OEDM5 Ktu 2024

MODULE 5
Prepared by,
Sojan Francis P.
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of ECE, VAST
PHOTODETEECTOR
• An opto-electronic device that absorbs optical energy
and coverts it to electrical energy → manifest as
photocurrent.
• Three processes are involved:
1. Absorption of optical energy and carrier generation.
2. Transportation of carriers across absorption region
and transition region.
3. Carrier collection and photocurrent generation
flowing into the external circuitry.
• Widely used in optical communication systems to detect
the transmitted optical pulses.
• Important characteristics of photodetector include:
1. Quantum efficiency (η)
2. Responsivity (R)
3. Rise time (fr)
4. Noise power (Pnoise)
Quantum efficiency (η)
• Number of generated carriers contributing to the
photocurrent divided by the incident photons.
• The numerator is given by (Iph / q)
where Iph → the photocurrent generated
q → the charge of a carrier
• Number of incident photons is the ratio of total incident
power divided by the photon energy (Pinc / hν).
• Therefore the quantum efficiency is given by
Responsivity(R)
• In a photodetector, the input is the photon power and the
response is the photocurrent generated. i.e.
R = Iph / Pinc
• It is related to the efficiency
R = ηq / hν = ηqλ / hc
R = ηλ / 1.24 (A/W)
• We can conclude that R ∝ η
• Photodetectors works based on the principle of
photoconductivity.
• i.e. change in the conductivity of the device due to the
incident light.
• Three types of photodetectors :
1. Photoconductor
2. Photodiode
3. Phototransistor
• Photodiodes → Avalanche photodiode, PIN photodiode,
Schottky barrier photodiode etc.
PHOTOCONDUCTOR
• Simplest optical detector → has an internal gain
mechanism.
• Operation is based on the increase in conductivity of a
specific region with photoexcitation.
• Bias applied to force
carriers into a directional
flow.
• If No light → only a small
dark current exists.
• Light incident → excess
carriers generated →
higher current flow.
• J → total current density
• Jdark → dark current density
• Jphoto → current density with light incident
• Total current density J = Jdark + Jph -------------- (1)
• we know that J = σE
where σ is conductivity and E is electric field
• Also σ = (nqμn + pqμp)
where μ is mobility and q is the carrier charge
• Therefore Jdark = (n0μn + p0μp)qE ---- (2)
• Let the light is incident and excess carriers generated.
• Let Δn → concentration of excess electrons generated
• Δp → concentration of excess holes generated
• Total carrier concentration after light is incident are,
n = n0 + Δn ≈ Δn
p = p0 + Δp ≈ Δp
• Therefore Jphoto = (Δnμn + Δpμp)qE
• Since Δn = Δp, Jphoto = (μn + μp)qΔnE -------------- (3)
• Rate of carrier generation per unit volume,
R = ηΦ / WA
• Also ideally, Jdark = 0
PHOTODIODE
• Brings the junction properties into the photoconductive
mechanism.
• Three types – PN junction photodiode, PIN photodiode,
avalanche photodiode.
PN JUNCTION PHOTODIODE
• It is a PN junction diode capable of absorbing photons.
• Energy of photons absorbed is equal to the bandgap.
• i.e it is of the intrinsic type.
• Photodiodes are always reverse biased.
• The junction is reverse biased → only a small reverse
current flows in the circuit → dark current.
• Upon photoexcitation → photons are absorbed in the
depletion region → large no. of EHPs generated.
• Carriers are swept across the junction → contributing
to a large reverse current.
• Its magnitude depends on the quantum efficiency.
• VI characteristics of a PN diode is shown.
• It is desirable to have large depletion layer → more

photons can be absorbed.
• But larger the depletion layer width, higher the
transit time → performance degraded.
PIN PHOTODIODE
• A junction diode with an undoped intrinsic region
between the highly doped P and N regions.
• i-region → very few carriers → depleted at very low
reverse bias.
• For high efficiency → i-region must be large.
• For high speed → i-region must be small.
• InGaAs/InP used widely for constructing PIN photodiode.
• Features are:
➢ minimum defects in the lattice structure.
➢ large responsivity and efficiency
➢ high mobility and velocity → less transit time
➢ Sharp response.
➢ low dark current.
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE (APD)
• When photoconductor with larger gain is needed.
• Essentially a reverse biased PN junction operating close
to the breakdown voltage.
• It works on the basis of impact ionization and carrier
multiplication.
• Large reverse bias is applied to the diode.
• Photon incident → EHP generated → acquire energy
from the applied field → travel with high velocity.
• Collide with other atoms → atoms are ionization →
secondary carriers generated → impact ionization.
• They also move with primary carriers and continue the
ionization process → results in large no. of carriers.
• Possibility of large no. of carrier creation for each incident
photon → provides large gain and sensitivity for APD
• High reverse field needed → range of 104 to 105 V/cm.
• The noise performance depends on two factors → dark
current and noise from the avalanche process itself.
• The distance between two ionizing collisions varies →
fluctuates the no. of secondary carriers generated for each
primary carrier → causes fluctuation / noise in the current.
• Noise magnitude depends on the mean avalanche gain.
• Note that higher the gain, lower is the bandwidth.
Gain characteristics
• Gain (multiplication factor) is represented as, M = im/ ip
im → current after the multiplication process
ip → primary photocurrent
• Higher the temperature, lower the current → cooling is

necessary to maintain the temperature.
Q. The quantum efficiency of an APD is 80% for the detection
of radiation at 0.9μm wavelength. When the incident optical
power is 0.5 μW, the output current after avalanche process is
11 μA. Determine the multiplication factor of APD.
M = im/ ip
im → current after the multiplication process →11 μA given.
ip → primary photocurrent = incident power * Responsivity
Responsivity R = ηλ / 1.24
ip = 0.5X10-6 X 0.581 = 0.291 μA

M = 11X10-6 / 0.291X10-6 = 37.8
The multiplication of APD is approximately 38
SCHOTTKY BARRIER PHOTODIODE
• Metal-Semiconductor junctions → two types.
• Ohmic junction & Schottky junction.
• Schottky junction is used for photodetection purpose.
• Majority carrier device → higher bandwidth is possible.
• Two modes of operation
1. Photon energy lesser than semiconductor
bandgap but higher than barrier (qΦB<hν < Eg)
➢ Electrons from metal part crosses the junction →
reach semiconductor → collected at the terminal
→ current conduction occurs.
➢ Low speed
2. Photon energy higher than the bandgap of the
semiconductor (hν > Eg)
➢ Photons are absorbed in semiconductor → EH pairs are
created → move to the opposite terminals → current
generated.
➢Most efficient mode of Schottky→ similar to high speed
PIN diode
➢Schottky diode is simpler device to operate.
➢Note that similar device can be formed by replacing
metal with low bandgap semiconductor.
➢Eg: InAs/GaAs – hetrojunction device
➢Easier to construct than Schottky.
MODULATED BARRIER PHOTODIODE
• A variation of Schottky diode is shown below
OPTOELECTRONIC ICs
• Initially optoelectronic devices were mostly used as
display devices sensors.
• Gradually, they became active components of
information handling systems.
• Optics provides inherent advantages such as large
bandwidth, reconfigurability, parallelism etc.
• But it cannot provide input-output isolation as the
electronic devices do.
• Hence, they are used in integrated manner, resulting in
optoelectronic integration.
• Optoelectronic IC involves the integration of optical and
electronic components and optical interconnects.
• Integration in one chip will lead to high speed, high
sensitivity, compactness, reliability and low cost.
• It finds applications in telecommunication driven by
optical fibers, radar applications etc.
INTEGRTED TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS
1. FRONT-END PHOTORECEIVERS
• Receiver detects the incident light → converts to
electrical signal containing the information.
• Performance characteristics → bandwidth, sensitivity.
• Receiver sensitivity → minimum amount of optical
power level needed at the receiver input so that the
SNR is greater than a given value.
• If sensitivity is less, more repeaters needed in a long
distance communication system.
• Frond end include photodetector and preamplifier.
• Photodetector should have high efficiency, low
capacitance, small response time and low dark current.
• APD, PIN photodiode etc. are mostly used.
• Preamplifier → low noise with high gain → also low
capacitance and low leakage current.
• Multiple stages of amplification for higher gain.
• Frond end include photodetector and preamplifier.
• Photodetector should have high efficiency, low
capacitance, small response time and low dark current.
• APD, PIN photodiode etc. are mostly used.
• Preamplifier → low noise with high gain → also low
capacitance and low leakage current.
• Multiple stages of amplification for higher gain.
• Three integration schemes → low impedance design,
high impedance design, trans-impedance design.
• Trans-impedance scheme is most popular.
• FET can be used as the feedback element → higher

impedance upto 80KΩ → reduces thermal noise.

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MODULE 5

• It is desirable to have large depletion layer → more

• Higher the temperature, lower the current → cooling is

ip = 0.5X10-6 X 0.581 = 0.291 μA

• FET can be used as the feedback element → higher

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