SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Parts of the skeletal system

• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to muscle)
• Divided into two divisions
• Axial skeleton- skull, spinal column
• Appendicular skeleton – limbs and girdle

FUNCTIONS OF BONES
• Support of the body
• Protection of soft organs
• Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
• Blood cell formation

BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY

• The skeleton has 206 bones
• Two basic types of bone tissue
• Compact bone
• Homogeneous
• Spongy bone
• Small needle-like
pieces of bone
• Many open spaces

Bones are classified by their shape:

1. Long- bones are longer than they are wide (arms, legs)
2. Short- usually square in shape, cube like (wrist, ankle)
3. Flat- flat , curved (skull, Sternum)
4. Irregular- odd shapes (vertebrae, pelvis)

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE

TYPES OF BONE CELLS
• Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts
• Bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts
• Bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints

BONE FRACTURES
• A break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin
• Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin
• Greenstick- frays, hard to repair, breaks like a green twig
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
• Realignment of the bone

Axial skeleton supports and protects organs of head, neck and trunk
Axial skeleton:
skull (cranium and facial bones)
hyoid bone (anchors tongue and muscles
associated with swallowing)
vertebral column (vertebrae and disks)
bony thorax (ribs and sternum)

Appendicular skeleton includes bones of limbs and

bones that anchor them to the axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton:
pectoral girdle (clavicle, scapula)
upper limbs (arms)
pelvic girdle (sacrum, coccyx)
lower limbs (legs)
Articulation- where joints meet, connect, and are formed.
 THE AXIAL SKELETON
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts
• Skull
• Vertebral Column
• Rib Cage
The Skull
• 8 sutured bones in cranium
• Facial bones: 13 sutured bones 1 mandible
Cranium
encases brain
attachments for muscles
sinuses
PARANASAL SINUSES
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity

THE HYOID BONE

• The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the tongue, and other muscle attachments

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs made of cartilage
• The spine has a normal S curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

THORACIC CAGE
ribs
thoracic Vertebrae
sternum
costal cartilages
• True ribs are directly attached to the sternum
(first seven pairs)
• Three false ribs are joined to the 7th rib
• Two pairs of floating ribs
 THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
126 bones of the:
• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB

• The arm is formed by a single bone
• Humerus
• The forearm has two bones
• Ulna
• Radius
• The hand
• Carpals – wrist
• Metacarpals – palm
• Phalanges – fingers

BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
• Protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
 THE FEMALE PELVIS
A bony canal through which the fetus passes during the process of birth.
Functions of the pelvis:
1. It provides protection to the organs found within the pelvic cavity.
2. It provides attachment to muscles, fascia and ligaments.
3. It supports the uterus during pregnancy.
4. It serves as birth canal.

Parts of the pelvis:

1. Innominate bones/ hip bones (2)
2. Sacrum (1)
3. Coccyx (1)

The innominatae bones – form the anterior and lateral aspects of the pelvis.
It consist the following parts:
1. Ilium – the upper flaring portion which is the largest bone of the pelvis. Its upper border, the
iliac crest, forms the hip bone. The ilium helps support the uterus during pregnancy.
2. Ischium – the portion located below the hip bone.
▪ The ischial tuberosities are the projections at the lower portion that support the body in
sitting position.
▪ The ischial spines are small projections that delineates the midpoint of the cervix and
functions as an important obstetrical landmarks when performing pelvic measurement and
calculating degree of fetal descent.
3. Pubis – the front bones – are connected by the symphysis pubis

The sacrum- is a triangular shaped bone forming the posterior portion of the pelvis. It is composed of
five (5) sacral vertebra. The first vertebra, called sacral promontory, is an important obstetrical
landmark used in measuring pelvic diameters.

Coccyx – is the lowest posterior portion of the pelvis composed of five (5) fused vertebra. Its
sacrococcygeal joint joins the sacrum to coccyx and allows the coccyx some degree of movement. When
the fetus descends into the pelvic canal, the coccyx moves slightly backward to give more room for the
fetal head.
Types of pelvis:
1. Gynecoid – the female type of pelvis and the most ideal for childbirth. The inlet is round
shaped with transverse diameter larger than anteroposterior (AP) diameter. It has straight side
walls, wide pubic arch, transverse diameter of ischial spines is more than 10cm. this found in
about 50% of women.

2. Android – the male-type pelvis which has a heart-shaped inlet and found only 20% in women.

3. Anthropoid – the ape-like pelvis. Its inlet is oval shaped with AP diameter wider than the
transverse diameter, found in 25% of women.
 4. Platypelloid – the flat pelvis and most shallow with a kidney-shaped brim. Its transverse
diameter is wider than its AP diameter. This is the rarest type of pelvis and found only in 5% of
women.

Division of the pelvis

1. False pelvis – it is the upper flaring portion, the ilia, its functions are to provide support to the
uterus during pregnancy and to direct the fetus to the true pelvis during labor.

2. True pelvis- it forms the passageway of the fetus during labor. It consists of the following parts:
a. Inlet or pelvic brim – is the entrance to the true pelvis. At the back it is bounded by the
sacral promontory and wings of sacrum and in front, it is bounded by the pubic bones.

Measurements in the inlet:

▪ Anteroposterior diameter – a line from the sacral promontory to the upper
border of the symphysis pubis.
▪ Diagonal conjugate – is the distance between the midpoint of sacral
promontory and the lower margin of symphysis pubis. – 12.5 cm
Measured by internal examination
▪ Obstetric conjugate – the distance between the midpoint of sacral
promontory and the midline of the symphysis pubis. – 11cm
▪ True conjugate or conjugate vera – the distance between the midpoint of
sacral promontory and the upper margin of symphysis pubis. 11.5cm
▪ Transverse diameter - 13.5 cm
▪ Right and left oblique diameter – 12.75

b. Pelvic canal/cavity is situated between inlet and outlet at the level of the ischial spine and
circular in shape. The pelvic canal curves forward at its lower half, below the level of the ischial
spines. The curvature is so designed by nature to control the speed of descent of fetal head.
Rapid descent results in sudden change of intracranial pressure which can cause rupture of
cerebral arteries. The snugness of the pelvic cavity compresses the chest of the fetus as it passes
through the birth canal expelling lung fluid and mucus. The interspinous diameter measures 10
cm (the smallest diameter of pelvis).

Measurements of the pelvic canal in centimeters.

Anteroposterior Oblique transverse
Brim 11 cm 12 cm 13 cm
Cavity 12 cm 12cm 12cm
Outlet 13 cm 12 cm 11 cm

c. Outlet – is marked by the coccyx and sacrotuberous ligaments at the back by the
ischial tuberosities at the sides and the pubic arch infront which forms a 90 degree angle
 in normal female pelvis form. During labor, the coccyx bends backward to enlarge the
diameter of the outlet and provides more room for the passage of the fetus.
▪ transverse diameter or bi-ischial diameter – is the distance between the two
ischial spines. 11 cm
▪ AP diameter- is measured from the apex of the pubic arch to the sacro-coccygeal
joint. 9.5 to 11 cm
▪ posterior sagittal diameter – 7.5 cm

Pelvic articulations or joints serve as points of attachment between pelvic bones; they also allow the
bones some degree of movement.

Different pelvic joints:

1. Symphysis pubis - joins the two pubic bones
2. Sacroiliac joints - joins sacrum to the ilium and thus connect the spine to the pelvis. This is the
strongest joints in the body.
3. Sacrococcygeal joint - joins sacrum and coccyx.

Each of the pelvic joint is held together by ligaments.

Pelvic ligaments
1. Interpubic ligaments - at the symphysis pubis
2. Sacroiliac ligaments
3. Sacrococcygeal ligaments
4. Sacrotuberous ligament – sacrum to ischial tuberosity
5. Sacrospinous ligament – sacrum to ischial spine
Pelvic floor is formed by the soft tissues which fill the outlet of the pelvis.
Functions:
The pelvic floor supports the weight of the abdominal and pelvic organs. Its muscles are
responsible for the voluntary control of micturition and defecation and play an important part in sexual
intercourse. During childbirth it influences the passive movements of the fetus through the birth canal
and relaxes to allow its exit from the pelvis.

Muscle layer
1. Superficial layer is composed of five (5) muscles:
▪ External anal sphincter- surrounding the anus and attached behind by a few fibers to the
coccyx
▪ Transverse perineal muscle – pass from the ischial tuberosities to the center of the
perineum.
▪ Bulbocavernous muscles- pass from the perineum forwards around the vagina to the
corposa cavernosa of the clitoris just under the pubic arch.
▪ Ischiocavernous muscles- pass from the ischial tuberosities along the pubic arch to the
coroposa cavernosa.
▪ Membranous sphincter of the urethra- is composed of muscle fibers passing above and
below the urethra and attached to the pubic bones. It is not a true sphincter.

2. Deep layer - is composed of three pairs of muscles which together known as the levator ani
muscles. They are so called because they lift or elevate the anus. Each levator ani muscle (left &
right) consists the following:
▪ Pubococcygeus muscle - passes from the pubis to the coccyx
▪ Iliococcygeus muscle – passes from the fascia covering the obturator internus muscle to the
coccyx.
▪ Ischiococcygeus muscle – passes from the ischial spine to the coccyx.
JOINTS
A joint, or articulation, is the place where two bones come together.
• Fibrous- Immovable:connect bones, no movement. (skull and pelvis).
• Cartilaginous- slightly movable, bones are attached by cartilage, a little movement (spine or
ribs).
• Synovial- freely movable, much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities between
bones are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones.

THE SYNOVIAL JOINT

 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON SHAPE

TYPES OF JOINTS
Hinge- A hinge joint allows extension and retraction of an appendage. (Elbow, Knee)
Ball and Socket- A ball and socket joint allows for radial movement in almost any direction. They are
found in the hips and shoulders. (Hip, Shoulder)
Gliding- In a gliding or plane joint bones slide past each other. Mid-carpal and mid-tarsal joints are
gliding joints. (Hands, Feet)
Saddle- This type of joint occurs when the touching surfaces of two bones have both concave and
convex regions with the shapes of the two bones complementing one other and allowing a wide range
of movement. (Thumb)