Academic Expectations and Well-Being in School Children

Journal of Child and Family Studies (2023) 32:1923–1935
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02548-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Academic Expectations and Well-Being in School Children

1
Tony Cassidy ●
Ailana Boulos2
Accepted: 4 February 2023 / Published online: 24 February 2023

© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
The current study aimed to explore health behaviour, quality of life and well-being in older children in relation to social
background, parental academic socialisation and academic expectation stress, and the role of emerging constructs of self-
compassion and psychological capital as potential protective factors. A survey was administered to a sample of 373 children
(150 males and 223 females) aged between 11 and 15 years. Children were assessed on academic expectations stress, home
and social background, parenting experience, psychological capital, self-compassion, health behaviour, well-being and
quality of life. Academic expectation stress was inversely predictive of well-being and quality of life and through its impact
on self-compassion and psychological capital, to health behaviour. Findings from this study would suggest that positive
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psychology interventions to build self-compassion and psychological capital may be efficacious in reducing the negative
impact of academic expectation stress in children.
Keywords Academic expectation stress Self-compassion Psychological capital Well-being Quality of life Health
● ● ● ● ●
behaviour
Highlights
● The study adopts a positive psychology perspective which contributes to added value as opposed to simply dealing with
problems.
● It develops a mediational model thus informing potential interventions.
● Findings show potential impact of self-compassion and psychological capital.
● The data considers multiple outcomes in terms of both psychological and physical health.
Parents play a critical role in children’s psychological and expectations to achieve are mainly rooted in the family for
behavioural development and perhaps crucially in terms of the most children. Parental expectations have been investigated in
expectations they have for them to achieve (Lara & Saracostti, terms of parental involvement in their children’s education and
2019; Ma et al., 2016). Expectations to achieve can place early evidence suggests that parents who are higher in socio-
demands on students that become a major cause of stress economic status (SES) tend to have more involvement (Cripps
(Poots & Cassidy, 2020). While these demands come mainly & Zyromski, 2009). Parental involvement that is encouraging
from parental expectations for their children (Sangma et al., and supportive has generally been consistently related to
2018), students can also place high demands on themselves higher achievement (Boonk et al., 2018; Ceballo et al., 2014;
and may also be influenced by demands from teachers El Nokali et al., 2010; Vasquez et al., 2016), and to better
(Bedewy & Gabriel, 2015). However, the origins of mental well-being and positive health behaviours (Westerlund
et al., 2015). This type of involvement includes practices such
as meetings and communication with teachers, assisting chil-
dren with homework, and volunteering to help with school
* Tony Cassidy activities (Cripps & Zyromski, 2009; Spera, 2005). Parental
[email protected]
over involvement which is demanding and controlling often
1
Professor of Child & Family Health Psychology, School of hinders students’ attainment and creates anxiety and increased
Psychology, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland stress for children (Schiffrin et al., 2014).
2
Research student, School of Psychology, Ulster University, There is an established literature on the impact of
Coleraine, Northern Ireland expectations placed on children and their academic
1924 Journal of Child and Family Studies (2023) 32:1923–1935
Fig. 1 Proposed relationships Background

variables:
underpinning a path model Gender,
age,
SES.
education,
Children of
divorce
Mediator
variables: Outcome
Self- variables:
compassion, Psychological
well-being,
Psychological
capital Quality of Life,
Good Health
Predictor Practices
variables:
Academic
expectations
stress (AESI),
Parental
Academic
Socialisation
development but the literature lacks evidence on the impact authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles. Suizzo and
of expectations on the health and well-being of children. Soon (2006), focusing specifically on parental influence on
The current study aimed to explore health behaviour, academic development, developed a three-factor model and a
quality of life and well-being in older children in relation to measure identifying three dimensions of parental active
social background, parental academic socialisation and involvement, parental emotional support, and parental
academic expectation stress, and the role of emerging demandingness. The model was developed by assessing a
constructs of self-compassion and psychological capital as sample of 249 college students in terms of the parenting
potential protective factors. These variables form the pro- approach their parents used with them. This made the
posed model to be tested as shown in Fig. 1 which is resulting measure appropriate for the current study. In terms
explained more fully through the following review. of the evidence on parental involvement it could be argued
The health and well-being of school age children has that parental active involvement combined with emotional
become a major and growing concern (Fazel et al., 2014; support and moderate levels of demand would have a positive
Valizadeh et al., 2012; Vizard et al., 2020). Health and well- impact while active involvement that is less supportive and
being are inextricably linked both to each other and to more demanding would have a negative impact on both
academic achievement (Davis et al., 2011; Fiscella & achievement and well-being (Westerlund et al., 2015). Par-
Kitzman, 2009; Ickovics et al., 2014). Health is under- enting styles are largely influenced by the socioecological
pinned by a healthy lifestyle and strong evidence has context in which they evolve including SES and parental
emerged showing that a healthy lifestyle is predictive of education (Roubinov and Boyce 2017).
academic performance (Flueckiger et al., 2014). One might Recent research on mediators of stress has generated an
therefore expect a cluster of related outcomes in terms of extensive literature on two constructs; self-compassion (Neff
health behaviours, well-being, and academic performance. et al., 2007a, b) and psychological capital (Luthans et al.,
This study aims to explore the relationship between aca- 2007; Newman et al., 2014). Both constructs have emerged
demic expectation stress and health and well-being in from positive psychology and offer a shift away from a
school aged children and the potential mediating role of deficit model of stress to one which focuses on building
psychological capital and self-compassion. In addition, the resilience and well-being and therefore a more preventative
aim is to explore the role of demographic and back ground option. The importance of resilience is highlighted in the
factors and parenting in the process. seminal work of Michael Ungar (Ungar, 2018).
The influence parents have on their children’s academic Self-compassion refers to kind and caring feelings
development has been termed parental academic socialisation towards oneself when faced with personal distress and the
(Loughlin-Presnal & Bierman, 2017; Puccioni, 2015; Suizzo acknowledgement that one’s suffering, failures and short-
& Soon, 2006; Taylor et al., 2004) and has been strongly falls are all part of life (Birnie et al., 2010; Neff &
linked to parents’ general approach to child-rearing in terms McGehee, 2010; Neff et al., 2005). Research suggests that
of parental style (Bingham et al., 2017). Parental academic self-compassion might offer a useful avenue through which
socialisation draws on the original model of parenting styles young people can reduce stress (Bluth et al., 2015; Zhang
from Baumrind (1991) which describes three dimensions of et al., 2016). Several studies have demonstrated a positive
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2023) 32:1923–1935 1925
relationship between self-compassion and indicators of well-being in adults is well established (Fassbender &
well-being, including happiness, optimism (Neff et al., Leyendecker, 2018), but less attention has been paid to SES
2007a), self-esteem (Barry et al., 2015), emotional intelli- and well-being in children (Bøe et al., 2012). Bøe et al.
gence (Heffernan et al., 2010), and health-promoting (2012) show evidence for a clear and consistent link
behaviours (Sirois, 2014). Accordingly, research also between low SES and poor mental health in 11–13-year-old
shows a negative relationship between self-compassion and children. The relationship between SES and health-related
anxiety (Neff et al., 2007b), depression (Ghorbani et al., quality of life has also been documented (Mielck et al.
2012), burnout (Durkin et al., 2016), stress, emotion reg- 2014). However, the relationship between SES and general
ulation difficulties (Finlay-Jones et al., 2015), self‐rumina- quality of life is less clear. In one study of Australian men
tion, anger (Neff & Vonk, 2009), and aggression (Barry both those at the upper end of the scale and those at the
et al., 2015). Allen and Leary (2010) report that more self- lower end exhibited poorer quality of life (Brennan et al.,
compassionate individuals are less likely to magnify nega- 2013). The relationship between SES and educational
tive events, feel anxious after stressful situations, and avoid attainment is complex and variable in strength depending on
challenges for fear of failure. social contexts and educational systems (Broer et al., 2019).
Psychological capital (PsyCap) emerged in the context of SES is generally construed as a combination of occupation,
occupational health and comprises four components; resi- income, and education and one consistent finding is that
lience, hope, self-efficacy and optimism (Jafri, 2013; well educated mothers may place more value on their
Luthans et al., 2007), which act as a buffer to stress (Avey children’s academic achievement resulting in more invol-
et al., 2009; Datu & Valdez, 2015; Rahimnia et al., 2013). vement (Augustine, 2017).
Luthans et al. (2007), defined psychological capital as “an
individual’s positive psychological state of development
and is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-effi- Aims
cacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at
challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (opti- The current study aimed to explore health behaviour,
mism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) perse- quality of life and well-being in older children in relation to
vering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths social background, parental academic socialisation and
to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by academic expectation stress, and the role of emerging
problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and constructs of self-compassion and psychological capital as
even beyond (resilience) to attain success”. potential protective factors. Based on the evidence reviewed
It has been shown that when the components of PsyCap are a model was constructed as shown in Fig. 1. The aim was to
combined as a second-order, core factor it predicts perfor- test the efficacy of this model. Based on the evidence
mance and satisfaction better than each of the four factors that reviewed it is argued that parental academic socialisation
make it up (Luthans et al., 2007). The construct has been and academic expectation stress will have an impact on
generalised to life stress beyond the occupational context student well-being, quality of life and health practices. It is
(Krasikova et al. 2015; Lorenz et al. 2016) and evidence further proposed that the impact will be mediated by psy-
shows it is positively related to physical and psychological chological capita and self-compassion. Important context
well-being (Siu, 2013), but negatively related to anxiety and variables are age, sex, SES, mother’s education, and family
depressive symptoms (Liu et al., 2013), and burnout (Peng stability. The relationships are complex which possibly
et al., 2013). Research on PsyCap as a protective factor against explains why they have not been jointly explored pre-
stress with potential mediating effects, proposes that this viously. In the context of growing concern over student
higher-order construct could provide a pathway to increase mental health, by combining these variables this study has
student resistance to stress, as well as pave the way in which the potential to inform pastoral support and interventions.
individual’s assess and interpret situations to reframe them as
exciting challenges rather than unbearable pressures (Riolli
et al., 2012). It is argued that someone who is hopeful, opti- Method
mistic, ego resilient and efficacious will be more likely to have
more effective coping resources (Riolli et al., 2012). Design: this was a cross-sectional survey design
The socioecological context of health and well-being is using questionnaire data collection
rooted in SES and the relationship between SES and health
behaviours in adults is well established (Pampel et al., Participants: A total of 373 children (150 males and 223
2010), and there is a growing literature on health behaviour females) aged between 11 and 15 years were assessed. Of
and SES in children (Coombs et al., 2013; Kipping et al., these, 50 were 11 years old, 70 were 12 years old, 84 were
2015). The relationship between SES and psychological 13 years old, 89 were 14 years old, and 70 were 15 years
Table 1 SES and educational background for the sample 5 = All of the Time. Level of positive mental well-being is
Socioeconomic N % Mother’s education N % calculated by summing the scores of the seven items with a
status (SES) higher score indicative of a higher level of positive mental
well-being. The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale in this study
Higher managerial 10 2.7 Primary 43 11.5
and professional is 0.93.
Lower managerial 10 2.7 Lower secondary 110 29.5 The Compound PsyCap (CPC-12) Scale is a composite
and professional measure of hope, resilience, self-efficacy, and optimism,
intermediate 44 11.8 Upper secondary 82 22.0 encompassing 12 items. Each of the four components is
small employers and 109 29.2 Tertiary 90 24.1 reported on a 6-point Likert scale from Strongly Disagree
own accounts (=1) to Strongly Agree (=6). It measures psychological
Lower supervisory 78 20.9 Postgraduate 48 12.9 capital in a universal manner. The CPC-12 has been
and technical demonstrated to have good reliability and external validity
Semi-routine 54 14.5 Total 373 100.0 (Lorenz et al., 2016). In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha for
Routine 33 8.8 the CPC-12 scale was 0.93.
Unemployed 35 9.4 The Self-Compassion Scale- Short Form (SCS-SF); Neff
Total 373 100.0 (2003) was used to measure self-compassion in this study.
This is a 12-item scale with responses rated on a 5-point
Likert scale where 1 = Almost Always and 5 = Almost
old. In terms of ethnicity 263 were White British, 59 were Never. Level of self-compassion is calculated by adding the
Asian British, and 51 were Black British. The SES and items scores and higher scores reflect more self-compassion.
educational background of the sample are shown in Table 1. Cronbach’s alphas for the scale in this study was 0.86.
The children were attending a medium sized regional The Parental Academic Socialisation scale (Suizzo &
school which serviced a small town, three villages and a Soon, 2006) was used in this study to measure parent
rural area in England in the United Kingdom (UK). Parti- involvement in their student’s education. This 31-item scale
cipants were asked for, details on age, gender, and father’s was developed by Suizzo and Soon (2006), who reported
and mother’s occupation and highest level of education. strong reliability and validity. The scale comprises 3
Father and mother’s occupation was used to code Socio- dimensions, emotional support (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91),
economic Status (SES) Parental education was scored as active involvement (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) and
highest qualification and recoded in line with the Interna- demandingness (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.73). It has pre-
tional Standard of Educational Classification (OECD/ viously been used as a single composite measure of parental
Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015). Socio- academic socialisation and as a measure of the three sepa-
economic status was recorded as the highest of father’s or rate constructs.
mother’s occupation and recoded in line with the National To measure quality of life the Youth Quality of Life
Statistics Socioeconomic Classification (Rose et al., 2003). Scale – Short Form (Patrick et al., 2002) was employed. It is
a 15 -item measure of general quality of life in youth ages
Measures 11–18 years regardless of chronic conditions and dis-
abilities. It has a Cronbach Alpha score of 0.85.
The Academic Expectation Stress Inventory (AESI: Ang & The Good Health Practices Scale (GHPS) is a 16-item
Huan, 2006), is a nine-item scale that measures the level of questionnaire which aims to measure how much the parti-
stress derived from demands placed on the student by cipant agrees with engaging with health behaviours. It uses
themselves and by parents and teachers. Items are rated on a a 5-point Likert scale measuring how strongly they agree or
5-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 = Never True to disagree with the health statements. The scale has been
5 = Almost Always True. The scale produces a global shown to have good internal reliability and applicable for
measure of mental well-being by adding together the scores both genders (Hampson et al., 2019).
on the nine items. The AESI has been shown to be a valid Procedure: The sample were drawn from one medium
and reliable measure (Ang & Huan, 2006). The Cronbach’s sized regional school in the UK. The school was a public
alpha for this scale in this study is 0.91. school and serviced a small town, three villages and a rural
The Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale-short area. While there are no doubt differences between schools
form (Tennant et al., 2007) is a seven-item scale comprises on all sorts of measures there is no standard statistics to
items that relate to the different aspects of positive mental make a generalisable comparison. On the other hand, the
health. Participants are asked to respond based on their study aimed to look at variables which impact on well-being
experience over the past two weeks. The scale uses a and quality of life and while there may be factors which
5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = None of the Time to impact on these variables from school to school it is the
Table 2 Bivariate correlations between background, parental academic socialisation, academic expectation stress, psychological capital and health
and well-being
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Age
2. Socioeconomic Status −0.01
3. Fathers education −0.06 0.15**
4. Mothers education −0.17** 0.02 0.26**
5. Crowding Index −0.11 *
0.48**
0.14** 0.02
6. Emotional support −0.12 *
0.01 −0.06 0.08 −0.13*
7. Active involvement −0.32 **
−0.09 −0.02 0.45**
−0.03 0.24**
8. Demandingness 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.11 *
−0.20** 0.04
9. Academic −0.12 *
0.15**
−0.01 −0.05 0.15 **
−0.18 **
−0.07 0.22**
expectation
10. Psychological −0.14** 0.18** −0.06 0.08 −0.27** 0.39** 0.16** −0.00 −0.26**
Capital
11. Self-compassion 0.09 0.22** −0.02 0.11* −0.12* 0.07 0.04 −0.13* −0.64** 0.26**
12. Quality of Life −0.16 **
0.03 0.01 0.16**
−0.10 0.42**
0.24 **
0.05 −0.26** 0.55** 0.17**
13. Good Health −0.06 0.15** −0.11* 0.03 −0.23** 0.29** 0.16** −0.07 −0.20** 0.45** 0.26** 0.31**
Behaviour
14. Well-being −0.12* 0.10 0.04 0.18** −0.16** 0.44** 0.20** 0.03 −0.49** 0.59** 0.36** 0.87** 0.34**
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
relationship between variables that we are interested in. For Results

example, regional and demographic differences may influ-
ence levels of parental academic socialisation and / or The first stage in analysis involved bivariate correlations to
academic expectation stress, our focus is on how parental explore the bivariate relationships between GHP, QoL,
academic socialisation and academic expectation stress well-being and AES, and a range of background and psy-
impact on quality of life and well-being. chological variables as shown in Table 2. There is a pattern
Following University Ethics Committee approval per- of correlations with well-being, QoL, and GHP involving
mission was sought from the school to undertake the mother’s education, crowding, parental academic sociali-
research. The school cooperated and organised parental sation, AES, psychological capital and self-compassion
permission for the study. Questionnaire packs were dis- which point to a path model as illustrated in Fig. 1.
tributed to children in class by the teachers. Each pack To explore these relationships more robustly Hierarchical
contained an information leaflet and a consent form which Multiple Regression Analysis (HMRA) was applied to
children signed before research commenced. Children took identify the predictive relationships with well-being, quality
the pack home with them and were asked to return it when of life, and good health practices separately.
completed. All children were provided with a questionnaire Well-being was entered as the dependent variable in the
pack, a total of 630 children in total. Of these 373 usable first HMRA (see Table 2). On the first step sex (β = 0.15,
questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 59.2%. p < 0.01) and age (β = −0.12, p < 0.01) were entered as
predictor variables and accounted for 4% of the variance in
Data analysis well-being. On step 2 father’s education, mother’s education,
children of divorce, and SES, were entered and accounted for
Data were entered into SPSS 26 and after cleaning was a further 17% of the variance. Mother’s education (β = 0.35,
analysed using Pearson Bivariate correlations, Hierarchical p < 0.001), children of divorce (β = −0.15, p < 0.001), and
Multiple Regression Analysis (HMRA), and Path Analysis SES (β = 0.10, p < 0.01), contributed significant portions of
using AMOS 26 Structural Equation Modelling software. In variance. On the next step the dimensions of parental aca-
order to be entered as independent or predictor variables in demic socialisation, emotional support, active involvement,
the HMRA and Path Analysis all dichotomous variables and demandingness, were entered and added a further 7% to
were scored 0,1. Father and mother education level and SES variance explained. Emotional support (β = 0.32, p < 0.001),
as ordinal variables were dummy coded. and demandingness (β = 0.11, p < 0.05), contributed
significantly to variance explained. On step 4 academic Table 3 HMRA to identify the predictors of well-being
expectation stress (β = −0.47, p < 0.001), was added and B SE B β
contributed an additional 19% to explained variance. On the
Step 1: R = 0.04, F(2370) = 7.22, p < 0.001
2
final step psychological capital and self-compassion were
added and contributed another 11% of variance. Only psy- Age −0.663 0.279 −0.121**
chological capital was significant (β = 0.38, p < 0.001). Sex 2.256 0.767 0.150**
Overall, the model explained 58% of the variance in well- Step 2: R Δ = 0.17, F(4366) = 19.14, p < 0.001
2
being. Age −0.385 0.259 −0.070

Quality of life was entered as the dependent variable in Sex 1.401 0.713 0.093*
the next HMRA (Table 3). On the first step sex (β = 0.14, Father’s education 0.018 0.258 0.003
p < 0.01) and age (β = −0.15, p < 0.01) were entered as Mother’s education 2.094 0.294 0.349***
predictor variables and accounted for 5% of the variance in Children of divorce 2.621 0.795 −0.154***
quality of life. On step 2 father’s education, mother’s edu- SES 1.134 0.523 0.104*
cation, children of divorce, and SES, were entered and Step 3: R2 Δ = 0.07, F(3363) = 11.24, p < 0.001
accounted for a further 15% of the variance. Only mother’s Age −0.327 0.262 −0.060
education (β = 0.38, p < 0.001), contributed a significant Sex 1.082 0.707 0.072
portion of variance. On the next step the dimensions of Father’s education 0.188 0.252 0.035
parental academic socialisation, emotional support, active Mother’s education 1.041 0.347 0.174**
involvement, and demandingness, were entered and added a Children of divorce 2.181 0.770 0.129**
further 4% to variance explained. Only emotional support SES 1.070 0.508 0.098*
(β = 0.21, p < 0.001), contributed significantly to variance Emotional Support 1.899 0.336 0.318***
explained. On step 4 academic expectation stress Active Involvement 0.095 0.305 0.016
(β = −0.37, p < 0.001), was added and contributed an Demandingness 0.644 0.276 0.111*
additional 12% to explained variance. On the final step
Step 4: R2 Δ = 0.19, F(1362) = 133.85, p < 0.001
psychological capital and self-compassion were added and
Age −0.829 0.228 −0.151***
contributed another 9% of variance. Only psychological
Sex 0.554 0.606 0.037
capital was significant (β = 0.35, p < 0.001). Overall, the
Father’s education 0.080 0.216 0.015
model explained 45% of the variance in quality of life.
Mother’s education 0.991 0.297 0.165***
Good Health Practices was entered as the dependent
Children of divorce 1.345 0.663 0.079
variable in the next HMRA (Table 4). On the first step sex
and age were entered as predictor variables and accounted SES 0.868 0.435 0.080*
for a nonsignificant less than 1% of the variance in good Emotional Support 1.624 0.288 0.272***
health practices (p = 0.192). On step 2 father’s education, Active Involvement −0.170 0.262 −0.029
mother’s education, children of divorce, and SES, were Demandingness 1.266 0.242 0.219***
entered and accounted for a further 7% of the variance. Academic −0.415 0.036 −0.473***
Expectation Stress
Father’s education (β = 0.11, p < 0.05), mother’s education
(β = 0.20, p < 0.001), and SES (β = 0.13, p < 0.01), con- Step 5: R2 Δ = 0.11, F(2360) = 44.28, p < 0.001
tributed a significant portion of variance. On the next step Age −0.794 0.224 −0.145***
the dimensions of parental academic socialisation, emo- Sex 0.900 0.599 0.060
tional support, active involvement, and demandingness, Father’s education 0.161 0.212 0.030
were entered and added a further 3% to variance explained. Mother’s education 0.928 0.291 0.155**
Only emotional support (β = 0.22, p < 0.001), contributed Children of divorce 1.449 0.649 0.085
significantly to variance explained. On step 4 academic SES 0.678 0.428 0.062
expectation stress (β = −0.19, p < 0.001), was added and Emotional Support 1.421 0.286 0.238***
contributed an additional 3% to explained variance. On the Active Involvement −0.198 0.256 −0.033
final step psychological capital and self-compassion were Demandingness 1.207 0.237 0.209***
added and contributed another 10% of variance. Psycholo- Academic −0.387 0.036 −0.441***
gical capital (β = 0.32, p < 0.001), and self-compassion Expectation Stress
(β = 0.19, p < 0.001), were significant. Overall, the model Psychological capital 3.585 0.391 0.379***
explained 23% of the variance in good health practices. Self-compassion 0.118 0.159 0.034
Psychological capital was entered as the dependent Total R = 0.58
2
variable in the next HMRA (Table 5). On the first step sex *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
and age were entered as predictor variables and accounted
Table 4 HMRA to identify the predictors of quality of life Table 5 HMRA to identify the predictors of good health practices
B SE B β B SE B β
Step 1: R = 0.05, F(2370) = 8.65, p < 0.001

2
Step 1: R = 0.009, F(2370) = 1.66, p = 0.192
2
Age −2.847 0.937 −0.154** Age −0.033 0.042 −0.042

Sex 7.214 2.571 0.143 **
Sex −0.187 0.114 −0.085
Step 2: R2 Δ = 0.15, F(4366) = 17.55, p < 0.001 Step 2: R2 Δ = 0.07, F(4366) = 7.09, p < 0.001
Age −1.854 0.874 −0.101* Age −0.018 0.041 −0.023
Sex 3.991 2.410 0.079 Sex −0.253 0.112 −0.115*
Father’s education 0.482 0.872 0.026 Father’s education 0.090 0.041 0.113*
***
Mother’s education 7.634 0.993 0.378 Mother’s education 0.175 0.046 0.199***
*
Children of divorce 5.951 2.685 0.104 Children of divorce 0.010 0.125 0.004
SES 1.448 1.766 0.039 SES 0.200 0.082 0.125**
Age −1.235 0.904 −0.067 Age 0.000 0.042 0.000
Sex 3.092 2.439 0.061 Sex −0.270 0.114 −0.122**
Father’s education 0.120 0.870 0.007 Father’s education 0.065 0.041 0.081
***
Mother’s education 4.769 1.197 0.236 Mother’s education 0.057 0.056 0.065
Children of divorce 4.949 2.656 0.087 Children of divorce −0.041 0.124 −0.016
SES 0.994 1.754 0.027 SES 0.178 0.082 0.111*
***
Emotional Support 4.218 1.158 0.210 Emotional Support 0.193 0.054 0.220***
Active Involvement 1.860 1.052 0.093 Active Involvement 0.040 0.049 0.046
Demandingness 0.627 0.952 0.032 Demandingness 0.014 0.045 0.017
Age −2.569 0.845 −0.139 **
Age −0.030 0.042 −0.038
Sex 1.689 2.245 0.033 Sex −0.301 0.113 −0.137**
Mother’s education 4.636 1.099 0.230*** Mother’s education 0.054 0.055 0.062
SES 0.458 1.611 0.012 SES 0.166 0.081 0.104*
***
Emotional Support 3.485 1.066 0.173 Emotional Support 0.177 0.053 0.202***
Academic −1.104 0.133 −0.374*** Academic −0.025 0.007 −0.193***
Expectation Stress Expectation Stress
Age −1.563 0.802 −0.085 *
Age 0.010 0.040 0.012
Sex 3.890 2.118 0.077 Sex −0.210 0.107 −0.095*
Mother’s education 3.647 1.036 0.181*** Mother’s education 0.009 0.052 0.010
SES −1.537 1.530 −0.042 SES 0.076 0.077 0.048
Emotional Support 1.460 1.036 0.073 Emotional Support 0.109 0.052 0.124*
Academic −0.914 0.160 −0.310*** Academic 0.002 0.008 0.015
Expectation Stress Expectation Stress
Psychological capital 11.119 1.505 0.349*** Psychological capital 0.437 0.076 0.315***
Self-compassion −0.488 0.612 −0.042 Self-compassion 0.098 0.031 0.192***
Total R = 0.45
2
Total R = 0.23
2
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001 *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001
for 2% of the variance in psychological capital. Age Table 6 HMRA to identify the predictors of psychological capital
accounted for a significant amount of variance (β = −0.15, B SE B β
p < 0.01). On step 2 father’s education, mother’s education,
Step 1: R = 0.02, F(2370) = 4.33, p < 0.05
2
children of divorce, and SES, were entered and accounted
for a further 15% of the variance. Mother’s education Age −0.085 0.030 −0.146**
(β = 0.31, p < 0.001), and SES (β = 0.17, p < 0.01), con- Sex −0.063 0.082 −0.039
tributed a significant portion of variance. On the next step Step 2: R2 Δ = 0.15, F(4366) = 15.89, p < 0.001
the dimensions of parental academic socialisation, emo- Age −0.064 0.028 −0.111*
tional support, active involvement, and demandingness, Sex −0.136 0.077 −0.086
were entered and added a further 6% to variance explained. Father’s education 0.053 0.028 0.092
Only emotional support (β = 0.31, p < 0.001), and Mother’s education 0.199 0.032 0.313***
demandingness (β = 0.12, p < 0.001), contributed sig- Children of divorce −0.052 0.086 −0.029
nificantly to variance explained. On step 4 academic SES 0.199 0.057 0.173***
expectation stress (β = −0.26, p < 0.001), was added and Step 3: R2 Δ = 0.06, F(3363) = 10.03, p < 0.001
contributed an additional 6% to explained variance. On the Age −0.061 0.028 −0.106*
final step self-compassion was added and contributed Sex −0.169 0.077 −0.106*
another 2% of variance (β = 0.16, p < 0.001). Overall, the Father’s education 0.033 0.027 0.057
model explained 31% of the variance in psychological Mother’s education 0.094 0.038 0.149**
capital. Children of divorce −0.097 0.084 −0.054
Self-compassion was entered as the dependent variable SES 0.195 0.055 0.169***
in the next HMRA (Table 6). On the first step sex and age Emotional Support 0.194 0.036 0.307***
were entered as predictor variables and accounted for less Active Involvement 0.000 0.033 0.000
than 1% of the variance in self-compassion. On step 2 Demandingness 0.073 0.030 0.119**
father’s education, mother’s education, children of divorce,
Step 4: R2 Δ = 0.06, F(1362) = 30.59, p < 0.001
and SES, were entered and did not account a significant
Age −0.091 0.028 −0.157***
percentage of the variance. On the next step the dimensions
Sex −0.200 0.074 −0.126**
of parental academic socialisation, emotional support,
Father’s education 0.039 0.026 0.068
active involvement, and demandingness, were entered and
Mother’s education 0.091 0.036 0.144**
added 2% to variance explained. Only demandingness
Children of divorce −0.146 0.081 −0.081
(β = 0.14, p < 0.01), contributed significantly to variance
explained. On step 4 academic expectation stress SES 0.183 0.053 0.159***
(β = −0.65, p < 0.001), was added and contributed an Emotional Support 0.178 0.035 0.281***
additional 37% to explained variance. Overall, the model Active Involvement −0.016 0.032 −0.025
explained 40% of the variance in self-compassion. Demandingness 0.109 0.030 0.179***
The significant partial correlations from the series of Academic −0.024 0.004 −0.261***
Expectation Stress
HMRAs above provided general support for the model
proposed in Fig. 1. In order to put these relationships into a Step 5: R2 Δ = 0.02, F(2360) = 7.91, p < 0.01
more easily recognised form and to further test the paths Age −0.090 0.028 −0.156***
involved the Structural Equation programme in AMOS 26 Sex −0.197 0.073 −0.124**
was used (Table 7). Father’s education 0.036 0.026 0.063
The first model tested was for well-being as shown in Mother’s education 0.088 0.036 0.139**
Fig. 2. It appears that the model is a good fit for the data Children of divorce −0.142 0.080 −0.079
with χ2 of 18.06, DF = 16, p = 0.320 and χ2/ degrees of SES 0.178 0.053 0.154***
freedom (CMIN/DF) is 1.129. The comparative fit index Emotional Support 0.184 0.035 0.291***
(CFI) is 0.99, the Incremental Fit Index (IFI) is 0.99. The Active Involvement −0.015 0.032 −0.023
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is Demandingness 0.108 0.029 0.177***
0.019 and the probability of a close fit (PCLOSE) is sig- Academic −0.014 0.006 −0.156**
nificant (PCLOSE = 0.928, p < 0.001). Expectation Stress
Similarly, a model for QoL was tested as per Fig. 3. This Self-compassion 0.060 0.021 0.161***
model is also a good fit for the data with χ2 of 20.51, Total R2 = 0.31
DF = 16, p = 0.198 and χ2/ degrees of freedom (CMIN/DF) *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001
is 1.282. The comparative fit index (CFI) is 0.99, the
Table 7 HMRA to identify the predictors of self-compassion behaviour, well-being and quality of life in older school
B SE B β children and in particular to test the role of psychological
capital and self-compassion in the process. This was done by
Step 1: R = 0.009, F(2370) = 1.60, p = 0.202
2
testing the model shown in Fig. 1. Firstly, the data show a
Age 0.139 0.081 0.089 strong and negative impact of academic expectation stress on
Sex 0.122 0.223 0.028 well-being and quality of life. While there was a significant
Step 2: R2 Δ = 0.016, F(4366) = 1.50, p = 0.201 inverse correlation with good health behaviour this did not
Age 0.151 0.082 0.097 translate into an effect in path analysis. This could be because
Sex 0.083 0.226 0.019 the relationship between stress and health behaviour is
Father’s education −0.024 0.082 −0.015 complex and multifaceted (Schneiderman et al., 2005) in that
Mother’s education 0.112 0.093 0.065 while engaging in positive health behaviours (healthy diet,
Children of divorce 0.293 0.252 0.060 exercise, etc.) can alleviate stress, there is evidence that poor
SES 0.238 0.166 0.076 health behaviour (poor diet, lack of exercise) is a response to
Step 3: R2 Δ = 0.02, F(3363) = 2.33, p < 0.05 life stress and a means of coping.
Age 0.192 0.086 0.123* Academic expectation stress was related to self-
Sex 0.165 0.232 0.038 compassion in a relationship which indicates that indivi-
Father’s education −0.006 0.083 −0.004 duals who are compassionate towards the self, experience
Mother’s education 0.076 0.114 0.045 less academic expectation stress. This is likely to be a two-
Children of divorce 0.264 0.253 0.054 way relationship but cannot be explicated in cross sectional
SES 0.173 0.167 0.055 data. Academic expectation stress was inversely correlated
Emotional Support 0.007 0.110 0.004 with psychological capital but in the path analysis this
Active Involvement 0.087 0.100 0.051
relationship was negligible. However, it has an indirect
Demandingness −0.223 0.091 −0.135**
relationship with psychological capital via self-compassion.
This suggests a moderation effect of self-compassion.
Step 4: R2 Δ = 0.37, F(1362) = 230.31, p < 0.001
Academic stress is predicted by socioeconomic status
Age −0.006 0.069 −0.004
(SES), positive parenting, and children of divorce in the
Sex −0.043 0.182 −0.010
path model. It would appear that children from higher SES
Father’s education −0.048 0.065 −0.031
backgrounds, from intact home backgrounds, and more
Mother’s education 0.057 0.089 0.033
overinvolved and less emotionally supportive parents
Children of divorce −0.066 0.199 −0.014
experience higher levels of academic expectation stress.
SES 0.093 0.131 0.030 SES is also predictive of good health behaviour, well-
Emotional Support −0.101 0.087 −0.059 being, quality of life, self-compassion and psychological
Active Involvement −0.018 0.079 −0.011 capital in that those who are better off are more likely to
Demandingness 0.022 0.073 0.013 show self-compassion, to exhibit greater levels of psycho-
Academic −0.164 0.011 −0.651*** logical capital, to engage in healthier lifestyles, and to report
Expectation Stress
better well-being and quality of life. This supports previous
Total R2 = 0.40 research which shows a link with health behaviour (Coombs
*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001 et al., 2013; Kipping et al., 2015), well-being (Bøe et al.,
2012), and quality of life (Didsbury et al., 2016), although
the latter has been health-related quality of life. The findings
Incremental Fit Index (IFI) is 0.99. The Root Mean Square regarding SES and self-compassion and psychological
Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is 0.028 and the prob- capital appear to be novel as there does not appear to be any
ability of a close fit (PCLOSE) is significant (PCLOSE = previous evidence.
0.868, p < 0.001). In terms of parental academic socialisation, we found that
a combination of parental emotional support and positive
active involvement in their child’s education was directly
Discussion related to quality of life and well-being and also had an
indirect effect through self-compassion and psychological
It has been empirically established that health and well-being capital. This is cross sectional data, but it is reasonable to
are inextricably link to academic performance in school suggest that the most likely mechanism is that warm and
children (Ickovics et al., 2014). The aim of the current study engaged parenting encourages self-compassion and helps
was to explore the relationship between home background, build psychological capital in children. There is evidence for
parental influence, academic expectation stress and health this in relation to self-compassion (Neff & McGehee, 2010).
Fig. 2 Path model of well-being;

(Med Mother’s education, SC
self compassion, GHP Good
Health Behaviour, SES
socioeconomic status, Dem
demandingness, ES emotional
support, CoD Children of
Divorce, AExp academic
expectation stress, PsyCap
Psychological capital)
Fig. 3 Path model of Quality of

Life; (Med Mother’s education,
SC self compassion, QoL
quality of Life, GHP Good
Health Behaviour, SES
socioeconomic status, Dem
demandingness, ES emotional
support, CoD Children of
Divorce, AExp academic
expectation stress, PsyCap
Psychological capital)
Mother’s education is linked to higher self-compassion, substantial evidence linking it to academic achievement
well-being and better quality of life. There is some pre- (Magnuson, 2007).
vious evidence linking mother’s education to quality of The main limitation of this study was its cross-sectional
life in adulthood (Richter & Lemola, 2017), and design which limit any strong conclusions from the
findings. However, there was a relatively large sample. included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended
Having said that the findings do confirm some previous use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
research and point the direction for taking the research
holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.
further. org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Theoretically the research literature provides evidence of
relationships between some of the variables measured in
this study. Academic expectation stress and parental aca- References
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Academic Expectations and Well-Being in School Children

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Journal of Child and Family Studies (2023) 32:1923–1935

Academic Expectations and Well-Being in School Children

Accepted: 4 February 2023 / Published online: 24 February 2023

Fig. 1 Proposed relationships Background

relationship between variables that we are interested in. For Results

being. Age −0.385 0.259 −0.070

Step 1: R = 0.05, F(2370) = 8.65, p < 0.001

Age −2.847 0.937 −0.154** Age −0.033 0.042 −0.042

Fig. 2 Path model of well-being;

Fig. 3 Path model of Quality of

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