BONES OF THE

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PELVIC LIMBS
 BONES OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Thoracic Limb (Forelimb) Pelvic Limb ( Hindlimb)

Thoracic Girdle Pelvic Girdle

Scapula/Scapulae (paired) Ilium
Clavicle Ischium
Pubis

Arm or Brachium Thigh

Humerus Femur
Patella

Forearm or Antebrachium Leg or Crus

Radius Tibia
Ulna Fibula

Forepaw or Manus Hindpaw or Pes

Carpal bones Tarsal bones
Metacarpal bones Metatarsal bones
Phalanges Phalanges
 48 bones in each pelvic limb of a dog
Major regions of the pelvic limb include:
• Pelvic region or Pelvic Girdle(bony pelvis) (containing the os coxae bone- ( 6 -Ilium, Ischium, Pubis)
• Thigh (1- femur bone, 1-patella)
• Leg or Crus (2- tibia and fibula bones),
• Hindpaw or Pes (foot-7-Tarsal bones, 5-Metatarsal, 12-Phalanges).
• Proximal sesamoid bones (anterior and posterior) – 14 (9+5; same as a thoracic limb),

The basics of the bones are:

1.The femur: part of the dog’s leg situated above the knee on the hind leg
2.The stifle or knee: the joint that sits on the front of the hind leg in line with the abdomen
3.Tibia and fibula: the part of the hind leg beneath the knee to the hock
4.The hock: strangely shaped joint that makes a sharp angle at the back of the dog’s leg (corresponds to the human’s
ankle)
5.Tarsals and metatarsals: equivalent to human bones in feet – excluding toes [2]

The four regions are connected by three joints: hip (coxofemoral joint), stifle (knee); and tarsus (human ankle or
quadruped hock)
 The PELVIC GIRDLE (BONY PELVIS)

• The PELVIC GIRDLE consists of two similar bones, the os-coxae of both sides and
the sacrum.
• Each os-coxae consists of three bones, namely; ilium, ischium, and pubis which
are fused ventrally at symphysis pelvis/pelvic symphysis forming ossa-coxarum
• Symphysis pelvis consists of ischial symphysis posteriorly and pubic symphysis
anteriorly.
• Ossa-coxarum consists of two os-coxae of each side,which form a cartilaginous
joint along the median line(pelvic symphysis).

ake note of the changes made to the location of the two parts of the symphysis pelvis and the spelling of "os cox
PELVIS

• The bony pelvis is composed of ossa-coxarum, the sacrum and the first
few coccygeal/caudal vertebrae.
• The bony pelvis(similar to basin) is bounded by pelvic bones and encloses
a space called the pelvic cavity.
• The cavity is simple ovoid and is free in communication with the abdominal
cavity in front.
• The floor and the roof of the pelvic cavity are not correspondingly placed.
The floor or ventral wall is formed by the pubis and ischium bones
and the roof or dorsal wall is formed by the sacrum and first few
coccygeal vertebrae. The lateral walls are formed by the parts of
ilium, sacro-sciatic ligament and acetabular part of ischia. .
• Anterior part of the roof has no bony floor, hence it is called false pelvis.
 Basic structures from the dog’s pelvic
region.
• The boundary of pelvic inlet and outlet of a dog pelvic cavity.
• The pelvic cavity of the dog includes the pelvic inlet and an outlet.
• It has considerable obstetric importance; it must be large enough to allow for the passage of
the young during parturition.
• The cranial opening of the pelvis is known as pelvic inlet or anterior aperture, which is
formed dorsally by the sacrum base(sacral promontory), laterally by the shaft of the
ilia(arcuate line/ilio-pectinal line) and ventrally by anterior border of the
pubis(pecten ossis pubis).
• The pelvic inlet has two principal diameter. The conjugate or sacro-pubic diameter,
measured from the sacral promontary to the pecten ossis pubis. The transverse
diameter is measured at the greatest width, i.e., just dorsal to the psoas tubercle.
• The pelvic outlet or posterior aperture is smaller and incomplete at the sides which is
bounded dorsally by the third or fourth coccygeal vertebra, and ventrally by the
ischial arch and laterally by the broad sacro-tuberal ligament and semi-
membranosus muscle, thus enclosing perineum.
• The pelvic outlet is the inferior and lesser aperture of the pelvic cavity
•The pubis and the
ischium of the
opposite sides meet at
a more open angle in
the female than in the
male.
SACROSCIATIC LIGAMENT
• The sacrosciatic ligament is broad ligament that extends from the
sacrum to the ischiatic = sciatic spine. This ligament is common
in herbivores. The caudal edge of the sacrosciatic ligament
is equivalent to the sacrotuberous ligament of the dog.
• During rectal palpation of a cow or mare the sacrosciatic
ligament is easily felt as a hard flat sheet forming the
lateral wall of the pelvis.
• The lesser sciatic foramen can be palpated per rectum in
cows as a dimple like "hole" between the sacrosciatic
ligament and the more ventral bone (ischium).
• This foramen is caudal within the pelvis so it can be
palpated when the palpator's wrist is in the anus.
 • The ilium of the left side and the right side of a dog’s hip bone

Special features of dog

(bony pelvis) are almost parallel.
• You will find a concave gluteal surface in the dog ilium bone.

pelvis bones
• There is no distinct gluteal line in the dog ilium compared to the
ruminant.
• The crest of the dog ilium bones is strongly convex.
• There is a twisted ischium bone present in the dog’s bony pelvis.
• The ischial tuberosity is flat, whereas you will find a pointed ischial
tuberosity in a small ruminant.
• The superior ischiatic spine is blunt, and the greater and lesser
ischiatic notches are shallow compared to the ruminant.
• You will find a wide acetabular notch and deep acetabulum in the
dog’s hip bone.
Male and female dog pelvis anatomy

• In the male and female dog pelvis anatomy, you will find the same
structures (bones, muscles, vessels, and nerves).
• You will find the more conjugate and transverse diameter in the
female os coxae.
• In the female, the bone is more inclined forward.
• The pelvic outlet and the ischial arch are larger in the female pelvis
than in males.
• The ischia of both sides join in more wide-angle in females and make
the pelvic cavity roomier.
BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB
PELVIC GIRDLE OR PELVIS or HIP
• The pelvic girdle, or pelvis, of the dog consists of two hip • Largest and most cranial of these is the ilium, which
bones, which are united at the symphysis pelvis midventrally articulates with the sacrum.
and join the sacrum dorsally.
• The ischium is the most caudal
• Each hip bone, or os coxae, is formed by the fusion of three
primary bones and the addition of a fourth in early life. • The pubis is located ventromedial to the ilium and cranial to
the large obturator foramen.
• The os coxae, hip or innominate bone, is the largest of the
flat bones • The acetabulum, a socket, a cup- shaped articular cavity
which articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip
• The two coxal bones, together with the sacrum and the first joint.
few caudal vertebrae constitute the bony pelvis.
• The small acetabular bone, which helps form the
• Its dorsal wall or roof is formed by the sacrum and first few acetabulum, is incorporated with the ilium, ischium, and
caudal vertebrae pubis when they fuse (about the third month).
• the ventral wall or floor by the pubic and ischial bones. • At the tail end of the vertebral column is a small bone called
the sacrum. The sacrum lies between the lumbar spine and
• The lateral walls are formed by the ilia and the acetabular the tail. On either side of the the sacrum are two bones (one
part of the ischia. on each side) called the ilium.
DOG
HIP BONES
Pelvic Bone of Dog
• The ilium is nearly vertical and iliac shaft is compressed from
side to side.
• The gluteal surface of ilium is more concave and is directed
directly outwards.
• The pelvic surface is nearly flat.
• The dorsal border is convex, thick and rough.
• The pubic border is better marked and is continuous.
• The external angle is undivided.
• The superior ischiatic spine is low but thick.
• The greater ischiatic notch is shallow.
• The lesser ischiatic notch is absent.
• The ischium has a twisted appearance and ischial arch is very
wide.
• The sub-pubic groove is absent.
• The acetabulum and acetabular fossa are deep.
• The acetabular foramen is triangular in outline with the
angles rounded off.
OS COXAE/HIP BONE

• The os-coxae or hipbone is the largest of the flat bones.

• It consists of 3 bones primarily, the ilium, ischium, and pubis which meet together to
form the acetabulum, a large cotyloid cavity, on each side which articulates with the
head of femur.
• It is a flat irregular bone, being directed obliquely downward and backward.
• Canine pelvis, positioned between the dorsal and transverse planes (though it is closer to
the dorsal plane) and it is relatively small and narrow
• Wide canine ischiatic or ischial tuberosities project caudally to form a broad ischiatic table.
• The canine pelvis shape from a ventral view resembles a rectangle[1]
• The symphysis pelvis is relatively long and has two portions, the symphysis ischii and
symphysis pubis[1]
• Tuber coxae and tuber sacrale are both palpable[4]
• Tuber ischii is positioned underneath the hamstrings
• Abnormalities of the acetabulum or of the head of the femur are part of hip
dysplasia, which is a common orthopedic problem in large-breed dogs
ILIUM
• The ilium a flat bone presenting two surfaces and three borders,
forms the cranial one half to three fifths of the os coxae.
• It can be divided into a wide cranial part, which is concave laterally
and known as the wing, and a narrow, laterally compressed caudal
part, the body.
Two surfaces of ilium
• External or gluteal surface –of the wing of the ilium is nearly
flat caudally and concave cranially
• Internal or sacropelvic surface- of the wing of the ilium
presents a smooth, nearly flat area that provides attachment
for the iliocostalis, longissimus and the quadratus lumborum
muscles.
• The arcuate line is located along ventromedial edge of
the sacropelvic surface of the body of the ilium and runs
from the auricular surface to the iliopubic eminence of
the pubis
• The auricular surface is rough and articulates with a
similar surface of the sacrum,forming the sacroiliac
joint
 Three borders of ilium
• The cranial border is arciform and usually roughened and is more commonly known as the iliac crest. It is
thin but gradually increases in thickness dorsally.
• Iliac crest is an important area from which we take bone marrow samples in dogs.
• The angle of junction of the iliac crest with the ventral border is known as the cranial ventral iliac spine,
which provides a place of origin for both bellies of the sartorius and a part of the tensor fasciae latae.
• The tuber coxae is composed of the cranial ventral iliac spine and the adjacent part of the ventral border of
the wing of the ilium.
• The rest of the ventral border is concave. It ends in the lateral area for the rectus femoris just cranial to the
acetabulum.
• The dorsal border of the ilium is broad and massive.
• The tuber sacrale, is composed of cranial and caudal dorsal iliac spine and occupies nearly half the length of
the dorsal border of the ilium .
• The caudal half of the dorsal border is gently concave. It forms the greater ischiatic notch and also helps
form the ischiatic spine, which is dorsal to the spine
• The junction of the dorsal border with the iliac crest forms an obtuse angle that is rounded prominence, the
cranial dorsal iliac spine.
• Caudal to the cranial dorsal iliac spine is the wide but blunt caudal dorsal iliac spine.
 ISCHIUM
• The ischium consists of tuberosity, body, table, and ramus. It forms the caudal part of the os coxae and enters
into the formation of the acetabulum, obturator foramen, and symphysis pelvis. Its caudal border consists of
the ischiatic tuberosity laterally and one half of the ischiatic arch medially.
• The ischiatic tuberosity is the thick caudolateral margin of the bone.
• The lateral angle of the tuber is enlarged and hooked; it furnishes attachment for the sacrotuberous ligament.
• The medial angle is rounded.
• The ventral surface is the place of origin for the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus
• The crus of the penis and the muscle that surrounds it also attach to the ischiatic tuberosity medially.
• The body of the ischium is the part lateral to the obturator foramen.
• The ischiatic spine is a rounded crest dorsal to the acetabulum, where the body of the ischium meets the
ilium. The coccygeus attaches here.
• Caudal to this spine the border of the ischium is depressed and marked by a
series of low ridges produced by the tendon of the internal obturator. This area is
known as the lesser ischiatic notch
• The gemelli arise from the lateral surface adjacent to the lesser ischiatic notch.
• The ramus of the ischium is the thin and wide medial part of the ischium. It is
bounded laterally by the obturator foramen and blends caudally with the body of
the ischium
• . The ramus meets its fellow at the symphysis and is fused with the pubis
cranially.
• The ischiatic table is the flat portion where the ramus meets the body. It faces
dorsally and is the site of origin of the internal obturator muscle.
• The quadratus femoris and the external obturator arise from its ventral surface.
The ischiatic arch is formed by the medial portion of the caudal border of each
ischium.
PUBIS
• The pubis extends from the ilium and ischium laterally to the symphysis medially and consists of a body and two
rami
• The body is located cranial to the obturator foramen.
• The cranial ramus extends from the body to the ilium and enters into the formation of the acetabulum.
• The caudal ramus fuses with the ischial ramus at the middle of the pelvic symphysis.
• The ventral surface of the pubis and adjacent ischial ramus serve as origin for the gracilis, the adductor, and the
external obturator.
• The dorsal surface gives rise to a small part of the internal obturator and the levator ani.
• The obturator sulcus, a groove for the obturator nerve, is located at the cranial end of the obturator foramen and
passes dorsally over the pelvic surface of the body of the bone
• The iliopubic eminence projects from the cranial border of the cranial ramus of the pubic bone. The pectineus
attaches to it.
• The pubic tubercle projects cranially from the pubis on the midline.
• The roughened cranial border of the pubis between the iliopubic eminence and the pubic tubercle is the pecten, to
which the abdominal muscles attach by means of a prepubic tendon to be dissected later.
• The prepubic tendon is composed primarily of the tendons of the paired rectus abdominis and pectineus muscles.
ACETABULUM
• The acetabulum is a cavity that receives the head of the femur. Its articular surface is semilunar and is
composed of parts of the ilium, ischium, and, in young animals, the acetabular bone
• In the adult the acetabular bone is fused imperceptibly with the pubis, ischium, and ilium.
• The circumference of the articular surface is broken at the caudomedial part by the acetabular notch.
• The acetabular fossa is formed by the ischium and the acetabular bone. The ligament of the head of the
femur attaches in this fossa. The fossa and the notch are the nonarticular parts of the acetabulum.
• The two sides of the notch are connected by the transverse acetabular ligament.
• The obturator foramen is closed in life by the obturator membrane and the external and internal obturator
muscles that the membrane separates.
FEMUR BONE OF A DOG – 1

• The femur or thigh bone, is the largest bone in

the body. The flexor angle of the hip is about 110
degrees. The flexor angle at the stifle is from 130
to 135 degrees.
• The femur is a typical long bone with a cylindrical
body and two expanded extremities.
• The proximal extremity presents on its medial side
a smooth, nearly hemispherical head, most of
which is articular except for a small shallow fossa
beginning near the middle of the head and usually
extending to its caudomedial margin.
• This fossa is the fovea capitis femoris, to which the
ligament of the head of the femur attaches.
• The head is attached to the medial part of the proximal extremity by the neck of the femur. The neck is distinct
but short and provides attachment for the joint capsule.
• The greater trochanter, the largest eminence of the proximal extremity, is located directly lateral to the head.
• To it attach the middle gluteal and deep gluteal.
• The trochanteric fossa is a deep cavity medial to the greater trochanter.
• The gemelli and the external and internal obturators insert in this fossa.
• The lesser trochanter, a pyramidal projection at the proximal end of the medial side of the body of the femur,
serves for the insertion of the iliopsoas.
• A ridge of bone extends from the summit of the greater trochanter to the lesser trochanter. This, the
intertrochanteric crest, represents the caudolateral boundary of the trochanteric fossa. The quadratus femoris
inserts on the crest at the level of the lesser trochanter.
• The third trochanter is poorly developed. It appears at the base of the greater trochanter as a small, rough area on
which the superficial gluteal inserts.
• The third and lesser trochanters are located in about the same transverse plane.
• The vastus parts of the quadriceps femoris attach to the smooth proximal cranial part of the femur.
• The body of the femur is slightly convex cranially.
Viewed cranially, the body presents a smooth,
rounded surface. The caudal surface is rough and
is limited by medial and lateral lips.
• The lips, closest together in the middle of the body,
diverge as they approach each extremity.
• The proximal part of the medial lip ends in the
lesser trochanter, the distal part at the medial
supracondylar tuberosity.
• The proximal part of the lateral lip ends in the
third trochanter, the distal part at the lateral
supracondylar tuberosity.
• The adductor inserts on most of the caudal rough
surface, whereas a tendon extends from the
pectineus to the distal part of the medial lip, where
the semimembranosus also attaches.
The distal extremity of the femur presents several
articular surfaces.
• The trochlea, with ridges, is the smooth groove on the craniodistal part of the bone for articulation with
the patella.
• The trochlea of the femur is continuous with the condyles, which articulate, both directly and through
fibrocartilaginous menisci, with the tibia.
• The medial trochlear ridge is usually thicker than the lateral.
• The patella is a sesamoid in the tendon of insertion of the large quadriceps femoris that extends the stifle.
. It aids in the protection of the tendon and the joint, but its chief purpose is redirection of the tendon of
insertion of the quadriceps.
• The medial and lateral condyles are separated from each other by the intercondylar fossa, a deep, wide
space fossa,.
• The two condyles are similar in shape and surface area. Each is convex transversely and longitudinally.
• At the depth of the intercondylar fossa the cruciate ligaments attach.
• On the caudodorsal aspect of each femoral condyle is a
facet on which a sesamoid bone (fabella) rests
• The medial and lateral fabellae are in the tendons of
origin of the medial and lateral heads of the
gastrocnemius muscle.
• Proximal to these sesamoid facets are the medial and
lateral supracondylar tuberosities from which the
gastrocnemii arise.
• The medial and lateral epicondyles are rough areas on
each side, proximal to the condyles. They serve for the
attachment of the collateral ligaments of the stifle
• The superficial digital flexor also arises from the lateral
tuberosity.
• The popliteal surface is a large, flat, triangular area on
the caudal surface of the distal extremity proximal to the
condyles and intercondylar fossa.
• . The lateral epicondyle also gives rise to the popliteus.
• The small extensor fossa is located on the lateral
epicondyle at the junction of the lateral condyle and the
lateral lip of the trochlea; from it arises the long digital
extensor.
• The semimembranosus is inserted just proximal to the
medial epicondyle.
Tibia and fibula of a dog – 2
• The tibia the shin or leg bone, has a proximal articular
surface that flares out transversely and is also broad
craniocaudally.
• It is wider than the distal end of the femur, with which it
articulates, and is formed largely by two relatively flat
condyles
• The medial condyle is separated from the lateral condyle by
the intercondylar eminence.
• Both condyles include the articular areas on their proximal
surfaces and the adjacent nonarticular parts of the proximal
extremity
• The lateral condyle is particularly prominent. It possesses a
facet on its lateral side for articulation with the head of the
fibula and provides origin for part of the peroneus longus and
cranial tibial muscles
• . A sesamoid bone in the tendon of origin of the popliteus
articulates with the caudolateral condyle of the tibia.
• . The semimembranosus is inserted on the medial condyle.
• Two biconcave fibrocartilages, the menisci,
fill part of the space between the apposed
condyles of the femur and tibia, making the
joint congruent.
• The intercondylar eminence consists of two
small, elongated tubercles, which form its
highest part, and a shallow intercondylar
area.
• . The cranial intercondylar area is a
depression cranial to the eminence and in
large part between the condyles. It affords
attachment to the cranial parts of the
menisci and the cranial cruciate ligament.
• The caudal intercondylar area occupies a
place similar to that of the cranial area but
caudal to the eminence. It provides
attachment for the caudal part of the
medial meniscus.
• The popliteal notch is caudal to the caudal intercondylar
area and is located between the two condyles. The
popliteal vessels pass through the notch.
• The tibial tuberosity is the large quadrangular process
on the proximal cranial surface of the tibia.
• The quadriceps femoris, the biceps femoris, and the
sartorius attach to this tuberosity by means of the patella
and patellar ligament
• The tibial tuberosity is continued distally by the cranial
border of the tibia. It inclines laterally on the body.
• The following muscles attach wholly or in part to the
cranial border of the tibia: biceps femoris,
semitendinosus, gracilis, and sartorius
• . The extensor groove is a small, smooth groove located
at the junction of the lateral condyle and the tibial
tuberosity. The long digital extensor passes through it.
• The body is triangular
proximally, nearly cylindrical in
the middle, and four-sided
distally.
• The tibial cochlea, the articular
surface ,consists of two grooves
that receive the ridges of the
proximal trochlea of the talus.
• The medial part of the distal
extremity of the tibia is medial
malleolus.
Fibula

• Is a long, slender bone that articulates with the tibia and also serves
as a site for muscle attachment[1]
• Does not bear much weight[4]
• A distinctive groove exists in the lateral malleolus, the sulcus
malleolaris lateralis, through which the tendons of the lateral digital
extensor and peroneus brevis muscles pass[1]
FIBULA
• It has proximal and distal
extremities and an intermediate
body.
• The proximal extremity or head,
articulates with the lateral condyle
of the tibia.
• The distal extremity,lateral
malleolus, has two grooves that
contains the tendons of the
fibularis longus,fibularis brecis and
the lateral digital extensor.
• Redirects the force of contraction
Tarsal bones of a dog – 7,
• Tarsal bones is also called the hock.
• Tarsus, or hock, consists of the talus, calcaneus, a central
tarsal bone, and tarsal bones I to IV.
• The tarsal bones (basipodium) compose the first row
of the skeleton of the pes.
• The tarsal bones are arranged from proximal to
distal into 3 irregular rows
• .The proximal row is composed of a long laterally located
calcaneus and a shorter medially located talus.
• Proximal (crural) row: composed by tibial tarsal bone
(talus) and fibular tarsal bone (calcaneus)
• The talus has a trochlea on its proximal end with two ridges
separated by a groove for articulation with tibial cochlea. This
is the tarsocrural joint where flexion and extension occur
between the leg and hindpaw
• The talus articulates with the calcaneus laterally and the
central tarsal bone distally.
• The calcaneus articulates with the adjacent talus and distally
with the fourth tarsal bone.
Tarsal bones of a dog – 7,

• The calcaneus is large and

serves as the insertion of the
common calcaneal tendon
• The tuber calcanei is a traction
process of the calcaneus that
projects proximally and caudally.
• On the medial side of the
calcaneus is a bony process, the
sustentaculum tali.
• Middle (intermetatarsal) row: composed only by the central
tarsal bone (navicular bone).
• It articulates with the distal tarsal bones to form the
centrodistal joint
The distal row consists of four bones.

• Distal (metatarsal) row: composed by the first tarsal bone (Tarsal bone I;
Medial cuneiform), second tarsal bone (Tarsal bone II; Intermediate
cuneiform), third tarsal bone (Tarsal bone III; Lateral cuneiform) and
foruth tarsal bone (Tarsal bone IV; Cuboid). The third row of carpal bones
articulates with the metatarsals to form the tarsometatarsal joints
• Three small bones, the first, second and third tarsal bones are located side by
side and are separated from the proximal row by the central tarsal bone.
• The large fourth tarsal bone which completes the distal row laterally, articulates
with the calcaneus proximally.
• The fourth tarsal is as long as the combined lengths of the third and central
tarsal bones . It is grooved on the distal half of its lateral surface for the
passage of the tendon of the fibularis longus.
Patella (ideal sesamoid bone) – 1,
• Patella
• The canine patella, or kneecap, is the largest sesamoid bone in the
body[1]
• It is an ossification in the quadriceps femoris muscle[1]
• The patella alters the pull, increases the moment arm, protects the
quadriceps tendon, and provides a greater contact surface for the
tendon on the trochlea of the femur than would exist without the
patella. The canine patellar articular surface is mildly convex[1]
Fabellae

• Two small sesamoid bones that are embedded in the heads of the
gastrocnemius muscle[1]
1.The sesamoid in the lateral head is the largest of the two. It is
palpable, and articulates with the lateral femoral condyle
2.The sesamoid in the medial head is smaller and may not have a
distinct facet on the medial femoral condyle
Metatarsal bones of a dog – 5 (4 developed
and one considered as the dewclaw
• It resemble the metacarpal bones except for the first, which may be
divided , rudimentary or absent
• The hindpaw has five metatarsal bones[1]
• Reduced first MT and digit (dew claw) often absent[4]
 Phalanges in the dog’s pelvic limb – 12
Proximal sesamoid bones (anterior and posterior) – 14 (9+5; same as
a thoracic limb),

• The phalanges and sesamoids

form the skeleton of the digit.
• Those of the hind paw or pes are
similar to those of the forepaws
or manus.
• The first digit or hallux, is
frequently absent. When
present it is called a dewclaw
• Dog leg anatomy is complex, especially dog knees, which are
found on the hind legs. The technical term for a dog knee is the
stifle joint. The stifle joint connects the femur, which is the dog
thigh bone, to the tibia and fibula, the lower leg bones, and the
patella,the canine equivalent to the knee cap.
• Many dogs’ suffer from stifle joint-related injuries and injuries
of the ligaments that stabilize the stifle joint. Two of the most
common are torn ACLs (CCLs) and luxating patellas. Patellar
luxation occurs when the dog’s kneecap is dislocated from its
normal position.
• The dog equivalent of the ankle is called the hock. The hock is
part of a dog’s hind leg anatomy and connects the shin bones
to the paw bones.
• http://vanat.cvm.umn.edu/carnLabs/video.html?cadaver=dog&lab=L
ab5
• https://orthodog.com/article/dog-leg-anatomy
• Millers Guide to the dissection of the Dog 8th edition