UNIT 1

READING SKILLS

“Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.” (Joseph Addison)

Whether you are looking for information in books, newspapers, magazines, the internet or any other
source, your ability to read effectively is an important skill. Taking notes in class, studying, writing an
essay or doing research all involve reading. Although, reading means different things to different
people and skills vary with every individual, it is important that you understand reading as an activity
and develop your reading skills to become a more efficient and effective reader. Effective reading
implies that you understand what you are reading, you are able to remember information and you
can evaluate what you are reading. Weaknesses in vocabulary, comprehension, reading speed, or a
combination of all three may be the result of ineffective reading habits.

Active reading is engaged reading and can be achieved through comprehension regulation strategies.
The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking, are presented in the following
hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.
• Least = surface, simple reading
• Most = in-depth, complex reading

Level 1: Literal - what is actually stated.

• Facts and details
• Rote learning and memorization
• Surface understanding only

Tests in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice and fill-in-the blank
questions. Common questions used to illicit this type of thinking are who, what, when, and where
questions.

Level 2: Interpretive - what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated.
• Drawing inferences
• Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
 • Attaching new learning to old information
• Making logical leaps and educated guesses
• Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what is stated.

Tests in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open-ended, thought-
provoking questions like why, what if, and how.

Level 3: Applied - taking what was said (literal) and then what was meant by what was said
(interpretive) and then extend (apply) the concepts or ideas beyond the situation.
• Analysing
• Synthesizing
• Applying

Tests on this level require the ability to analyse or synthesize information and to apply it to other
contexts.

1.1 Reading techniques

As the level of comprehension, as well as the purpose of your reading differs, your reading technique
will also differ. Ask yourself how much you need to understand of a text and what the reason is for
reading that text. Are you trying to get the gist of the material, or are you reading for detail? Are there
key concepts or facts that have to be committed to memory?

1.1.1 Scanning
You use this strategy when you want to quickly locate specific information from a large volume of
written material. You do not read every word. You look through something very quickly to find a
particular fact. Think about the purpose of the index of a book. How do you read an index?
Examples
• Scanning for telephone numbers in a business directory

• Scanning your email inbox for emails from a specific person

• Scanning a text for a time, number, date, etc.

Advantages:
• Save time
• Find specific information quickly
• Eliminate unnecessary information
• Avoid ‘information overload’
A suggested scanning process:
• Formulate a question.
• Identify key words and related words.
• Extract needed information.

1.1.2 Skimming
This technique allows you to find the main ideas or themes without paying attention to detail. It is a
fast process. A single chapter should take only a few minutes. It is especially useful when there are a
few headings or graphic elements to gain an overview of a text.
Examples
• Skimming a report for information that is relevant to your department and operational area

• Previewing a text before reading it in detail

Advantages:
• Save time
• Provide a context for further reading
• Determine usefulness of a text or book

A suggested skimming process:

• Read headings, sub-headings, first sentences of paragraphs quickly
• Identify the key words
• Examine lists, illustrations, graphs, tables or diagrams and their captions
• Filter - find information on the topic you need
• Extract main points
• Rank the information found in order of importance
• State main ideas

1.1.3 Study/ intensive reading

Intensive reading is detailed focused reading because your purpose is to recall information. This type
of reading requires concentration and active involvement in the text. You are required to analyse and
evaluate information. You usually use it once you have previewed an article and used the techniques
of skimming and scanning to find what you need to concentrate on. Then you can slow down and do
some intensive reading. This type of reading is also beneficial to language learners as it helps them
understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover, helps with
retention of information for long periods of time and gaining of knowledge. You will usually use this
type of reading when you need an in-depth grasp of the subject matter.
Examples
• Any reading which requires understanding and detailed recall of information.

The following aspects play a role in intensive reading:

• Who is the writer and who is the intended audience?
• What is the passage about? (the subject matter)
• Why is the author writing this passage i.e. what is the intention? Is it to inform, to
complain, to instruct, to persuade, to argue, etc?
• How is the message communicated? How does the writer express himself/herself?
What kind of language is used?
• Which organisational features are used? Organisational features refer to headings,
sub-headings, paragraphing, numbering, diagrams, pictures, etc.

Steps for intensive reading:

• Skim the text for the main ideas, key words (words that tell you who, what, when,
where, how many, and how much), and transition markers (words like 'however',
'alternatively', 'additionally', and so on), which suggest the direction of ideas in the text.
• Ask yourself questions such as who, when, what, where, how.
• Make notes in your own words to facilitate recall.
• Summarise your notes as it allows you to test your understanding and it provides you
with a compact account of the text for further reference.
• Review and reflect as it enhances your understanding and helps you to commit
important facts and ideas to your long-term memory.

1.2 Pre-reading strategies

What you bring to the printed page will affect how you understand what you read, and may be what
is most important in understanding what you read. Strategies to activate your prior knowledge are:

1.2.1 Brainstorming
• Examine the title of the text you are about to read
• List all the information that comes to mind about this title

1.2.2 Group discussions

Group discussions in and out of class will help you to discover what you know and what other students
can contribute to your knowledge. Discussing an assignment prior to reading provides a basic context.

1.2.3 Concept or mind mapping

This is a type of brainstorming where you place the title/subject as the main idea, then develop a
"mind map" around it. It can be effective either in a group or by yourself

1.2.4 Pre-questions
Often chapters in texts provide organizing questions. You can also write out a series of questions you
expect to be answered when reading, e.g.
Definition - What is....? Where does ... fit? What group does ... belong to?
Characteristics - How would I describe...? What does ... look like? What are its parts?

1.2.5 Visual aids

Pictures and other visual material can activate your prior knowledge.

1.2.6 Vocabulary previews

Unfamiliar key words need to be discussed with students before reading so that new words,
background information, and comprehension can improve together. List all words in the assignment
that may be important for students to understand. Arrange words to show the relationships to the
learning task. Add words students probably already understand to connect relationships between
what is known and the unknown. Share information with students.

1.2.7 Structural organizers

Before reading an assignment, basic frameworks which are included in the text should be pointed out
such as cause-effect or problem-solution. It can be beneficial to call attention to specific plans of
paragraph or text organization such as signal words, main idea sentences, highlighted phrases,
headings and subtitles. A review of skimming techniques might also be appropriate as these various
areas are covered.

1.3 Reading skills and strategies

1.3.1 3 R's for academic survival
R1 - READ. Read the text paragraph by paragraph. Read and re-read until you can answer the
question: "What did the author say in this paragraph?"
R2 - RECORD. Once you are able to describe what is in the paragraph, you will want to retain that
learning by making notes.
R3 - RECITE. Cover up your notes or the text page and recite aloud. Remember! If you cannot say it
now, you will not be able to say it tomorrow in class, nor write it in a week in an exam.
1.3.2 SQ3R method for thorough study
Step 1: Survey - skim through the text and read topical and sub-topical headings and sentences. Read
the summaries at the end of chapters. Try to anticipate what the author is going to say. Write these
notes on paper, in sequence; then look over the notes to get an overall idea or picture. This will enable
you to see where you are going.
Step 2: Questions - instead of reading a heading as a statement, e.g. "Basic Concepts of Reading,"
change it to a question, e.g. "What are the Basic Concepts of Reading?" Write these questions out;
look over the questions to see the emphasis and direction; then attempt to give plausible answers
before further reading.
Step 3: Read and write notes in your own words to create a skeleton or Mind-map.
Step 4: Recall - without looking at your text or notes, mentally visualize and sketch, in your own words,
the main points of the material immediately upon completing the reading.
Step 5: Review - look at your questions, answers and notes to see how well you recalled. Take note of
the points stated incorrectly or omitted. Create a logical sequence of the entire idea, concepts, or
problem so that you have a mental picture of the whole.

1.3.3 Strategies for reading academic texts

Try the following with any text you need to read:
Think about your reasons for reading the text before reading:
• Are you interested because it is about your subject, or it is related to your subject?
• Do you want background information or detailed information?
• Do you want to know what the writer's views are?
• Are you are going to have a discussion?
• Are you going to write an essay or assignment on this subject later?

Each reason will influence the way you read:

• Predict what the text is about by reading the title, sub-headings and looking at photos
or illustrations. Think about what you already know on this topic.
• Write down what you would like to find out from the text. You could write actual
questions you would like to find answers to.
• Make a note of words or phrases connected with the topic that you may find in the
text.

During the reading process:

 • Survey the text: read the first and last paragraphs and the first and last sentences of
the other paragraphs. How close were your predictions? Do you have a very general
idea what the different parts are about?
• Identify your purpose for reading. If you are looking for specific information, read the
part where you think the information will be. If you want a general idea of the whole
text, read the whole text.
• Write the main ideas down in 1 or 2 sentences. What your first response to the text?
Do you find it interesting, informative, well-argued, boring, illogical and inaccurate?
• Do a second more careful reading, marking any new words that are important for your
understanding.
• Check on the main idea and revise what you wrote if necessary.
• Decide what the supporting ideas are. How do they relate to the main idea? Put all the
ideas together in notes or a mind map.

After reading the text:

• Make a list of the new words which you think will be useful in future:
▪ Definitions of the words
▪ Indications of whether they are nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.
▪ Phrases in which the word occurs
▪ Synonyms
▪ Other forms of the words, e.g. counsellor (noun)= a person who helps and
advises people who have problems, counsel (verb), to advise
• Evaluate what you have read. How does it fit into what you already think and know?
Does it confirm your ideas; add to them; conflict with them? If there are opinions, do
you agree or disagree with them? Understand the reading process.

When experts read difficult texts, they read "actively." This includes adjusting their reading speed -
they tend to read very slowly, and re-read sections often. They make notes as they read and keep a
dictionary close by - one for basic words they donor understand, and another more specific, subject
oriented dictionary. Circle or make a note of any word or concept you do not understand, and look it
up, then write down the meaning in your own words, or in easy to understand words. We all need to
work hard to learn and develop a specialized vocabulary. Reading with the proper tools close by will
help you to succeed.

1.3.4 "Chunk" or break up the reading.

When you have to read a difficult text break the text down into parts, i.e. sentences, paragraphs or
sections. The main point is that writers use words to do different things. An experienced reader will
break down the reading into chunks and say "this part is giving evidence for a claim the writer made"
and "this part summarizes the argument" and "this part is telling me what is to come in the next
section?" If you can break a text up into logical parts, it will help you to understand and remember the
reading.

1.3.5 Converse with the author

Most texts are designed to change the reader's mind or convince the reader of something. Your job
as a reader is to understand what the text is saying, but also to enter into a conversation with the
author. As you begin to understand what the author is saying, ask yourself if you agree or disagree.
Listen, react - write it down. If you were in a "live" conversation, you would be playing an active part
– it is the same when you are reading. (Not all reading material is a conversation - for instance, a
technical manual on wiring electrical circuits is probably pretty factual, but at some level in every
discipline, there are conversations and arguments going on.)

1.3.6 Try writing "what it says" and "what it does."

When you are reading, take a paragraph and write a sentence, in your own words, that re-states what
the paragraph says (this is hard, but worth the effort!). Then, think about what the paragraph "does"
for the author: i.e., gives evidence, summarizes someone else's argument, or provides background
information. Or, if the paragraph is filled with a myriad of technical facts and information - try to
summarize them into one or two main points in your own words. This active process will help you to
remember what the paragraph is saying.

1.3.7 Drawing conclusions and making inferences

Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or inferred. This means that the information
is never clearly stated. Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues
that help you "read between the lines." Using these clues helps to give you a deeper understanding
of your reading. When you draw conclusions, you go beyond the surface details to see other meanings
that the details suggest or imply but that are not stated directly. When the meanings of words are
not stated clearly in the context of the text, they may be implied, i.e. suggested or hinted at. You draw
conclusions every day. Most of the time you do so without thinking about it. Suppose you are sitting
in your car at a red traffic light. You hear screeching tires, then a loud crash and breaking glass. You
see nothing, but you draw a conclusion that there has been a car accident. We all know the sounds
of screeching tires and a crash. We know that these sounds almost always mean a car accident.
Drawing conclusions means choosing the most likely explanation from the facts at hand.
There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be implying. The
following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a conclusion:

• General sense

The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the meaning of the
word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence:
Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers.
You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually happens to
those found guilty of murder or robbery?" If you answered that they are locked up in prison, you
correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated.

• Examples

When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be implied by
examples. For instance,
People who enjoy going to clubs or parties, and who like spending time with friends are gregarious.
You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question, "How would you describe people
who often go to clubs or parties a lot, and spend a lot of time with friends?" If you answered
“outgoing” or "people who enjoy the company of others", you correctly inferred the meaning of
gregarious.

• Antonyms and contrasts

When the meaning of a word is not implied by the context of a sentence, it may be implied by an
antonym or by a contrasting thought. Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. For instance,
Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous.
You may infer the meaning of timorous by answering the question, "If Ben is fearless and Jim reacts
differently to fear, then which word describes Jim?"If you answered afraid, or fearful, you inferred the
meaning of timorous.
A contrast in the following sentence implies the meaning of credence:
Dad gave credence to my story, but Mom's reaction was one of total disbelief.
You may infer the meaning of credence by answering the question, "If Mom's reaction was disbelief
and Dad's reaction was very different from Mom's, what was Dad's reaction?"If you answered that
Dad believed the story, you correctly inferred the meaning of credence; it means belief.
In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at the ultimate meaning of things –
what is important, why it is important, how one event influences another, how one happening leads
to another.

1.3.8 Making sense of confusing sentences

Sentences that are very long or that contain difficult vocabulary and/or grammatical structures, can
be confusing and difficult to understand. Although there is no easy formula to clarify these sentences,
the following tips will help them make sense. Try to determine what makes the sentence difficult.
• Divide the sentences where there are connectors. What are connectors? Words or
phrases which are used to develop ideas. Each idea should be linked to the one that
comes before or after it. Examples are:
▪ and, also, in addition, moreover, furthermore, as well as, again, besides, etc. –
to add an idea or to develop an argument.
▪ for example, consider, to illustrate, for instance, specifically, thus, etc., - to
give an example.
▪ therefore, accordingly, so, because, as, consequently, for this reason, as a
result, etc.- to show cause and effect.
▪ thus, above all, it is important, in fact, etc.- to put emphasis on certain ideas.
▪ clearly, in conclusion, then, therefore, thus, to conclude, to summarize, finally,
etc., - to conclude an idea or text.
▪ at that time, eventually, presently, soon, while, currently, in the past,
subsequently, etc. - to indicate a sequence of events in chronological order.
▪ firstly, secondly, finally, etc. – to enumerate or list
▪ both, similarly, but, however, in contrast to, etc. – to compare and contrast
• Underline reference words. What do they refer to?
• Find the subjects, verbs and objects which go together, and if necessary, write the
sentence out in a different way to show the meaning.
• Recognize important grammatical and punctuation clues that change the meaning of
a sentence, e.g.
▪ Affixes: Warmer weather is not uncommon this time of the year.
▪ Punctuation: Barry asked: “George has been elected president?”

1.3.9 Fact or opinion

Since writers do not always say things directly, it is sometimes difficult to figure out what a writer
really means or what he or she is really trying to say. You will need to learn to distinguish between
fact and opinion. Writers often tell us what they think or how they feel, but they do not always give
us the facts. It is important to be able to interpret what the writer is saying so you can form opinions
of your own. As you read an author's views, you should ask yourself if the author is presenting you
with an established fact or with a personal opinion. Since the two may appear in the same sentence,
you have to be able to distinguish between them.
The key difference between facts and opinions is that facts can be verified, or checked for accuracy,
by anyone. In contrast, opinions cannot be checked. Opinions are what someone thinks or how he/she
feels about an issue. Opinions by definition are subjective and relative.

• Defining a fact

Facts are objective, concrete bits of information. They can be found in official government and legal
records, and in the physical sciences. Objective facts are what researchers seek in laboratories or
through controlled studies. Facts are usually expressed by precise numbers or quantities, in weights
and measures, and in concrete language. Specific technological data, birth records, historical
documents, all provide researchers with reliable facts.
To sum up, facts
▪ can be verified in reference books, official records, and so forth.
▪ are expressed in concrete language or specific numbers.
▪ once verified, are generally agreed upon by people.
• Determining an opinion

Opinions are based on subjective judgment and personal values rather than on information that can
be verified. An opinion is a belief that someone holds without complete proof or positive knowledge
that it is correct. Even experts who have studied the same issue carefully often have very different
opinions about that issue.
Opinions are often disputed, and many times involve abstract concepts and complex moral issues such
as fairness and loyalty. Abstract concepts, because they are not easily understood, can never be
defined to everyone's satisfaction. For example, each of us holds a personal opinion about what
fairness or loyalty is, about gun control and abortion, and these issues always remain a matter of
opinion, not fact.
Although opinions cannot be verified for accuracy, writers should, nevertheless, back their opinions
with evidence, facts, and reason if they want to convince the reader that it is a valid opinion. A valid
opinion is one in which the writer's support for his or her opinion is solid and persuasive, and one in
which the writer cites other respected authorities who are in agreement. If a writer presents an
extreme or unconvincing opinion, the reader should remain wary.
Readers should be able to identify subjective opinions by studying the writer's language.
▪ Opinions are often expressed as comparisons (more, strongest, less, most, least
efficient, but), e.g. The painter Pablo Picasso was far more innovative than any of his
contemporaries.
▪ Opinions are often expressed by adjectives (brilliant, vindictive, fair, trustworthy),
e.g.Thabo Mbeki is a convincing speaker when he reads a prepared address but is not
effective at press conferences.
▪ Opinions are often introduced by verbs and adverbs that suggest some doubt in the
writer's mind, e.g. It appears to be a solution to our problem. They probably used dirty
tricks to win.

Become an alert and critical reader. Understand the differences between facts and opinions, and
interpret and apply both to your critical thinking.

1.4 Comprehension and analysing skills

An important aspect of understanding and analysing a written text can be linked to understanding
questions.

1.4.1 Types of questions:

• Contextual/factual questions (who, what, where and when). Answers to these
questions are always in the text.
• Interpretative/inferential questions test your ability to understand beyond what is
written. You have to consider the attitude, style and tone of the writer and also draw
conclusions based on the text and your own experience.
• Language usage questions are asked in context and relate to word meanings,
grammar, punctuation and figurative language.
• Style questions are used to determine whether a text is written in a narrative,
descriptive, formal, scientific, etc. style.
• Tone questions are used to determine the feelings, moods and attitudes that are
conveyed in the text.
• Questions about the writer’s intentions, i.e. the purpose, help to determine whether a
text is informative, educational, argumentative, persuasive, etc.
• Questions that require the reader to offer an opinion and to substantiate the opinion.
These questions can relate to assessing situations, characters, feelings, actions, etc.

1.4.2 Instruction words

It is essential to understand what you are required to do when answering questions.
Understanding instruction words will help you in this regard.
Instruction word Explanation
analyse Look at carefully and discuss section by section
argue Debate and give supporting reasons/use opinions, facts & evidence
assess Consider, evaluate, calculate
compare Find qualities that are similar
comment Offer your opinion or criticism
consider Think about carefully/ pay attention to
contrast Explain differences
convey Impart, transmit ideas and information
convince Change the opinion
debate Discuss both sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion
depict Describe
describe Explain or give a detailed account
discuss Debate an issue/ introduce different viewpoints
explain Make something clear/provide reasons or explanations
explore Investigate something in order to learn about it
identify Name or classify something
illustrate Explain by means of examples
indicate Point out/make known
inform Tell or notify
interpret Give your specific viewpoint or understanding
justify Back up your answer/opinion with reasons, evidence or examples
motivate Justify or give reasons for your answer
name/list Give an account of names/events/advantages, etc. without an explanation
paraphrase Rewrite something in your own words without changing the meaning
portray Describe clearly
prove Demonstrate by providing evidence or argument
quote Repeat in inverted commas the exact words from the text
relate Tell or narrate/show the connection between aspects
show Support your position with facts or evidence
state Express fully or clearly, specify
substantiate Support your answer with facts, reasons or opinions
summarise Give only the main points in the order in which they occur
REFERENCE LIST

1. Bishop, J., Carter, C. & Kravits, S. Keys to effective learning/developing powerful

habits of mind.4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NewJersey:Pearson Education, Inc.,
2. Crawford, J. A college study skills manual: ten tips for academic success.
Cambridge Strafford, Ltd
3. Lutrin, B. & Pincus, M. English handbook and study guide. Johannesburg: Berlut
Books.
4. http://www.studygs.net/preread.htm