CHE61404 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

Lab Report
Thermal Radiation
Due Date: 14 June 2024
April 2024

MODULE COORDINATOR/SUPERVISOR NAME:

Cheng YingSi
Group 06

NAME ID SIGNATURE
Lim Kae Bin 0357147 KB
Lee Wenxuan 0366725 WX
Pauline Tung Bo Ling 0369358 PT
Tan Hui Thong 0358188 HT
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents 2
Abstract 3
1.0 Introduction 4
2.0 Materials and Methods 8
2.1 Apparatus Set-up 8
2.2 Material 9
2.3 Methods 9
2.4 Procedure 10
3.0 Results and Discussion 13
3.1 Stefan Boltzmann Law 13
3.1.1 Results 13
3.1.2 Discussion 17
3.2 Inverse Square Law 18
3.2.1 Results 18
3.2.1 Discussion 21
4.0 Error Analysis 23
4.1 Stefan Boltzmann Law 23
4.2 Inverse Square Law 24
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations 25
Abstract

In this thermal radiation experiment, our group has carried out two types of experiments which
are Stefan-Boltzmann Law (Experiment 1) and Inverse Square Law (Experiment 2). According
to Stefan-Boltzmann's Law, the energy emitted by a black body per unit area and unit time is
proportional to the power “four” of the absolute temperature of the body. Stefan Boltzmann's
Law also applies to a "grey" body whose surface has a wavelength-independent absorption
coefficient of less than one. In the experiment, the "grey" body is represented by the filament of
an incandescent lamp, and the energy emission is measured as a function of temperature.

The Stefan Boltzmann Law experiment aims to investigate how the intensity of radiation varies
as the fourth power of the source temperature. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that as the
temperature of the heat source rises, so does the peak irradiance. This implies that the black
plates receive energy from the heat source as a result of energy loss to the atmosphere.

However, the Inverse Square Law (Experiment 2) explains the intensity of light about the
distance from the source. The inverse square law asserts that radiation intensity is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance. According to this law, light loses brightness or
luminosity as it moves away from its source.

In comparison, the difference between the two laws is that the inverse square law for heat shows
that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the surface's
distance from the radiation source. Accordingly, Stefan Boltzmann Law states that the strength
of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source temperature.

As a result, it is demonstrated that Stefan Boltzmann's law implies that there is a direct
relationship between the temperature of the heat source and the peak irradiance; as the
temperature rises, so does the peak irradiance rise. The Inverse Square Law demonstrates the
inverse relationship between the peak irradiance of a heat flow sensor and the distance from the
heat source. This demonstrates that energy is being lost to the environment as a result of specific
conditions that fit with the concepts of the Inverse Square Law.
1.0 Introduction

Thermal radiation refers to the process of heat transfer through electromagnetic radiation, which
is produced by the movement of particles in matter. For the majority of objects on Earth,
electromagnetic radiation is found in the invisible part of the spectrum called the infrared area.
Thermal radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object due to its
temperature. Thermal radiation plays a crucial role in several scenarios, ranging from space
exploration to conventional heating systems, due to its ability to propagate across a vacuum,
unlike conduction and convection, which require a medium for heat transfer.

The concept of blackbody radiation is essential to understanding thermal radiation. A blackbody

is an item that absorbs all incoming radiation and emits radiation at the maximum possible
intensity for a given temperature.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law expresses the total amount of energy emitted by a blackbody based
on its temperature. According to this statement, the amount of power radiated per unit area is
directly related to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. This emphasizes the significant
rise in radiation as the temperature increases.

Materials in practical situations do not behave as perfect blackbodies because of considerations

including reflectivity, transmissivity, and emissivity. Emissivity is a measure of how well a
material can emit thermal radiation compared to a blackbody at the same temperature. It is
expressed on a scale from 0 for materials that reflect all radiation to 1 for materials that emit
radiation perfectly. The feature described has important consequences for applications like
thermal imaging, as differences in emissivity can affect the precision of temperature readings.

According to this law, as the temperature of a dark body rises, the rate at which it emits radiation
increases significantly. It has major implications in multiple domains, such as astronomy, where
it is utilized to determine the brightness and temperatures of stars, and in engineering, where it is
employed in the development of heat transfer systems and thermal radiation shields.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law (Experiment 1) mathematically expressed as:

The Stefan-Boltzmann law is a fundamental theory in physics that quantifies the total power
emitted by a black body, an idealized object that absorbs and emits all frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation, based on its temperature.
Based on Stefan Boltzmann Law:

Where:
Eb = Energy Emitted per unit area (W.m-2)
−8 −2 −4
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant (5. 67 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 )
T4 = Fourth Power Temperature of the Body.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law is a mathematical constant that is named in honour of Josef Stefan
and Ludwig Boltzmann. The Stefan Boltzmann Constant is denoted by the Greek Alphabet σ.
The value of Stefan Boltzmann constant in SI units is approximately 5.67 ×10-8 Watts per square
meter per Kelvin to the fourth power.

Figure 1.1, Stefan Boltzmann Law Diagram

The inverse square law is a fundamental principle in physics that illustrates the reduction in
intensity of a physical quantity, such as light, sound, or gravitational force, as the distance from
its source increases. This implies that when one moves further away from the source, the
intensity diminishes at a greater rate than the distance increases. The closer a light source is, the
brighter it appears. This phenomenon is demonstrated by the observation that when an
automobile approaches us at night, it appears dark from a distance. However, as the car gets
closer, the headlights illuminate it, causing it to become brighter. This change in brightness is a
result of the decreasing distance between the observer and the car.

Inverse Square Law (Experiment 2) mathematically expressed as:

The law states that the intensity of the physical quantity is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the source:

Where:
I = The intensity or strength of the effect
r = The distance from the source of the effect

Figure 1.2, Inverse Square Law Diagram

2.0 Materials and Methods

2.1 Apparatus Set-up

Figure 2.1.1, Front Side of the Apparatus Set-up

Figure 2.1.2, Close-up Picture of the Control Box

 Figure 2.1.3, Close-up Picture of the Heat Source

2.2 Material
Experiments 1 & 2
1. Thermal radiator
2. Heat source
3. Plate holder
4. Heat flux sensor
5. Light source

2.3 Methods
The first step of the experiment is placing the heat flux sensor as far as possible from the heat
source. Then, an absorption plate is placed on the plate holder to block the heat source and the
heat flux sensor to prevent direct heat transfer before the experimenter starts to record data. After
this, the heat source and heat flux sensor are connected to the control box by connecting to their
respective terminal on the control box. The heater thermocouple is connected to the T1 terminal
on the control box. After confirming all the connections were well attached, the power source of
the control box was switched on. Then, the heater knob was adjusted until the “PWR” on the
digital display showed 100%. The experimenters have to record the heater’s temperature, T1
from the digital display.

Experiment 1 - Stefan Boltzmann Law

Once the T1 reaches 40°C, lower the ‘PWR’ approximately to 5% to let the heater temperature
settle at 40°C. As the T1 settled down, the zero button was pressed to cancel out the heat from
the surroundings to avoid random error. Next, take away the heat flux sensor and reposition it at
exactly 0.35 m away from the heat source to let it be exposed to the heat. Use a phone stopwatch
to measure 3 minutes for the heat to irradiance till its peak. After the temperature, T1 and peak
irradiance are recorded, the heat flux sensor is removed and repositioned behind the plate holder
to let the reading return to 0. The heater temperature was then adjusted to 60 % by increasing the
power of the control box to measure the peak irradiance at 60°C, 90°C, 100°C, 119.5°C, 130°C,
and 140°C.

Experiment 2 - Inverse Square Law

Once the T1 reaches 40°C, lower the ‘PWR’ approximately to 80% to let the heater temperature
settle at 140°C. As the T1 settled down, the zero button was pressed to cancel out the heat from
the surroundings to avoid random error. Next, take away the heat flux sensor and reposition it at
exactly 0.5 m away from the heat source to let it be exposed to the heat. Use a phone stopwatch
to measure 3 minutes for the heat to irradiance till its peak. After the temperature, T1 and peak
irradiance are recorded, the heat flux sensor is removed and repositioned behind the plate holder
to let the reading return to 0. The procedures are repeated to obtain the peak irradiance at the
distance, r = 0.45 m, 0.4 m, 0.35 m, 0.3 m, 0.25 m, 0.2 m and 0.15 m. For each replicate, it is
important to ensure the power and temperature are settled down at 80% and 140°C respectively.

2.4 Procedure
Experiment 1 - Stefan Boltzmann Law
1. The Heat Flux Sensor is fitted as far away on the frame as possible from the heat source
(towards the light source).
2. The plate holder is fitted between the heat source and the heat Flux sensor (near the Heat
Flux Sensor)
 3. A shiny-shiny absorption plate is fitted to the plate holder. This will hide the sensor,
blocking the heat from the source reaching the sensor.
4. The Heat Flux Sensor and Heat Source (heater) are connected to their sockets on the
control box.
5. The heater thermocouple is connected to the thermocouple socket T1 on the control box.
6. The zero button on the control box is pressed to cancel out the Heat Flux Sensor reading
due to the heat in the room.
7. The heat source is switched on and adjusted to 100% until the temperature at the heater
reaches 40°C, then reduced back to around 5°C and waited for the heater temperature
reading to settle at 40°C. The temperature is kept constant during the experiment.
8. The plate holder is left in position, and the Heat Flux Sensor is removed and re-fitted
exactly 350 mm (0.35 m) away from the heat source to expose it to the heat. Wait for its
reading to reach a peak value, and then the value is noted.
9. The Heat Flux Sensor was removed and refitted behind the Plate Holder (with the
absorption plate still fitted) and waited for the reading to return to zero.
10. The heater temperature is increased to 60°C and wait for it to settle.
11. Again, the Heat Flux Sensor was moved to 350 mm (0.35 m) away from the heat source
and waited for the peak reading.
12. The hiding and exposing of the sensor is continued for heater temperatures in 20°C steps
up to a maximum of 140°C.
13. All the data obtained are recorded in Table 3.1.1.1

Experiment 2 - Inverse Square Law

1. The Heat Flux Sensor is fitted as far away on the frame as possible from the heat source
(towards the light source).
2. A plate holder is fitted between the heat source and the Heat Flux Sensor (near the Heat
Flux Sensor).
3. A shiny-shiny absorption plate is fitted to the plate holder. This will hide the sensor,
blocking the heat from the source reaching the sensor.
4. The Heat Flux Sensor and the Heat Source are connected to their sockets on the control
box.
5. The heater thermocouple is connected to the thermocouple socket T1 on the control box.
6. The zero button of the control box is pressed to cancel out the Heat Flux Sensor reading
due to the heat in the room.
7. The heat source is switched on and adjusted to 100% until the temperature at the heater
reaches 140°C, then reduced back to around 80% and wait for the heater temperature
reading to settle at 140°C. The temperature is kept constant during the experiment.
8. The Plate Holder is left in position, and the Heat Flux Sensor is removed and refitted
exactly 500 mm (0.5 m) away from the heat source to expose it to the heat. Wait for its
reading to reach a peak value, and then the value is noted.
9. The Heat Flux Sensor was removed and refitted behind the Plate Holder (with the
absorption plate still fitted) and waited for the reading to return to zero.
10. The hiding and exposing of the sensor (steps 8 and 9 above) is continued at the distances
shown in the table (starting with 450 mm or 0.45 m).
11. All the data obtained are recorded in Table 3.2.1.1.
3.0 Results and Discussion

3.1 Stefan Boltzmann Law

3.1.1 Results

Table 3.1.1.1, Results Collected from Experiment 1

Heat Source Heat Source Surrounding Surrounding Peak Irradiance,

Temperature, Temperature, Temperature, Temperature, Ee (W.m-2)
T1 (℃) T1 (K) T2 (℃) T2 (K)

40 313.15 28.3 301.45 5

60 333.15 28.5 301.65 8

90 363.15 28.6 301.75 18

100 373.15 29.0 302.15 19

120 393.15 29.2 302.35 27

130 403.15 29.5 302.65 30

140 413.15 29.7 302.85 34

Formula of Experiment constant:

𝐸𝑒
σ𝑒 = 4 4
[𝑇1 −𝑇2 ]

Sample Calculation for First Data :

5
σ𝑒 = 10 9
[(0.96×10 )−(8.26×10 )]

−9 −2 −4
= 3. 73 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾
Formula of Thermal Radiation Emitted:
4 4
Absolute Temperature = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
4 4
𝑞̇ = σ[𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ]
−9 −2 −4
σ - Stefan Boltzmann Constant (56. 7 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 )

Sample Calculation for First Data:

−9 10 9
𝑞̇ = 56. 7 × 10 [(0. 96 × 10 ) − (8. 26 × 10 ]
−2
= 75. 98 𝑊𝑚

Table 3.1.1.2, Calculated Results For Experiment 1

Fourth power Fourth power Peak Experimental Thermal

of Heat Source of Surrounding Irradiance, Ee Constant, σe Radiation
Temperature Temperature (W.m-2) (W.m-2 K-4) Emitted,
T14, (K) T24, (K) q̇ (W.m-2)

0.96E+10 8.26E+09 5 3.73E-09 75.98

1.23E+10 8.28E+09 8 1.99E-09 227.93

1.74E+10 8.29E+09 18 1.98E-09 516.54

1.94E+10 8.33E+09 19 1.72E-09 627.67

2.39E+10 8.36E+09 27 1.74E-09 881.12

2.64E+10 8.39E+09 30 1.67E-09 1021.17

2.93E+10 8.41E+09 34 1.63E-09 1184.46

The formula of Absorptivity:
𝑞̇
𝑎= 𝐸𝑒

Sample Calculation for First Data:

5
𝑎= 75.98

= 15. 20

Table 3.1.1.3, Results Comparison Between the Experimental Value and Theoretical Value

Peak Thermal Absorptivity

Irradiance, Ee Radiation Emitted, 𝑎=
𝑞̇
𝐸𝑒
(W.m-2) q̇ (W.m-2)

5 75.98 15.20

8 227.93 28.49

18 516.54 28.70

19 627.67 33.04

27 881.12 32.63

30 1021.17 34.04

34 1184.46 34.84
Figure 3.1.1.1, Graph for Peak Irradiance vs Fourth Power Absolute Temperature

Figure 3.1.1.2, Graph for Thermal Irradiance Emmited vs Fourth Power Absolute
Temperature
3.1.2 Discussion

Table 3.1.1.1 shows the results collected from Experiment 1, Stefan Boltzmann Law.
Peak Irradiance was collected as it is the radiation emitted and represents the experimental value.
In Table 3.1.1.2, we calculate the fourth power of the heat source and surrounding temperature to
calculate the absolute temperature as the absolute temperature is the difference between the
fourth power of the heat source and surrounding temperature. In this experiment, the
experimental constant, σe is calculated as the heat flux sensor cannot be a black body, so the Peak
−9 −2 −4
Irradiance collected is unable to use the Stefan Boltzmann constant (56. 7 × 10 𝑊. 𝑚 𝐾 ).
The Thermal Radiation Emitted is represented as a theoretical value by using the Stefan
Boltzmann constant to calculate the value. Table 3.1.1.3 shows that absorptivity is the ratio
between the radiation absorbed by a surface and that of a black body. The absorptivity ranges
from 0 to 1, 0 means that the object reflected all the radiation and 1 means that the object
absorbed all the radiation. A blackbody is an ideal object that has the best absorption of all
radiation that falls on it.
Figure 3.1.1.1 shows Peak Irradiance against the fourth power absolute temperature.
From this graph, there is a best-fit line which is in red and it shows directly proportional.
Therefore, the relationship between Peak Irradiance and fourth power absolute temperature is
proportional. The fourth power of absolute temperature increases and the Peak Irradiance will
also increase. This graph has a straight-line equation which is 𝑦 = 2. 0𝐸 − 09𝑥 + 2. 8423,
based on the linear equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 , this graph has a gradient, 𝑚𝐸 = 2. 0𝐸 − 09. The

gradient, m, is the average experimental constant of all data. When 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 compared to

4
the Stefan Boltzmann radian equation, 𝑞̇𝑏 = σ𝑇 , σ will be the gradient, m. This shows that the
experimental constant is not accurate when compared to Stefan Boltzmann's constant. This can
be one of the evidence that the heat flux sensor is not a blackbody. Figure 3.1.1.2 shows the
Thermal Irradiance Emitted against the fourth power absolute temperature. The relationship
between Thermal Irradiance Emitted and fourth power absolute temperature is proportional. The
fourth power of absolute temperature increases and the Thermal Irradiance Emitted will also
increase. From this graph, the best-fit line is the same as the Peak Irradiance value with perfectly
proportional. As this situation happened, we can consider that the data obtained is consistent,
with no human error or parallax error. However, the gradient, 𝑚𝑇 shown in the graph is

6. 0𝐸 − 08 which has only a bit of difference with the Stefan Boltzmann constant. So, the
calibration error will be the only error causing the data to be precise but not so accurate.

3.2 Inverse Square Law

3.2.1 Results

Table 3.2.1.1, Results Collected from Experiment 2

Distance between the Heat Source and the Peak Irradiance (𝑊/𝑚 )
2

Heat Flux Sensor, 𝑟 (m)

0.5 15

0.45 16

0.4 19

0.35 34

0.3 38

0.25 55

0.2 85

0.15 150
 Table 3.2.1.2, Calculated Results Experiment 2

Distance Square distance Reciprocals of

between the between the the Square
Heat Source Heat Source distance 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐸𝑒
and the Heat and the Heat between the
Flux Sensor, 𝑟 Flux Sensor, 𝑟
2 Heat Source
(m) and the Heat
Flux Sensor,
2
1/𝑟

0.5 0.250 4.000 -0.301 1.176

0.45 0.203 4.938 -0.347 1.204

0.4 0.160 6.250 -0.398 1.279

0.35 0.123 8.163 -0.456 1.531

0.3 0.090 11.111 -0.523 1.580

0.25 0.063 16.000 -0.602 1.740

0.2 0.040 25.000 -0.699 1.929

0.15 0.023 44.444 -0.824 2.176

Figure 3.2.1.1, Graph for Peak Irradiance vs Distance between the Heat Source and the Heat
Flux

Figure 3.2.1.2, Graph for Peak Irradiance vs Inverse of Distance between the Heat Source
and the Heat Flux squared
 Figure 3.2.1.3, Graph for log Ee vs log r

3.2.1 Discussion

Table 3.2.1.1 shows the result from Experiment 2, the distance between the heat source
and the heat flux sensor (r) and the peak irradiance (Ee) was collected as the experiment value.
In Table 3.2.1.2 we calculate the reciprocals of the squared distance between the Heat Source
2
and the Heat Flux Sensor, 1/𝑟 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐸𝑒. The general formula for the intensity is
𝑃
𝐼= 2 , that I is the intensity, P stands for the power of the heat source or the source strength
4π𝑟

and r is the distance between the heat source and the heat flux sensor. If just looking at the
1 𝑃
relationship between intensity and distance, we notice that 𝐼∝ 2 , which 4π
is a constant value.
𝑟

Figure 3.2.1.1 shows the relationship between peak irradiance and the distance, the graph
shows the peak irradiance is highest when the distance is r=0.15m and it is lowest when the
distance is r= 0.5m. From this, we know that the peak irradiance increases as the distance
between the heat source and the heat flux sensor. Besides that, Figure 3.2.1.2 shows the
relationship between the peak irradiance and inverse of distance between the heat source and the
1
heat flux squared, 2 . From the graph, there is strong evidence that show that there was a linear
𝑟

1
relationship between peak irradiance and 2 , all the data points closely following a straight
𝑟

1
line. As the graph shows 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2 𝑚 + 𝑐 , 𝑚 is the slope of the straight line and
𝑟

it is a constant value and 𝑐 is the y-intercept. Thus, the radiation intensity is inversely
1
proportional to the distance squared, which 𝐼∝ 2 .
𝑟

Moving on to Figure 3.2.1.3, it show the relationship between 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐸𝑒 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟. Based
on inverse square law, 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐸𝑒 = -2(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟) the slope of the graph, m=-2, by calculating the slope
1.740−1.580
value of the straight line, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −0.602−(−0.523)
= -2. 03 which is nearly -2. Hence, it is prove
1
that radiation intensity is inversely proportional to the distance squared,which 𝐼∝ 2 .
𝑟
4.0 Error Analysis

4.1 Stefan Boltzmann Law

Table 4.1.1 Experiment 1 Error Analysis using Graph Gradient

Graph Gradient, 𝑚𝐸 Graph Gradient, 𝑚𝑇 Error Percentage of

From From Error (%)

Figure 3.1.1.1 Figure 3.1.1.2 |𝑚𝐸 − 𝑚𝑇| |𝑚𝐸−𝑚𝑇|

𝑚𝑇
× 100%
(Experimental Value) (Theoretical Value)

2. 0𝐸 − 09 6. 0𝐸 − 08 5. 8𝐸 − 08 96.6667

As shown in Table 4.1.1, the percentage of error in this experiment is 96.6667%, which is
extremely high. Since Figure 3.1.1.2 shows the best-fit line is the same as the peak irradiance
value with proportionality, we can still conclude that the data collected is consistent, with no
human error and parallax error, only calibration error. Calibration errors mean that the instrument
is not calibrated correctly, and does not provide accurate measurements. In this experiment,
calibration errors resulted in the incorrect Peak Irradiance values. The heat flux sensor was not
accurately calibrated and caused a high percentage of error. The absorptivity values in this
experiment exceed 1, which is outside the normal range of 0-1. Absorptivity values that are
greater than 1 are physically impossible and show that it is a calibration error. The instrument
might be overestimating the measured radiation. The high percentage of error shows significant
calibration errors in this experiment. To improve the accuracy of future experiments, it is crucial
to ensure the accurate calibration of all measurement instruments or use high-quality equipment
to minimise systematic errors.
4.2 Inverse Square Law

In Figure 3.2.1.2, there were several points of data that did not align with the straight
line. There could be some reasons for this situation, at first the temperature was not constant and
fluctuated when our team was experimenting. This may explain why our team's peak irradiance
data on distance 0.35m is irregularly increasing.

Furthermore, there might be a human error occurring when setting up the experiment
such that the radiometer sensor was not accurately placed. This may cause the data to change by
a few values, which makes the measurement not accurate.

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

These 2 experiments gave us an insight into the theory of heat transfer and a better
understanding of Stefan Boltzmann Law and Inverse Square Law. In conclusion, we can say that
both of the experiments carried out were successful as both hypotheses for the experiment were
accepted. In experiment 1, the data showed a directly proportional relationship between peak
irradiance and the fourth power of absolute temperature which confirms the theoretical
expectation although the error percentage of our data is despite being as high (96.6667%). The
high percentage of error is considered due to calibration errors, indicating that the heat flux
sensor was not accurately calibrated and resulted in incorrect peak irradiance values. In
experiment 2, the relationship between peak irradiance and distance from the heat source obeys
the inverse square law, in which the peak irradiance decreases as the distance increases. This is
shown by a linear relationship between peak irradiance and the inverse square of the distance.

To improve the accuracy of future experiments, it is important to have accurate calibration on all
instruments to minimise systematic errors. The accuracy of the data can be improved by
replacing the sensor with more advanced sensors such as a black body radiator as the heat
source. To improve the accuracy of experiment 2, widening the range of distances is advised.
Besides that, the accuracy can be raised by applying multiple heat flux sensors to obtain the
average data to reduce the random error.
6.0 References

1. Editor Engineeringtoolbox. (2024, April 3). Surface radiation absorptivity.

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/radiation-surface-absorptivity-d_1805.html

2. [Solved] Absorptivity of a perfect black body is: (2024, June 4). Testbook.

https://testbook.com/question-answer/absorptivity-of-a-perfectblack-body-is--5dc

40aa7f60d5d06904b0b6c

3. Walker, J., Resnick, R., & Halliday, D. (2014). Fundamentals of physics. John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.