull in his borrowed beauty, she fell in love with him, and invited him to her house. The
Skull was delighted, and went home with her, and on his arrival was introduced by the girl to her
parents, and immediately asked their consent to marry their daughter. At first they refused, as
they did not wish her to marry a stranger, but at last they agreed.
He lived with Afiong for two days in her parents' house, and then said he wished to take
his wife back to his country, which was far off. To this the girl readily agreed, as he was such a
fine man, but her parents tried to persuade her not to go. However, being very headstrong, she
made up her mind to go, and they started off together. After they had been gone a few days the
father consulted his Ju Ju man, who by casting lots very soon discovered that his daughter's
husband belonged to the spirit land, and that she would surely be killed. They therefore all
mourned her as dead.
After walking for several days, Afiong and the Skull crossed the border between the spirit
land and the human country. Directly they set foot in the spirit land, first of all one man came to
the Skull and demanded his legs, then another his head, and the next his body, and so on, until in
a few minutes the skull was left by itself in all its natural ugliness. At this the girl was very
frightened, and wanted to return home, but the skull would not allow this, and ordered her to go
with him. When they arrived at the skull's house they found his mother, who was a very old
woman quite incapable of doing any work, who could only creep about. Afiong tried her best to
help her, and cooked her food, and brought water and firewood for the old woman. The old
creature was very grateful for these attentions, and soon became quite fond of Afiong.
One day, the old woman told Afiong that she was very sorry for her, but all the people in
the spirit land were cannibals, and when they heard there was a human being in their country,
they would come down and kill her and eat her. The skull's mother then hid Afiong, and as she had
looked after her so well, she promised she would send her back to her country as soon as possible,
providing that she promised for the future to obey her parents. This Afiong readily agreed to do.
Then the old woman sent for the spider, who was a very clever hairdresser, and made him
dress Afiong's hair in the latest fashion. She also presented her with anklets and other things on
account of her kindness. She then made a Ju Ju and called the winds to come and convey Afiong
to her home. At first a violent tornado came, with thunder, lightning and rain, but the skull's
mother sent him away as unsuitable. The next wind to come was a gentle breeze, so she told the
breeze to carry Afiong to her mother's house, and said good-bye to her. Very soon afterwards the
breeze deposited Afiong outside her home, and left her there.
When the parents saw their daughter they were very glad, as they had for some months
given her up as lost. The father spread soft animals' skins on the ground from where his daughter
was standing all the way to the house, so that her feet should not be soiled. Afiong then walked to
the house and her father called all the young girls who belonged to Afiong's company to come and
dance, and the feasting and dancing was kept up for eight days and nights.
When the rejoicing was over, the father reported what had happened to the head chief of
the town. The chief then passed a law that parents should never allow their daughters to marry
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strangers who came from a far country. Then the father told his daughter to marry a friend of his,
and she willingly consented, and lived with him for many years, and had many children.
From:
[Elphinstone Dayrell, (2010) Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria West Africa, Kessinger
Publishing, “The disobedient Daughter who Married a Skull”]
F. Student Activities
i. Chain-story telling: one student begins with telling the opening, after which another takes
over, followed by another and so on until the whole story has been retold. When
errors are made others may correct.
ii. Discuss in small groups what you think were some of the values and morals of pre-colonial
African communities by analyzing the story about Afiong.
1.6. Riddles
Mini-lecture
Riddles are not just a form of entertainment; they play(ed) an important role in the social
and cultural education of children. Riddles are also useful tools in children's cognitive development.
They teach rules of behaviour, explain and interpret natural phenomenon, and are a socially
sanctioned avenue for questioning social taboos and restricted subjects. In the educational role,
riddles provide a safe avenue for transmitting restricted information as well as intimate and vital
knowledge. Among the Chagga, for example, elders explain that riddles are for entertainment, but
they also point out that an adept at riddling acquires social respect and is considered a master in
manipulating social knowledge.”
In most African societies, riddles are a form of art. They are simple and elegant ways to
communicate a lot of meaning in few words. Riddles play an important role in the traditions of
African speech and conversation. Like proverbs, African riddles are brief and based on
observations of nature. However, with riddles, the listener is expected to guess the answer to a
question or the meaning of a statement. Riddles make an important contribution to children’s full
participation in the social, cultural, political, and economic life of African communities, especially by
fostering critical thinking and transmitting indigenous knowledge. Riddles are used mainly for
entertainment and stimulating thinking.
A good assessment of how much wisdom a child has acquired is if he knows that even a non-
interrogative riddle demands an answer. Some examples from Yoruba and Hausa (Nigeria) are:
1. Gwam ihe buru nmeri n’ala laa n’elu: Tell me an object that fetches water from the
soil to the sky. Answer: Aki bekee: Coconut.
2. Gwam ihe kuru nwata ihe n’iru nne ya: Tell me what makes a child to cry in the
presence of his/her mother Answer: Aguu: Hunger.
3. Gwam ihe chi umu laa n’elu: Tell me what carries children from the soil to the
space. Answer: Agbiridi: Pawpaw.
4. Taa ló mò,ó? Kí ló kan oba níkô? : Who can tell me what has the effrontery to
knock the king’s head? Answer: Esinsin: The fly.
5. Kí ló bó sódò tí kò ró tó? What falls into the river without producing any
noise? Answer: Egbon owu: Cotton wool.
Olatunji (1984) has indicated that metaphor which is a general property of Yoruba poetry, has a
higher incidence in riddles than any other poetic type. Hence, mastering riddles is doubly profitable.
Consider the following:
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Àgbà máárùn-ún sin Olu Ife lo si ogu: Five elders accompany the King of Ife to battle.
Olú Ifè rá: The King of Ife disappears.
Àwon àgbà máárùn-ún padà: All the five elders return.
The five elders are the five fingers with which food is eaten. The King of Ife is the morsel of food
which disappears into the mouth where the battle of chewing and swallowing is fought.
[From “Useful Dimensions of Education In The Nigerian Family Traditions” Handbook Of

African Educational Theories And Practices: A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum
Mary O. Esere, Joshua A. Omotosho And Adeyemi I. Idowu. p259-263
G. Students Activities
i. Try to answer the following riddles:
a. Yoruba of Nigeria Riddle:
Who has a house too small for guests?
b. Ga of Ghana Riddle:
What do you look at with one eye, but never with two?
c. Hausa of West Africa Riddle:

Why is a man like pepper?
d. Swahili of East Africa Riddle:

What things always chase each other but never overtake one another?
e. Massai of East Africa Riddle:

Who has more courage than a Massai warrior?
f. Congolese Riddle:
Who can whistle from another man’s mouth?
[http://kwanzaaguide.com/2010/07/african-riddles/ - 30 – 11 -2013]
Finally (from Yoruba):
g. What is the fuss about a donkey which when ridden,
still leaves one's feet dragging on the floor?
What one is travelling to Sokoto to look for is inside
the pocket of one's pair of trousers (sòkòtò).
He who is looking for gain (free of charge) is looking for loss/disaster.
[Handbook Of African Educational Theories And Practices: A Generative Teacher

Education Curriculum]
1.7.3. Proverbs
African proverbs are illustrations of vivid and fundamental truths and can convey wisdom, a
discovery of ideas, as well as life lessons
The following featuresmake proverbs an instrument for aiding recall of moral
lessons
 They are colourful, full of imagery and illustration. These enable the hearers to
visualise their messages, thus creating a life-lasting impact on their mind.
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 Proverb contents are real, practical and situationally appropriate, thus they create
no illusion on the mind of the audience.
 A proverb is usually short. This aids quick application to situations.
 A short proverb can encapsulate a long moral story.
 They reflect the customs, ideologies, beliefs, etc which Africans perpetrate from generation
to generation.
For example, an Igbo parent (Nigeria) encouraging his/her child to follow his footsteps would tell the
child.
1. Akukwo nnewu talu, ka nweya nata: The leaf that the she-goat has eaten will be
eaten by her kids.
2. Ezinkpolo nada ezinkpolo: From good seed falls good seed.
3. Nkpuka nnewu kpuru anaghi afa nwa ya nfa: The path taken by one’s parent does
not become narrower for his/her child.
[Handbook of African Educational Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher
Education Curriculum Chapter 18 – 261]
H. Student Activities
i. Explain in small groups:
• It takes a village to raise a child.
• When a king has good counsellors, his reign is peaceful.
• No matter how long the night, the day is sure to come.
• One falsehood spoils a thousand truths.
• Do not call the forest that shelters you a jungle.
• When you follow in the path of your father, you learn to walk
like him.
• It is best to bind up the finger before it is cut.
• The fool speaks, the wise man listens.
• Do not say the first thing that comes to your mind.
• A little rain each day will fill the rivers to overflowing.
• Cross the river in a crowd and the crocodile won’t eat you.
• Not to know is bad; not to wish to know is worse.
• Do not follow the path. Go where there is no path to begin a
trail.
[Teach Africa tm - World Affairs Council of Houston - www.wachouston.org

The Oral Traditions of Africa; 30 – 11 -2013]
 We never inherit a living man's wife

 A hardworking man seldom comes to disgrace
 However long it may take, a stammerer will completely sound the word “father” ultimately
[Handbook of African Educational Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher

Education Curriculum Chapter 18 – 261]
1.7.4. Communalism or Individualism

As we are now living in “modern” post colonial times we have to decide what aspects to preserve of
the older African traditions (if any) and what to accept from the so-called western educational values
and how to combine the good aspects of both cultures to create a better society.
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An article by Godfrey B. Tangwa “Ethics In African Education” in Handbook of African Educational

Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum (pp 93 – 104) explains what he
thinks were the good aspects of African communal, pre-colonial cultures, i.e. ‘the extended
family/communal spirit, respect/care for the elderly, love of children and parenthood, collective
responsibility for the upbringing of the young, modesty, love of harmony, mistrust of dangerous
knowledge, etc..
From an article by Amina A. Abubakar in Handbook of African Educational Theories and Practices:
A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum (69 – 75), we learn the following:
By looking at the oral traditions of African peoples, such as proverbs, we may get a good idea of
some of the philosophical aspects of the African educational systems. These identified ideas can
be incorporated into the day-to-day educational processes to enhance the educational outcomes of
modern-day schooling.
Africans generally define themselves within the context of their community. In the African
context an individual can only say ‘I am because we are; and since we are, therefore I am’. But this
does not mean that to get or have something one must depend exclusively on others. Hard work was
a virtue instilled in all children very early in life. In Swahili it is said that ‘mgaagaa na upwa hali wali
mkavu’ (The person who walks and searches around a beach never eats "dry" rice (rice with no fish
stew) - i.e. as long as one takes time to go and search he will not go hungry, somehow he will find
something to eat). Another saying that goes in the same direction is ‘mtakaa cha mvunguni sharti
ainame’ (The person who wants what is under the bed must bend). The focus of each saying is
the fact that one must strive hard for whatever they want. To further exemplify that the African
communalism was not promoted at the expense of personal excellence and thriving, the Swahili say
that ‘mtegemea cha nduguye hufaa maskini’, which translated into English would mean “The person
who consistently depends on a sibling will die poor”. This was meant to encourage everyone to strive
for self-sufficiency. Swahili proverbs encouraged people to work together in harmony to achieve their
goals, it is said that a person cannot pull and set off a ship alone ( Mtu pekee yake hashui jahazi);
furthermore, if a person showed a tendency towards working alone and lacking the team spirit s/he
was often reminded that ‘mtu pweke ni uvundo’ (i.e., a person alone sinks).
I. Student Activities
In small groups discuss the theme of individualism versus communalism and how you think the
balance between these two should be.
Suggestions for Further Reading:

BAME Nsamenang A. and Therese M.S. Tchombe (eds). (2011) Handbook of African Educational
Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum. Human Development
Resource Centre (HDRC). Cameroon
JORDAN A.C. (1978), Tales from Southern Africa, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California
Press, ISBN-10: 0520036387 / ISBN-13: 978-0520036383
GÉRARD, Albert. (1981), African Language Literatures: An Introduction to the Literary History of
Sub-Saharan Africa, Longman, ISBN-10: 058264352X / ISBN-13: 978-0582643529
OKPEWHO, Isidore. (1992), African Oral Literature. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
14
UNIT 2 WRITTEN SHORT STORIES
2.1. Short Stories

This semester we focus on one genre of written narrative fiction, i.e. short stories. Others such as
the novel (in Portuguese “Romance” or “Historia”) will be dealt with in the next semester. This unit
introduces you to the main features of short stories. These features will be explained in more detail
with accompanying activities.
We can say that modern short stories generally distinguish themselves from the older
traditional sub-genres such as tales and fables, in that they may tell about one significant incident
in the life of one or two characters (people) that have profound (emotional effect) on these
characters and usually, also on the readers. Some of the practical exercises and ideas in this unit
have been taken from Learning English through Short Stories - HANDOUT BOOKLET from The
British Council - Language Arts - Professional Development for Teachers - EDB Language Arts
Electives.- http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-development/kla/eng-
edu/short_stories_2009-10.pdf
Some characteristics of short stories in contrast with novels are:

 The short story tends to be less complex than novels in structure, but its language tends to
be more compressed. This can be very challenging for learners.
 The short story may have a climax, crisis, or turning-point
 The short story only occasionally has an exposition
 Typically, it has an abrupt OPENING with the story starting in the middle of the action
 CLOSINGS (endings) may also be abrupt, have a twist, & do not necessarily have a
moral or practical lesson.
2.2. Defining Different Sub Genres of short Stories

In our modern world, the short story is generally understood to be a written form of literature. A
lot of the older genres of the oral tradition are now found in the written tradition, such as fables,
love stories, supernatural stories with monsters, gnomes ghosts (spirits) and fairies, horror stories,
adventure stories, etc. but some genres are typical of the modern (western) world, such as
detectives and science fiction stories. Each genre has a typical discourse that allows a reader to
fairly rapidly decide what (sub-) genre the short story belongs to.
J. Student Activities
i. Match the type of story or sub-genre (left column) with the extracts in the right column:
1. Horror Story a) She waved her magic wand, and suddenly the frog turned into a
2. Love Story handsome prince.
b) He woke to see a shadowy figure in medieval clothes walking across
3. Detective Story
the room. He went cold and tried to call out, but could not speak
15
4. Ghost Story c) “Darling!” she whispered. “I’ve waited all my life for you”.
5. Fairy Story d) The spaceship lowered itself onto this red, powdery planet which
appeared to have no people, no animals and no oxygen but which
6. Fable
had a series of underground cities.
7. Science Fiction e) The sheep was praising the wolf for his compassion when a passing
8. Adventure Story fox warned “The compassionate wolf is not what he appears”.
f) Watson looked first at Holmes, and then at the gun on the table. “I
know who did it”, he said calmly.
g) They set off on their way at dawn. The caves were not far away but
the journey seemed long by horseback.
h) Slowly, he opened the door and looked inside the room. The
portrait on the wall had changed. It was now a mass of tangled
branches and blood. He let out a loud scream and ran down the stairs.
ii. What helped you to match the story types and the extracts?
iii. Which vocabulary and language structures might to be central to each of these genres?
Genre Adverbs of movement Narrative tenses
Horror Story
Love Story
Detective Story
Ghost Story
Fairy Story
Fable
Science Fiction
Adventure Story
2.3. Features of Short Stories

Following is a list with short definitions for the major features of short stories. Each will be
discussed in greater detail in this unit.
Opening the first few sentences, which usually arouse curiosity, pull the reader
in and carry compressed information in short stories
Exposition at the start of the story, the setting, situation and main characters up
to now are introduced (though not used as much in short stories as in
novels)
Characterisation the process of creating and developing characters
16
Plot a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and

end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one
sitting
Dialogue speech used for moving the story forward, though some dialogue can
be redundant
Narrative describes a sequence of events.
Symbol an enhancement tool to stress the theme of a story, e.g. a dog can
symbolise loyalty.
Complication an event that introduces conflict.
Rising action action that leads to a crisis.
Conflict this is essential to a storyline Without conflict there is no plot. It is the

opposition of forces which ties one incident to another and makes the
plot move. Within a short story there may be only one central
struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor
ones.
Climax the point of highest interest in terms of the conflict and the point of the
story with the most action
Falling action when events and complications begin to resolve themselves.
Resolution the point of the story when the conflict is resolved.
Twist an unexpected final paragraph which shatters readers' perceptions.
Closing the last paragraph of the story.
Moral the message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story – e.g.

fairy stories often have a moral about distrusting people who appear
to be trustworthy
2.4. Openings - What makes a good ‘opening’?
K. Student Activities
i. Match the example story openings to the descriptions below (there is one extra description
without an example opening). Note: You may have more than one possible answer for
each.
17
A B
Gregor woke up from a bad dream and ‘Why is he here? Why has he come now?
found he was transformed into a giant whispered a small voice. There was no
insect. reply.
Adapted from Franz Kafka’s Metamorphosis
C D
As Paul Chan stood in the middle of the

The clock struck thirteen as the glass
shopping mall, all he could think of was
lying down and closing his eyes. smashed. They were inside.
A Good Opening?
1. Dropping the reader into the middle of the dramatic action.
2. A quote or dialogue to make the reader ask questions – Who’s this? What are they
saying? Why are they saying it?
3. A shocking statement – The telephone rang. He picked it up. The voice at the end told
him to run. To run now. To not stop running.
4. ‘Mirror’ or ‘circular’ openings/closings – where each mirrors the other –. (opening) The
young boy looked out of the window and wondered “What am I doing here?”
(Closing) The young boy looked out of the window and finally knew why he was there.
5. An intriguing opening that makes you wonder – Why? What’s happening here?
b) The four story openings include one or more of the following important elements:
character, time/place setting, event and dialogue. They have been annotated for you.
a B
Gregor woke up in bed from a bad ‘Why is he here? Why has he come
night’s sleep and FOUND he was now?’ whispered a small voice. THERE WAS NO
transformed into a giant insect. REPLY.
Adapted from Franz Kafka’s Metamorphosis

c d
As Paul Chan stood in the middle of the The clock struck thirteen as the glass
shopping mall, ALL HE COULD THINK OF was lying smashed. They MIGHT BE inside.
down and closing his eyes.
18
italics= characters;
normal print = time/place setting ;
bold = event and action or activity ;
underlined = dialogue;
SMALL CAPITALS = THOUGHTS, CONCLUSIONS PERCEPTIONS ETC.
L. Student Activities
You now complete the statements below using the information above:
a.
_______________ (who?) ______________________ (where?) and found ___________________
_________________________________________________________________________(what?)
b. _______________ ______________________ ______________________(dialogue) whispered

_________________________________________________________________________(dialogue)
c. As_______________ (who?) ______________________ (where?) all he could think of was

_________________________________________________________________________(what?)
d. _________________________________________________________________(event?)_______
_______________________ (who?) were_______________________________________(what?)
2.5. What makes a good ‘closing’?
A short story’s ending is good if it is surprising or revealing and comes full circle with the opening
words or theme. It should not be an ending that leaves the reader with more questions than when
(s)he started reading the story, although if cleverly written a mysterious ending may be interesting
as well; however, a good ‘closing’ should not allow for (many) loose ends.
M. Student Activities
Consider the opening of the following short story and its ending and then discuss in small groups
what you think happened in between.
Mr.William James, a bank manager, travelled from the town where he worked, to a university
town about 400 kilometres away, for a business meeting, but also to see his daughter Sonia, a
third year Education student majoring in English and living in an on-campus all-female hostel.
....
He lied on the luxury bed and felt like crying for no specific reason. One hour later he heard a
timid knock on the door and when he opened, his daughter, Sonia, in an extremely sexy
evening dress, stood face to face with him. “Sonia”, he called in a calm even voice.
Sonia turned and fled without a sound.
From “Ethics In African Education”, Chapter 7, by Godfrey B. Tangwa. Handbook of African

Educational Theories and Practices; A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum
19
2.6. Plot Development and Suspense
Mini-lecture
Plot and suspense are closely related. The term suspense refers to a vital element of the
pleasure of reading (or listening to) tales, stories or novels. It is a feeling of uncertainty and
anxiety or fear about the outcome of certain action or a series of events in a work of fiction.
Questions are raised in the minds of the audience about why certain things happen or what the
motives are behind certain action. Some unpleasant or terrible fate may be awaiting the
protagonist(s), that is, the person or people in the story the audience tend to identify with or
admire. The audience, though, are powerless to intervene to prevent it from happening.
Suspense can only exist when the audience does not know the outcome of the story,
implying that uncertainty is an important element of suspense. Essential information is given bit
by bit and crucial elements of the truth are left to be disclosed until a point near the end of the
story called the climax: the point in the story when the protagonist (and audience) discovers who
was responsible for the protagonist’s ordeal and the antagonist’s motives for committing his/her
“evil” acts.
This implies that the order in which information is given to the readers need not be chronological.
Here narrative fiction differs from non-fictional narrative as, for example in history or reports,
where the facts are normally presented in chronological order so the reader clearly understands to
“correct” order of events. But in fiction the chronological order is often mixed up with flashbacks or
jumps forward in time to create anxiety in the reader about what the causes are of the events that
occur in the story. This spoon-feeding of bits of crucial information to the audience and the way in
which some important information is only revealed towards the end of the story is in fact what we
call “plot”, causing the reader’s “suspense”. Thus, suspense is a combination of anticipation and
uncertainty dealing with the obscurity of the future. But clearly essential to Plot are the causal
relations between the events and the characters’ action. Unlike in real life, in fiction events always
have causes. So plot is the structure of events within a story and the causal relationship between
them. There is no plot without causality.
N. Student Activities
i. You are going to analyse a short story by Grace Ogot, (1968)“The Rain Came” published in
Land without Thunder, Short Stories, WH Smith Blackwell, Nairobi: East African Publishing House,
1968.
The complete story comes as Appendix 2 of this handbook.
In the left column of the following diagram you find a skeleton or outline of the story, i.e. a series
of events and actions in the order as they are presented in story, which is not always in
chronological order.
The right column presents questions that may form in the reader’s mind when reading
because certain events or acts are not immediately explained, but may be explained later in the
story; try to answer all the questions by using the “mixed” information in the left column:
A Luo Village in Kenya in pre-colonial Africa is suffering a

prolonged drought causing famine and soon death, first among
the cattle and later among the children.
The chief of the village community, Labongo, returns from a why is he different,
meeting he had with the medicine man Nidthi in a state of great distressed and silent?
distress and sadness.
20
Labongo calls for a meeting with all the villagers, but without Why does he call all the
Oganda, Labongo’s, beautiful adolescent daughter: She is villagers to a meeting?
separated in her grandmother’s hut.
She imagines the meeting is about deciding about her future Is the meeting really
husband whom she hopes to be Osinda, the man she loves. about deciding whom
Oganda is to marry?
Labongo then explains that Ndithi had a dream in which the Why does Oganda,
ancestor Podzo appeared and explained a girl had to be offered Labongo’s daughter, have
to the monster of a lake in the spirit land far from the village, to die and not just some
so the rains would start falling and end the drought. other girl?
Podzo did not mention a name but indicated that a girl was to Why is Labongo so
be sacrificed describing her as extremely beautiful and wearing distressed and so
a gold chain around her waist. This sacrifice will cause the rains particularly fond of his
to fall and the village will be saved. daughter?
Labongo only had sons from his first second, third and fourth
wives (19 in total). Oganda was born as the youngest child of
his fifth wife and he therefore liked her very much.
First, she tries to escape from the hut but after she notices the
whole village is happy about the fact that the rains may start falling
soon, if she accepts her fate, she decides to leave on her own to
the lake.
She is very sad but mostly about the fact that she is not able to Where had Osinda gone
take leave of her beloved Osinda who appears to have left and why?
(disappeared); Osinda is the one who had offered her the gold
chain which she started wearing around her waist.
The villagers take leave of her in an atmosphere of relief and

happiness making her feel even more abandoned. Some even
follow her in good spirits and admiration until the border of the
land of the spirits.
After a day’s lonely travel, she crosses into no-man’s land, the
land of the spirits, walking on the sandy waste land towards
the lake. The lakeside has disappeared far inland, because of
the drought.
She starts running from some strange object or creature that What or who is this dark
appears to be following her, also running to catch up with her; she figure chasing her? A spirit
is in terror. or the monster perhaps?
The fast moving figure jumps and grabs her. It appears to be
Osinda who is following her in order to convince her to run
away with him.
She first refuses and wants to die to save the people in the
village.
He convinces her and covers her with branches and leaves (as
camouflage) and they start running away from the lake before
the sun sets.
21
While running, they witness the beginning of a thunder storm What could this
and a lot of rain to come, which means that her sacrifice was paradoxical ending mean?
not actually needed.
They do not return to village but go in hiding.
2.7. The Five Stages or “Acts” of Plot.

Although in most short stories, plots are usually far less complicated than in novels, which are
much longer, short stories normally do have (simple) plots. Plots generally develop with in a
structure that increases the suspense in readers until the narrative reaches a climax, after which all
intricacies and questions are answered and solved in the falling action:
A. The exposition provides the background information needed to properly understand the
story such as who is the protagonist (main character), the antagonist (his/her opponent), and what
is the basic conflict and the initial or basic setting where the “drama” or conflict will take place.
B. Rising action is the second “act”, which begins with the inciting moment, i.e. some act or
event that has far-reaching consequences and sets the remainder of the story in motion. An
important feature of the rising action is the development of a conflict. Conflict is essential to a
storyline. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to
another and makes the plot move. Within a short story there may be only one central struggle, or
there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
C. The climax (or turning point), which marks a change, for the better or the worse, in the
main character’s (protagonist’s) affairs. If the story is a comedy, things will have gone badly for
the protagonist up to this point; now, the tide, so to speak, will turn, and things will begin to go
well for him or her. If the story is a tragedy, the opposite state of affairs will follow, with things
going from good to bad for the protagonist. The stakes become higher and higher, and the chance
for success is threatened more and more until it reaches a "do or die" state: the climax. At the
climax of a story, the action and suspense rises to its highest point, the chance for success is
slimmest, and the stakes are the highest.
D. In the falling action the audience witnesses the unwinding of the conflict between the
protagonist and the antagonist, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The
falling action might contain a moment of final suspense, during which the final outcome of the
conflict is in doubt or resolution.
E. The dénouement (pronounced as denuma) is the end of the story when the audience finds
out how the events or action in the story have changed the everyday situation or routines of the
main character(s) into a new reality. The comedy ends with a dénouement (a conclusion) in which
the protagonist is better off than at the story’s outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe in
which the protagonist is worse off than at the beginning of the narrative.
If the author wishes the reader to feel real suspense, the reader must be convinced that the
writer is untrustworthy and that he will, occasionally, follow through on his threats. This means
allowing bad things to happen to good characters. For example, if the writer lets the protagonist’s
car explode at least once, he lets the reader know he could do it again.
22
O. Student Activities
The left column of the diagram with the skeleton or outline of The Rain came in the student
activities O can be labelled with the five stages of plot. Where would you put the labels? (Discuss in
small groups)
2.8. Characterisation in Narrative Fiction
Mini-lecture
The ‘people’ created by the writer and acting in a story or a novel are called characters.
Character is the mental, emotional, and social qualities to distinguish one entity from another, i.e.
people, animals, spirits, automatons, pieces of furniture, and other animated objects in a work of
fiction.
The importance of a character to the story determines how fully the character is developed.
Characters can be primary or main, secondary and minor . Novels usually have a considerable
number of ‘minor’ characters, described in far less detail, such as, for example, relatives,
colleagues, associates, friends supporting in one way or another the protagonist and some minor
characters that support the antagonist. In short stories or tales, the number of minor characters is
usually limited.
The main character that the audience tends to sympathise with, being the character we
get to know most about and usually the one fighting for a “good” cause is called protagonist, while
his or her opponent(s) is/are the antagonist(s).
Usually, the main or major characters in the story (protagonist or antagonist) are “round”
characters. A round character is depicted with such psychological depth and detail that he or she
seems like a "real" person. To create in the reader an emotional or intellectual reaction to a
character, an author or poet should make the character vivid and realistic.
Minor characters are usually “flat”: A Flat Character, also called a static character, is a
simplified character who does not change or alter his or her personality over the course of a
narrative, or one without extensive personality and characterization. Very often they are stereotype
personalities with only one major character trait.
Characters are developed by:

2.8.1. Direct Description
Statements that indicate
 identity features (name, origin, age, ancestry etc. marital status, origin personal history,
class or social background etc.)
 appearance, physique (e.g. tall, dark, handsome, etc.)
 personality or traits, (e.g. optimistic, patient, assertive, emotional, kind, aggressive, etc.)
 typical behaviour and activities (got up early, only visited friends in the weekends, never
talked to strangers, etc.)
 attitudes and opinions or beliefs (the world is coming to a bad end, poor people should be
helped, women are better leaders than men, etc.)
2.8.2. Indirect Description

The reader must draw conclusions from:
 The character’s action, behaviour
 What the character says in direct speech (dialogue and monologue) and the way (s)he
speaks, i.e. word choice or register
23
 What other characters say about this particular character

 What is generally known about the period in history or the place where and when the story
is supposed to have taken place.
 The setting, particularly the place where the lives or works (his “habitat”)
P. Student activities
i. What do you notice about the dialogue extract from a story below? (Hint: look at the
reporting verbs)
“Did you see that?” said May.

“Yes, what on earth was it?” said Michael.
“I think it was a UFO” said May.
“Are you sure?” said Michael.
“No but I don’t want to stay here to find out” said May.
“You’re right. Let’s get out of here!” said Michael.
To make a dialogue more interesting, writers often use verbs and adverbs to show how
somebody is feeling or behaving. Match the verbs below with an action or feeling (some may
have more than one possible answer). One answer has been done for you. These example
sentences might also help you.
Examples:
“Please, please, please can I have an ice-cream Mummy?” begged little Billy.
“How many more people can squeeze into this lift?” wondered Candy.
“I’ve got so much homework to finish this weekend” sighed the student.
“I got an A in my chemistry exam!” laughed Wing.
“Did you hear what happened to those naughty students?” whispered Calvin.
“Sit down and get on with your work immediately!” shouted the headmaster.
“Help! There’s a big spider under my chair” screamed Andy.
“Have you got a ticket, Sir?” enquired the bus driver.
“Can you open the door for me please?” asked the old lady.
“Nobody loves me” cried the ugly duckling.
Verb This person…
a. shouted 7 1. feels happy
b. whispered 2. wants to get an answer
c. screamed 3. is sharing a secret
d. begged 4. is feeling tired and fed-up
e. enquired 5. is not sure about something
f. laughed 6. needs some help
g. sighed 7. is angry
h. wondered 8. may be frightened
i. cried 9. really wants something
j. asked 10. feels sad
24
ii. In small groups create your personal ideas about the personalities of the characters Oganda,
Osinda and Lobanga by writing a number of passages dealing with three or more scenes that you
can choose from the diagram containing the outline of the story above (Student Activities O).
Make sure you put in some direct description and some indirect description as explained
above and do not forget that it is important to use some adjectives to describe their personalities and
appearances, some verbs and descriptions of actions/events to give us an impression of their
personalities and how they behave direct quotations from the characters to show how they speak and
indications of how other people react to the characters.
2.9. Setting
Mini-lecture
In narrative fiction, setting or fictional space is the environment which situates objects
and characters; more specifically, the environment in which characters move or live in. A talented
writer selects important and characteristic features of the fictional environment in which events
and action take place so the audience can form an idea of this setting in their imagination.
Moreover, the setting functions as an extra dimension or extension of the description of the
characters, especially the main characters. It is a device or technique of reinforcing the ‘make-up’
of the characters, their emotions, and states of mind or even attitudes. For example, the
architecture, interior decoration, furniture and the objects in a house or a room generally give the
reader a good idea of the type of person (people) who live(s) there. The same can be said of the
landscape or environment in which the characters of a story live, i.e. whether the story takes place
in a multi-million city or a desert island makes all the difference to our understanding of the
character(s).
Literary space in this sense is more than a stable 'place' or 'setting' -- it includes
landscapes as well as climatic conditions, cities as well as gardens and rooms, indeed, it includes
everything that can be conceived of as spatially located objects and persons. Along with
characters, space belongs to the 'existents' of a narrative.
Finally it is worthwhile pointing out that imagery is not only what we can see, but also
what we can hear, smell, feel by touching and for some people even what we sense
Q. Student Activities
i. Do the following tasks:
a) Match the adjectives with an opposite
1. messy a. old-fashioned
2. clean b. spacious
3. tiny c. uncomfortable
4. cramped d. complicated
5. spotless e. basic
6. cosy f. tidy
7. modern g. filthy
8. luxurious h. dirty
9. simple i. dark
10. bright j. huge
25
b) Which words are synonyms (have the same or similar meaning)?

c) Read the following short extract describing a place.
As Dick squeezed through the doorway, the huge pile of newspapers that had been holding the
door ajar fell onto his foot. “Ouch!” he cried. As his eyes adjusted to the darkness, he could see
boxes stacked up to the ceiling and books jostling for space on the broken shelves. How would he
ever find what he was looking for in this messy place? He carefully stepped over the discarded
drinks bottles and empty food cartons, taking care not to place his feet on any of the rubbish that
was almost ankle- deep in parts of the cramped room. The smell of rotting vegetables crept into
his nostrils and he looked for a window to open. There were none. The only light came from an
old-fashioned oil lamp hanging just centimetres above his head. Dick pushed his way into the
narrow space between two bookshelves, banging his elbow on a sharp piece of wood as he tried to
reach an overflowing box of papers.
d) What kind of place does it describe?

i. a beautiful big bedroom
ii. a tiny storeroom
iii. a fresh fruit and vegetable market
e) What feeling does it give you?
f) Underline any examples of descriptions for setting associated with lack of space. One has
already been done for you. Try to select phrases as well as individual words and remember
they do not only have to be adjectives.
g) Now match each one with a more interesting description from below (these use verbs, adverbs
and phrases to give us a sense of atmosphere or setting).
1. Ho walked along i. She had to use all her strength to push against the door which
the quiet road. creaked loudly as she slowly
entered the room.
2. MeiLing opened
the big door. ii. He towered over everybody else and we had to stretch our heads
back to look at him.
3. His breakfast
tasted bad. iii. Nervously, he sat at his desk in the exam hall. The nightmare was
just beginning…
4. Coco closed the
door. iv. She slammed the heavy door angrily as he left the room.
5. Jin had a test at v. He squeezed on just as the doors hissed shut and stood with his
school. nose pressed against somebody’s stomach.
6. The teacher was vi. He could hear the birds singing and the trees blowing in the wind
tall. as he strolled along.
There was no-one else around. It felt as if he was the last person in
26
7. The boy got onto the world.

the crowded bus.
vii. She frowned and wrapped her coat tightly around her as she
8. Clara didn’t like the splashed down the street, wishing she was home in her warm dry
rain. living room with a cup of tea.
viii. He closed his eyes and forced the food into his dry mouth. He
chewed it and tried to swallow, but he couldn’t do it.
ii. In pairs you describe a setting as you imagine it in the story choosing from the following
settings: a) The Luo village and the surrounding fields; b) the vast deserted area
through which Oganda had to walk to get to the lake side.
2.10. Moral, Meaning or Theme
Mini-lecture
The theme of a short story or novel is its central message, concern or purpose. A theme
can usually be expressed as a generalisation, or general statement, about human beings or about
life. The theme of a work is not a summary of its plot. The theme is the central idea that the writer
(or story teller) communicates. Most themes are not directly stated but implied and the reader or
audience must conclude for themselves what the theme is by looking carefully at what the work
reveals about people or about life.
R. Student Activities
Discuss in groups what you think the theme or “message” of the short story “The Rain Came”
might be after reading the whoe text as written by Grace Ogot. (See Appendix II)
Suggestions for Further Reading:
BAL, Mieke ([1985] 1997). Narratology. Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. Toronto: U of
Toronto P.
BROOKS, Peter (1984). Reading for the Plot. Design and Intention in Narrative. Oxford: Clarendon
P.
EAGLETON, T. Literary Theory. Oxford. Blackwell Publishers, 1979.
GOWER & PEARSON. Reading Literature. Canada. Longman, 1986.
HALL, (1996), Prentice Hall Literature Bronze Edition, Prentice Hall; ISBN-10: 0138382107
ISBN-13: 978-0138382100
HERMAN, D, ed. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Narrative. Cambridge CUP
JAKOBSON, R., "Linguistics and Poetics", in T. Sebeok, ed., Style in Language, Cambridge, MA:
M.I.T. Press, 1960,
PORTER Abbott,H . (2008). The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative, CUP, 0521715156
27
ISBN-13: 978-0521715157
Web Resources:
ENN (European Narratology Network) <http://www.narratology.net/>
ICN (Interdisciplinary Center for Narratology, Hamburg University) <http://www.icn.uni-

hamburg.de>
Project Narrative (Ohio State University) <http://projectnarrative.osu.edu/>
UNIT 3 DRAMA
1.7. Read the following excerpt from Kinjeketile, a play by Ebrahim N Ebrahim N. Hussein.
Publisher, Oxford University Press, 1969.
Scene I
(1)Night. Enter Ngulumbalyo, carrying a torch. He goes to Kitunda's house.
Ngulumbalyo: (calling) Bwana Kitunda!
Kitunda: Coming. (He comes out.) Ready?
Ngulumbalyo: Ready. (He raises his torch in a signal. From the opposite side a return signal is
given, and from another side yet another signal. From each side emerges a delegate, and they all
converge to the centre. The people with torches leave .)
Mkichi: Where is Kinjeketile?
Kitunda: I don't think he will come today. I haven't spoken to him for many days, I only see him
at a distance now and then. We had better start now.
Mkichi: From the day we held our first meeting until today, nothing has been done. There isn't a
single thing we have done. The Red Earth is still our country, What's more, he has taken our
country from us by force. And we, like women, just stare at him.
Now he has forced us to cultivate his cotton plantation for him. We just stare at him.
He has got us paying him taxes. We just stare at him. Is it for him to demand taxes from us? He
should be paying us a tax, but oh no! We, like women, just meekly sit, watching him do what he
wants with us, with our land.
How long are we going to remain meek and silent? Are we going to allow ourselves to be
persecuted in our own country?
Mngindo: I say, let us kick him out! Let us decide now. There is only one way - an armed
struggle-a war! There is no other way.
28
Kitunda: It is easy to speak, and we all want to get rid of the German. But how do we do it? He
has weapons, we haven't. As our first duty, therefore, we must collect weapons. Steal guns from
the askaris, seize them if need be, in short do everything to see that we've got guns. This will take
time. Such preparation will have to be done with the utmost secrecy, for, as you all know, we have
got enough spies, informers, and stooges to fill up a pot. You do one thing for today and tomorrow
the askari, or even the overseer knows about it. We are a hungry people, and hunger drives us to
betray one another. So you can see, we can't afford to rush into things, recklessly. We have
enemies, even amongst our own people.
Mngindo: So?
Kitunda: Let us wait a while longer. Let us plan. We've been patient for a long time ………
An Old Man: No, we must fight! There is only way - fight. Let us propitiate our ancestors, and the
spirits. And Hongo will help us.
Kitunda: Hongo is a powerful spirit, true, but he has no power over matters of life and death.
Old Man: (standing up) You blaspheme! Your words are dangerous! How dare you talk of Hongo
in that manner?
Kitunda: We did not come here to talk about Hongo. We came here to decide upon a plan of
action.
Mkichi: And what have you to say?
Kitunda: I have already said it. Let us wait until we have the arms.
Mkichi: That is a coward's point of view. But then, since when were the Wamatumbi warriors?
Old Man: We did not come here to quarrel over tribal issues.
Kitunda: Let him say that again and I will make him sorry for the rest of his life.
Mkichi: I'll say it again: the Wamatumbi are cowards. You are nothing but women.
(Kitunda pounces on Mkichi and they roll on the floor.)
Kitunda: I'll …ah … I'll ah … show you who is a woman.
Mkichi: Kinoo's … ah … slave!
(Mkichi reaches for a spear. Kitunda unsheathes his knife. They circle each other. Mgindo
intervenes.)
Mngindo: We came from far, to unite with one another, not to fight. If we fight one another, tribe
against tribe, how can we hope to fight the white man?
(Silence. They resume their earlier positions.)
What we must first do is unite.
Mkichi: What we must first do is fight.
Old Man: But to be able to go to war against the Red Earth we must be united. To go to war
disunited, fighting one another, is impossible.
Mngindo: Quiet. Please, let us have peace.
29
Kitunda: I am ready to make peace with Mkichi. However, let us not fool ourselves that (60)
even if we manage to unite our people, we can go to war by ourselves. We must get the other
tribes. Let us approach the Wazaramo.
Mngindo: The Wazaramo made their stand a long time ago. If it is a question of fighting, they will
fight alone, but they won't fight side-by-side with the Wangindo. They think they are superior -
let's forget them. Who needs them, anyway?
Kitunda: What about the Warufigi?
Mkichi: The Warufigi are ready. But we must start the war first.
Kitunda: But that is silly. We don't start the war first, and then get united. We must first unite,
then go to war. With the people we have we will be snuffed out in no time. I hear there is a big
gun that kills many people at once.
Mkichi: Have you heard - or seen?
Kitunda: I don't like what you are trying to imply.
(Mngindo and Mkichi exchange glances. Kitunda sees this.)
Mngindo: He is just asking.
Kitunda: If you have anything to say then say it openly.
Mngindo: Mkichi asked you - whether you … saw the gun, or … heard about it.
Kitunda: I heard about it.
(Pause)
Mkichi: We have heard that you went to Kilwa.
Kitunda: I went to Kilwa to visit my brother. He was in trouble with the government.
Mkichi: And you were able to help him.
Mngindo: People say that if one goes to Kilwa with the right kind of news, one is rewarded. The
white man pays well to get valuable information.
Kitunda: If I was one of them, would I have these?
(He reveals some scars on his back.)
Mkichi: Then why are you so hesitant about declaring war on the white man?
Kitunda: The people who will die. I see thousands and thousands of our people dying.
Mkichi: But it is better to die than to live like this. We are made to work like beasts in the cotton
plantation. We are forced to pay tax. We die of hunger because we cannot work on our shambas. I
say death is better than this life.
Kitunda: It's better to live like this than to go to war and lose thousands of our men. And the few
who will survive will get the same treatment, or worse, as before.
(A long pause)
Mngindo: So, what have we decided?
Kitunda: (quietly, almost to himself) I see smoke … and where there's smoke, there's fire. There
will soon be fire.
Mngindo: Yes, but a fire that is at a distance does not singe.
30
Kitunda: (aloud) I don't know what to say. I can't think clearly. My head is full of fog.
(Ngulumbalyo comes in with a torch.)
Ngulumbalyo: Quick, the overseer is coming.
Mngindo: What have we decided? Let's make up our minds quickly!
Mkichi: We can't say anything now. We must meet again.
Kitunda: I will get in touch with you. Quick, they're coming. ( They disperse. Kitunda goes into his
house.)
S. Student Activities
i. Analyse the excerpt from the play “Kinjeketile” by Ebrahim N. Hussein. Publisher,
Oxford University Press, 1969. The complete play contains 49 pages.
Answer the following questions in pairs:
A. Practise correct intonation: practise to get the intonation right [groups of six]
B. Role play: A number of pairs present passages of the play to the whole class. The
others decide which group sounded most natural [whole class]
C. What is the theme?
D. What can you say about the following topics as dealt with in the play:
i. Poverty and Rural Life
ii. Exploitation and injustice
iii. Tribalism
iv. Betrayal
v. Traditional Religion
E. What does the writer want to advocate, do you think?
F. What are the typical layout features of a drama script?
ii. Write your own short play based on the the fable 1.5.1. “The Lion and the Jackal” (or
another fable you like) or tale 1.6. “The disobedient girl who married a Skull”
An example:
In a Clothes Shop
Marta (looking at a pair of jeans on sale in the shop) Quick! Look over there! Can you
see that girl’s jeans?
João (looking at two girls with a young man passing by) Who? The one with the skirt
and the big …?
Marta Yes, that’s the one! What do you think of them?
João What?
Marta The jeans! The jeans!
João (thinking Marta refers to the jeans one girl is wearing) They’re OK.
Marta What brand are they? Can you have a look?
João No way! Her boyfriend might thump me!
31
Marta Spoilsport.
João I think they’re Tommy Highflyers.
Marta You mean Tommy Hilfigers! (a jeans brand)
João Anyway, I thought you weren’t spending today.
Marta I know, but I feel a bit down – I’ve got an eight hundred-word essay to write
before Tuesday. I need some retail therapy!
João Hey Marta, do you like this jumper?
Marta I like the colour – is it in the sale?
João Err … no … D’you think it suits me?
Marta What? Oh, er … yes … yes, it’s nice. I really need some jeans, actually.
João What do you mean you ‘need some jeans’? You bought some last week!
Marta I know, but you know what happened to those, don’t you?
João No, what?
Marta I split them when I was getting out of the taxi the other night. Do you know
what they cost me?
João Maybe you should get a bigger size this time.
Marta I like them tight. They make your bum look better if they’re tight.
João Not if you split them!
Marta Ooh, look! These are in the sale! 150 Mts! Guess what they were?
João 1000 Mts?
Marta Don’t be silly. They were 250 Mts! Now, that’s a bargain if ever I saw one!
João It’s even more of a bargain if you don’t buy them.
Marta Tania Soares has got some just like these – I’ve gotta get ‘em!
João Well, at least try them on.
Marta If they’re good enough for Tania Soares, they’re good enough for me!
Assistant Can you enter your pin number, please?
Marta OK … Is her bum bigger than mine, João?
João Sorry?
[adapted from http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills/listening/mini-plays/pdf-

content/the-clothes-shop-lesson-plan/550200.article
32
APPENDIX 1 Mr James and his Daughter Sonia

(Ref. 2.5. the missing section in between opening and closing)
....
Mr James had secured the room at the hostel for Sonia by giving the official in charge a gift envelope
of US$ 1000. He would also try to see Sonia’s lecturer in Linguistics, which she was carrying over
for the second year un-validated, because, according to her in her last letter, “the man is very
unserious; just because he have beg to go out with me and I refuse”.
Mr.William James arrived at the 5-star hotel where his meeting would be taking place the
whole morning of the following day at about 7:00 p.m. As Sonia’s hostel was on the other side of the
city, he decided he would check on her only the following evening after his meeting.
After checking into his hotel room and taking a hot bath, Mr. James suddenly
felt a strong urge for female company. On his way from the restaurant after supper, he casually
asked the hotel receptionist on duty in an appropriately conspiratorial tone:
“Say man, where can one find decent female company here?”
“Oh, that’s quite easy, Sir!”
“No, I don’t want a prostitute. I don’t take chances with AIDS.”
“I have some photos here, Sir”, said the receptionist, pulling out a big album
from a drawer under his counter. “These are not prostitutes but all young University
students. I have all their contacts. Simply look through and make your choice and
I’ll arrange for her to come to your room whenever you want.”
On the third page of the album Mr. William James sighted the photo of a young lady who fulfilled in
every respect his fantasy of a beautiful woman.
“Yes, this one!” he shouted.
Before handing back the album to the receptionist, he quickly flipped through the rest of the pages.
On the last but one page another photo caught his attention and he shouted, “Oh,No!!” as he sighted
his daughter, Sonia’s sexy form, in a transparent bikini.
“What now, Sir”? enquired the receptionist.
“No, nothing, I think I will change my choice to this one”, he said pointing at Sonia’s photo.
“Okay, Sir, when would you want her to come?”
“As soon as possible”, he said, making to go to his room.
“Okay, Sir, you have to pay to me, Sir.”
Mr. William James paid the sum named and went to his room, a thousand confused thoughts racing
in all directions through his mind.
...
[From an article by Godfrey B. Tangwa “Ethics In African Education”. (2011). Handbook of African
Educational Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum. Human
Development Resource Centre (HDRC). Cameroon (pp 93 – 104)]
33
APPENDIX2 ‘The Rain Came’ by Grace Ogot

The chief was still far from the gate when his daughter Oganda saw him. She ran to meet
him. Breathlessly she asked her father, “What is the news, great chief? Everyone in the village is
anxiously waiting to hear when it will rain.” Labong’o held out his hands for his daughter but he did
not say a word. Puzzled by her father’s cold attitude Oganda ran back to the village to warn the
others that the chief was back.
The atmosphere in the village was tense and confused. Everyone moved aimlessly and
fussed in the yard without actually doing any work. A young woman whispered to her co-wife, “If
they have not solved this rain business today, the chief will crack.” They had watched him getting
thinner and thinner as the people kept on pestering him. “Our cattle lie dying in the fields,” they
reported. “Soon it will be our children and then ourselves. Tell us what to do to save our lives, oh
great Chief.” So the chief had daily prayed with the Almighty through the ancestors to deliver them
from their distress.
Instead of calling the family together and giving them the news immediately, Labong’o went
to his own hut, a sign that he was not to be disturbed. Having replaced the shutter, he sat in the
dimly-lit hut to contemplate.
It was no longer a question of being the chief of hunger-stricken people that weighed
Labong’o’s heart. It was the life of his only daughter that was at stake. At the time when Oganda
came to meet him, he saw the glittering chain shining around her waist. The prophecy was complete.
“It is Oganda, Oganda, my only daughter, who must die so young.” Labong’o burst into tears before
finishing the sentence. The chief must not weep. Society had declared him the bravest of men. But
Labong’o did not care anymore. He assumed the position of a simple father and wept bitterly. He
loved his people, the Luo (a tribe in Northern Kenya and Uganda), but what were the Luo for him
without Oganda? Her life had bought a new life in Labong’o’s world and he ruled better than he could
remember. How would the spirit of the village survive his beautiful daughter? “There are so many
homes and so many parents who have daughters. Why choose this one? She is all I have.” Labong’o
spoke as if the ancestors were there, warning him to remember his promise on the day he was
enthroned when he said aloud, before the elders, “I will lay down life, if necessary, and the life of my
household, to save this tribe from the hands of the enemy.” “Deny! Deny! He could hear the voice of
his forefathers mocking him.
When Labong’o was consecrated chief he was only a young man. Unlike his father, he ruled
for many years with only one wife. But people rebuked him because his only wife did not bear him a
daughter. He married a second, a third, and a fourth wife. But they all gave birth to male children.
When Labong’o married a fifth wife she bore him a daughter. They called her Oganda, meaning
“beans,” because her skin was very fair. Out of Labong’o’s twenty children, Oganda was the only girl.
Though she was the chief’s favorite, her mother’s co-wives swallowed their jealous feeling and
showered her with love. After all, they said, Oganda was a female child whose days in the royal
family were numbered. She would soon marry at a tender age and leave the enviable position to
someone else.
Never in his life had he been faced with such an impossible decision. Refusing to yield to the
rainmaker’s request would mean sacrificing the whole tribe, putting the interests of the individual
above those of the society. More than that. It would mean disobeying the ancestors, and most
probably wiping the Luo people from the surface of the earth. On the other hand, to let Oganda die
as a ransom for the people would permanently cripple Labong’o spiritually. He knew he would never
be the same chief again.
34
The words of Ndithi, the medicine man, still echoed in his ears. “Podho, the ancestor of the
Luo, appeared to me in a dream last night, and he asked me to speak to the chief and the people,”
Ndithi had said to the gathering of tribesmen. “A young woman who has not known a man must die
so that the country may have rain. While Podho was still talking to me, I saw a young woman
standing at the lakeside, her hands raised, above her head. Her skin was as fair as the skin of a
young deer in the wilderness. Her tall slender figure stood as a lonely reed at the river bank. Her
sleepy eyes wore a sad look like that of a bereaved mother. She wore a gold ring on her left ear, and
a glittering brass chain around her waist. As I still marveled at the beauty of this young woman,
Podho told me, ‘Out of all the women in this land, we have chosen this one. Let her offer herself a
sacrifice to the lake monster! And on that day, the rain will come down in torrents. Let everyone stay
at home on that day, lest he be carried away by the floods.’”
Outside there was a strange stillness, except for the thirsty birds that sang lazily on the dying
trees. The blinding mid-day heat had forced the people to retire to their huts. Not far away from the
chief’s hut, tow guards were snoring away quietly. Labong’o removed his crown and the large eagle-
head that hung loosely on his shoulders. He left the hut, and instead of asking Nyabog’o the
messenger to beat the drum, he went straight and beat it himself. In no time the whole household
had assembled under the siala tree where he usually addressed them. He told Oganda to wait a while
in her grandmother’s hut.
When Labong’o stood to address his household, his voice was hoarse and the tears choked
him. He started to speak, but words refused to leave his lips. His wives and sons knew there was
great danger. Perhaps their enemies had declared war on them. Labong’o’s eyes were red, and they
could see he had been weeping. At last he told them. “One whom we love and treasure must be
taken away from us. Oganda is to die.” Labong’o’s voice was so faint, that he could not hear it
himself. But he continued, “The ancestors have chosen her as a sacrifice to the lake monster in order
that we may have rain.”
They were completely stunned. As a confused murmur broke out, Oganda’s mother fainted
and was carried off to her own hut. But the other people rejoiced. They danced around singing and
chanting, “Oganda is the lucky one to die for the people. If it is to save the people, let Oganda go.”
In her grandmother’s hut Oganda wondered what the whole family were discussing about
her that she could not hear. Her grandmother’s hut was well away from the chief’s court and, much
as she strained her ears, she could not hear what was said. “it must be marriage,” she concluded. It
was an accepted custom for the family to discuss their daughter’s future marriage behind her back. A
faint smile played on Oganda’s lips as she thought of the several young men who swallowed saliva at
the mere mention of her name.
There was Kech, the son of a neighboring clan elder. Kech was very handsome. He had
sweet meek eyes and a roaring laughter. He would make a wonderful father, Oganda thought. But
they would not be a good match. Kech was a bit too short to be her husband. It would humiliate her
to have to look down at Kech each time she spoke to him. Then she thought of Dimo. The tall young
man who had already distinguished himself as a brave warrior and an outstanding wrestler. Dimo
adored Oganda, but Oganda thought he would make a cruel husband, always quarrelling and ready
to fight. No, she did not like him. Oganda fingered the glittering chain on her waist as she thought of
Osinda. A long time ago when she was quite young Osinda had given her that chain, and instead of
wearing it around her neck several times, she wore it around her waist where it could stay
permanently. She heard her heart pounding so loudly as the thought of him. She whispered, “Let it
be you they are discussing, Osinda, the lovely one. Come now and take me away…”
35
The lean figure in the doorway startled Oganda who was rapt in thought about the man she
loved. “You have frightened me, Grandma,” said Oganda laughing. “Tell me, is it my marriage you
were discussing? You can take it from me that I won’t marry any of them.” A smile played on her lips
again. She was coaxing the old lady to tell her quickly, to tell her they were pleased with Osinda.
In the open space outside the excited relatives were dancing and singing. They were coming
to the hut now, each carrying a gift to put at Oganda’s feet. As their singing got nearer Oganda was
able to hear what they were saying: “It is to save the people, if it is to give us rain, let Oganda go.
Let Oganda die for her people, and for her ancestors,” Was she mad to think that they were singing
about her? How could she die? She found the lean figure of her grandmother barring the door. She
could not get out. The look on her grandmother’s face warned her that there was danger around the
corner. “Mother, it is not marriage then?” Oganda asked urgently. She suddenly felt panicky like a
mouse cornered by a hungry cat. Forgetting that there was only one door in the hut Oganda fought
desperately to find another exit. She must fight for her life. But there was none.
She closed her eyes, leapt like a wild tiger through the door, knocking her grandmother flat
to the ground. There outside in mourning garments Labong’o stood motionless, his hands folded at
the back. He held his daughter’s hand and led her away from the excited crowd to the little red-
painted hut where her mother was resting. Here he broke the news officially to his daughter.
For a long time the three souls who loved one another dearly sat in darkness. It was not
good speaking. And even if they tried, the words could not have come out. In the past they had been
like three cooking stones, sharing their burdens. Taking Oganda away from them would leave two
useless stones which would not hold a cooking pot.
News that the beautiful daughter of the chief was to be sacrificed to give the people rain
spread across the country like wind. At sunset the chief’s village was full of relatives and friends who
had come to congratulate Oganda. Many more were on their way coming, carrying their gifts. They
would prepare her a big farewell feast. All these relatives thought it a great honor to be selected by
the spirits to die in order that the society may live. “Oganda’s name will always remain a living name
among us,” they boasted.
But was it maternal love that prevented Minya from rejoicing with the other women? Was it
the memory of the agony and pain of childbirth that made her feel so sorrowful? Or was it the deep
warmth and understanding that passes between a suckling babe and her mother that made Oganda
part of her life, her flesh? Of course it was an honour, a great honour, for her daughter to be chosen
to die for the country. But what could she gain once her only daughter was blown away by the wind?
There were so many other women in the land, why choose her daughter, her only child! Had human
life any meaning at all – other women had houses full of children while she, Minya, had to lose her
only child!
In the cloudless sky the moon shone brightly, and the numerous stars glittered with a
bewitching beauty. The dancers of all age-groups assembled to dance before Oganda, who sat close
to her mother, sobbing quietly. All these years she had been with her people she thought she
understood them. But now she discovered that she was a stranger among them. If they loved her as
they had always professed why were they not making any attempt to save her? Did her people really
understand what it felt like to die young? Unable to restrain her emotions any longer, she sobbed
loudly as her age-group got up to dance. They were young and beautiful and very soon they would
marry and have their own children. They would have husbands to love and little huts for themselves.
They would have reached maturity. Oganda touched the chain around her waist as she thought of
36
Osinda. She wished Osinda was there too, among her friends. “Perhaps he is ill,” she thought
gravely. The chain comforted Oganda – she would die with it around her waist and wear it in the
underground world.
In the morning a big feast was prepared for Oganda. The women prepared many different
tasty dishes so that she could pick and choose. “People don’t eat after death,” they said. Delicious
though the food looked, Oganda touched none of it. Let the happy people eat. She contented herself
with sips of water from a little calabash.
The time for her departure was drawing near, and each minute was precious. It was a day’s
journey to the lake. She was to walk all night, passing through the great forest. She was already
anointed with sacred oil. From the time Oganda received the sad news she had expected Osinda to
appear any moment. But he was not there. A relative told her that Osinda was away on a private
visit. Oganda realized that she would never see her beloved again.
In the afternoon the whole village stood at the gate to say goodbye and to see her for the
last time. Her mother wept on her neck for a long time. The great chief in a mourning skin came to
the gate bare-footed, and mingled with the people – a simple father in grief. He took off his wrist
bracelet and put it on his daughter’s wrist saying, “You will always live among us. The spirit of our
forefathers is with you.”
Tongue-tied and unbelieving Oganda stood there before the people. She had nothing to say.
She looked at her home once more. She could hear her heart beating so painfully within her. All her
childhood plans were coming to an end. She felt like a flower nipped in the bud never to enjoy the
morning dew again. She looked at her weeping mother, and whispered, “Whenever you want to see
me, always look at the sunset. I will be there.”
Oganda turned southwards to start her trek to the lake. Her parents, relatives, friends and
admirers stood at the gate and watched her go.
Her beautiful slender figure grew smaller and smaller till she mingled with the thin dry trees
in the forest. As Oganda walked the lonely path that wound its way in the wilderness, she sang a
song, and her own voice kept her company.
The ancestors have said Oganda must die

The daughter of the chief must be sacrificed
When the lake monster feeds on my flesh
The people will have rain.
Yes, the rain will come down in torrents.
And the floods will wash away the sandy beaches
When the daughter of the chief dies in the lake.
My age-group has consented
My parents have consented
So have my friends and relatives.
Let Oganda die to give us rain.
My age-group are young and ripe,
Ripe for womanhood and motherhood
But Oganda must die young,
Oganda must sleep with the ancestors.
Yes, rain will come down in torrents.
37
The red rays of the setting sun embraced Oganda, and she looked like a burning candle in
the wilderness.
The people who came to hear her sad song were touched by her beauty. But they all said the
same thing: “If it is to save the people, if it is to give us rain, then be not afraid. Your name will live
forever among us.”
At midnight Oganda was tired and weary. She could walk no more. She sat under a big tree,
and having sipped water from her calabash, she rested her head on the tree trunk and slept.
When Oganda woke up in the morning the sun was high in the sky. After walking for many
hours, she reached the ton’, a strip of land that separated the inhabited part of the country from the
sacred place (karlamo). No layman could enter this place and come out alive – only those who had
direct contact with the spirits and the Almighty were allowed to enter this holy of holies. But Oganda
had to pass through this sacred land on her way to the lake, which she had to reach at sunset.
A large crowd gathered to see her for the last time. Her voice was now hoarse and painful,
but there was no need to worry any more. Soon she would not have to sing. The crowd looked at
Oganda sympathetically, mumbling words she could not hear. But none of them broke loose from the
crowd, and ran towards her. The child took a small earring from her sweaty hands and gave it to
Oganda saying, “When you reach the world of the dead, give this earring to my sister. She died last
week. She forgot this ring.” Oganda, taken aback by the strange request, took the little ring, and
handed her precious water and food to the child. She did not need them now. Oganda did not know
whether to laugh or cry. She had heard mourners sending their love to their sweethearts, long dead,
but his idea of sending gifts was new to her.
Oganda held her breath as she crossed the barrier to enter the sacred land. She looked
appealingly at the crowd, but there was no response. Their minds were too preoccupied with their
own survival. Rain was the precious medicine they were longing for, and the sooner Oganda could
get to her destination the better.
A strange feeling possessed Oganda as she picked her way in the sacred land. There were
strange noises that often startled her, and her first reaction was to take to her heels. But she
remembered that she had to fulfil the wish of her people. She was exhausted, but the path was still
winding. Then suddenly the path ended on sandy land. The water had retreated miles away from the
shore leaving a wide stretch of sand. Beyond this was the vast expanse of water.
Oganda felt afraid. She wanted to picture the size and shape of the monster, but fear would
not let her. The society did not talk about it, nor did the crying children who were silenced by the
mention of its name. The sun was still up, but it was no longer hot. For a long time Oganda walked
ankle-deep in the sand. She was exhausted and longed desperately for her calabash of water. As she
moved on, she had a strange feeling that something was following her. Was it the monster? Her hair
stood erect, and a cold paralyzing feeling ran along her spine. She looked behind, sideways and in
front, but there was nothing, except a cloud of dust.
Oganda pulled up and hurried but the feeling did not leave her, and her whole body became
saturated with perspiration.
The sun was going down fast and the lake shore seemed to move along with it.
38
Oganda started to run. She must be at the lake before sunset. As she ran she heard a noise
coming from behind. She looked back sharply, and something resembling a moving bush was
frantically running after her. It was about to catch up with her.
Oganda ran with all her strength. She was now determined to throw herself into the water
even before sunset. She did not look back, but the creature was upon her. She made an effort to cry
out, as in a nightmare, but she could not hear her own voice. The creature caught up with Oganda.
In the utter confusion, as Oganda came face to face with the unidentified creature, a strong hand
grabbed her. But she fell flat on the ground and fainted.
When the lake breeze brought her back to consciousness, a man was bending over
her.”…….!” Oganda opened her mouth to speak, but she had lost her voice. She swallowed a
mouthful of water poured into her mouth by the stranger.
“Osinda, Osinda! Please let me die. Let me run, the sun is going down. Let me die, let them
have rain.” Osinda fondled the glittering chain around Oganda’s waist and wiped the tears from her
face.
“We must escape quickly to the unknown land,” Osinda said urgently. “We must run away
from the wrath of the ancestors and the retaliation of the monster.”
“But the curse is upon me, Osinda, I am no good to you anymore. And moreover the eyes of
the ancestors will follow us everywhere and bad luck will befall us. Nor can we escape from the
monster.”
Oganda broke loose, afraid to escape, but Osinda grabbed her hands again.
“Listen to me, Oganda! Listen! Here are two coats!” He then covered the whole of Oganda’s
body, except her eyes, with leafy attire made from twigs of Bwombwe. “These will protect us from
the eyes of the ancestors and the wrath of the monster. Now let us run out of here.” He held
Oganda’s hand and they ran from the sacred land, avoiding the path that Oganda had followed.
The bush was thick, and the long grass entangled their feet as they ran. Halfway through the
sacred land they stopped and looked back. The sun was almost touching the surface of the water.
They were frightened. They continued to run, now faster to avoid the sinking sun.
“Have faith, Oganda – that thing will not reach us.”
When they reached the barrier and looked behind them trembling, only a tip of the sun could
be seen above the water’s surface.
“It is gone! It is gone!” Oganda wept, hiding her face in her hands.
“Weep not, daughter of the chief. Let us run, let us escape.”
There was bright lightening. They looked up, frightened. Above them black furious clouds
started to gather. They began to run. Then the thunder roared, and the rain came down in torrents.
39

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Module Companion Introduction to English Literature Student Version

Autor: Erik Vermeulen

Introdução aos Estudos Literários de Inglês

CONTENTS page number

0.1 The Concept “Literature” 4

0.2 Is literature important? Why do we Read it? 4

UNIT 1 THE AFRICAN ORAL TRADITION

1.1. The Oral Tradition and Education 5

1.2. General Classification of Oral Literature 6

1.3. The Art of Storytellers and their Audiences 7

‘The Lion and the Jackal’ 8

1.5. A Tale - ‘The Disobedient Daughter who Married a Skull’ 9

1.7.2. Communalism or Individualism 13

UNIT 2 WRITTEN SHORT STORIES 15

2.1. Short Stories 15

2.2. Defining Different Sub Genres of short Stories 15

2.3. Features of Short Stories 16

2.4. Openings - What makes a good ‘opening’? 17

2.5. What makes a good ‘closing’? 19

2.6. Plot Development and Suspense 20

2.7. The Five Stages or “Acts” of Plot. 22

2.8. Characterisation in Narrative Fiction 23

2.8.1. Direct Description 23

2.8.2. Indirect Description 23

2.10. Moral, Meaning or Theme 27

APPENDIX 1 Mr James and his Daughter Sonia 33

APPENDIX2 ‘The Rain Came’ by Grace Ogot 34

0.3 The Concept “Literature”

0.4 Is literature important? Why do we Read it?

UNIT 1 THE AFRICAN ORAL TRADITION

1.1. The Oral Tradition and Education

1.2. General Classification of Oral Literature

1.3. The Art of Storytellers and their Audiences

stories memorable and interesting.

‘The Lion and the Jackal’

'We see no gazelle,' she growled.

'Now I've got you!' he roared.

In pairs answer the following questions:

1.5. A Tale - ‘The Disobedient Daughter who Married a Skull’

[From “Useful Dimensions of Education In The Nigerian Family Traditions” Handbook Of

c. Hausa of West Africa Riddle:

d. Swahili of East Africa Riddle:

e. Massai of East Africa Riddle:

[Handbook Of African Educational Theories And Practices: A Generative Teacher

[Teach Africa tm - World Affairs Council of Houston - www.wachouston.org

 We never inherit a living man's wife

[Handbook of African Educational Theories and Practices: A Generative Teacher

1.7.4. Communalism or Individualism

An article by Godfrey B. Tangwa “Ethics In African Education” in Handbook of African Educational

Suggestions for Further Reading:

UNIT 2 WRITTEN SHORT STORIES

2.1. Short Stories

Some characteristics of short stories in contrast with novels are:

 The short story may have a climax, crisis, or turning-point

 The short story only occasionally has an exposition

2.2. Defining Different Sub Genres of short Stories

Genre Adverbs of movement Narrative tenses

2.3. Features of Short Stories

Plot a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and

b. _ __________(dialogue) whispered

c. As_ (who?) ________ (where?) all he could think of was