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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Minimization of Milling-Induced Residual Stresses in AISI

1045 Steel: Process Optimization using Design
of Experiments Taguchi Method
Benjamin Durakovic and K. Prakash Marimuthu

Submitted: 30 May 2023 / Revised: 12 March 2024 / Accepted: 1 April 2024

Residual stress is responsible for various engineering failures in cases where the magnitude of residual
stress exceeds the ultimate strength. With the aim of minimizing the residual stress induced in the
machining of AISI 1045 steel, different machining parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut) and the output
variables were experimentally investigated in this research. Series of specimens were produced using
different machining parameters, and the residual stress in each was measured. When a material is subjected
to external forces or thermal treatments, residual stresses can be introduced due to changes in the lattice
spacing of the material. These changes in lattice spacing are detected using a non-destructive method based
on the x-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. The equipment used is iXRD with MGR40P- Stress measurement
system, PROTO CANADA make. The PROTO XRDWIN 2.0 software was an integral part of the XRD
machine, which records all the necessary data, calculations and provides the user with surface residual
stresses values. Data analysis and the process parameters were optimized using Taguchi L9 orthogonal
design of experiments. To determine the effects of the machining parameters on residual stress, Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used. The results indicate that the feed rate is only statistically significant
parameter on the residual stress with the largest main effect. The optimal setup of machining parameters
that cause the lowest residual stress of 2 145.4 MPa was identified, with a speed of 710 m/min, a feed of
80 mm/min, and a DOC of 0.2 mm.

material is removed from the parent material in the form of chips,

Keywords AISI 1045, end milling, machining parameters,
residual stress, Taguchi method utilizing a hard cutting tool (Ref 4). In this process, residual
stresses become an integral part of a component or a structure that
has undergone machining, heat treatment, plastic deformation
(Ref 5). In addition, the stress is a critical factor influencing the
tool life performance of multilayer hard coatings used in
machining (Ref 6, 7). It affects coating properties, adhesion,
1. Introduction and wear resistance, significantly impacting longevity of cutting
tool. Moreover, the influence of cutting speed on tool perfor-
Machining as one of the most prevalent subtractive manu- mance is closely tied to residual stress, necessitating a balance to
facturing methods for transforming raw materials into finished optimize tool life. Residual stress’s reach extends to materials
products is often employed alongside non-traditional manufac- like AISI 4140 steel, where it can alter natural frequencies and
turing techniques (Ref 1, 2). In today’s industrial landscape, the impact structural integrity in the presence of fatigue-induced
primary goal is to produce products efficiently in terms of cost, cracks (Ref 8). Understanding and managing residual stress are
time, and quality. In addition to subtractive methods and to pivotal for enhancing the durability and reliability of cutting tools
achieve this objective, researchers and industrialists employ and structural components. Minimizing residual stresses in
various techniques to determine the optimal technology and machined parts is crucial to achieve this goal.
process parameters (Ref 3). During the machining operation, Ongoing research in this field focuses on predicting and
calculating residual stresses, continually expanding its dimen-
sions (Ref 9). Wan et al. developed a theoretical model that
This invited article is part of a special topical issue of the Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance on Residual Stress Analysis: combines cutting mechanisms and contact mechanics to predict
Measurement, Effects, and Control. The issue was organized by Rajan residual stresses induced during milling. They observed that
Bhambroo, Tenneco, Inc.; Lesley Frame, University of Connecticut; thermal loads have a weaker impact on residual stresses when
Andrew Payzant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and James Pineault, cutting speeds are low (Ref 1). The effect of cutting parameters on
Proto Manufacturing on behalf of the ASM Residual Stress Technical the induced residual stresses in turning process and quantified
Committee. residual stresses using x-ray diffraction method is investigated
Benjamin Durakovic, Industrial Engineering, International University (Ref 10), and some analytical models are applied in cutting of
of Sarajevo, Ilidža, Bosnia and Herzegovina; and K. Prakash AISI 4340 steel to investigate manufacturing factors (Ref 11).
Marimuthu, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School Radial return method to analytically predict the residual
of Engineering, Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amrita stresses in orthogonal cutting process to overcome the disad-
University, Bengaluru, India. Contact e-mail: [email protected].

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

vantages posed by yield drift and stress mutation is investigated Table 1 Machining parameter values foe each level
by Wang et al. (Ref 12). Ulutan et al. developed an empirical
model to predict the residual stresses in super alloys by fitting a Machining parameters Level I Level II Level III
sinusoidal delay function to the measured residual stresses
Speed, rpm 355 500 710
values and measured the residual stress profiles by x-ray
Feed, mm/min 20 40 80
diffraction. Further particle swarm optimization was used to Depth of cut, mm 0.2 0.3 0.5
minimize the fit of the model (Ref 13). Ezilarasan et al. noted
that the mechanical load had more effect than the thermal load
for a new tool and thermal loads become more significant for are considered as influential process parameters on the induced
old tools (Ref 14). Arrazola et al. developed 3D finite element residual stresses. Since full factorial designs are too expensive
model to predict the machining-induced residual stresses in and complex for data handling (Ref 32), in this research data
IN718 nickel-based alloy. The finite element analysis results were analyzed using Taguchi orthogonal array. Optimal process
had better agreement at lower speed when compared with the parameters (speed, feed, and DOC) are determined using
higher speeds (Ref 15). A close relationship of the cutting ‘‘signal-to-noise ratios’’ (SN). The minimum number of
forces and temperature on residual stresses was discussed in the experiments per Taguchi method is determined as: min # of
literature (Ref 16, 17). Barile et al. studied the effects of cutting experiments = 1 + number of parameters*(number of levels –
parameters on the residual stresses generated during the 1) = 1 + 3 *(3 – 1) = 9. Three factors and three levels are
machining of titanium plates using hole drilling method (Ref considered for this research and given in Table 1.
18). Nasr et al. developed a time-efficient approach for When analyzing L9 orthogonal array data, the choice
predicting machining-induced residual stresses. between using S/N ratio or ANOVA with t-tests depends on the
Many analytical models are available in the literature for objectives of the analysis and the nature of the data. The S/N
calculating the residual stresses during machining operations. ratio is preferred if the focus is on optimization rather than
Multi-step machining of elastoplastic materials and two-dimen- hypothesis testing. In this research, the objective is optimiza-
sional stresses are studied in the literature. Muñoz-Sánchez A et al. tion. The S/N ratio can be sensitive to small differences in
investigated the effect of tool wear on the machining-induced performance, which is useful for identifying factors that
residual stresses using a numerical model to predict the residual significantly affect the outcome and optimizing processes. In
(Ref 19). Many other researchers performed numerical studies for addition, the S/N ratio is a dimensionless quantity, which makes
prediction of residual stresses using different parameters (Ref 20) easy comparisons between different factors, especially if they
such as rake angle, Johnson–Cook constants, edge effects, and have different units.
other machining parameters on surface and subsurface residual Corresponding to the L9 orthogonal array, these three
stresses. Impact of tribology on temperature development was also process parameters at three levels were analyzed and significant
studied (Ref 21). The models are verified by using established factors with their effects on residual stress were identified. In
experimental procedures such as X ray diffraction to measure the this analysis, the aim is to minimize residual stress. Hence, the
actual stresses under real machining conditions (Ref 22). smaller-the-better S/N ratio is employed.
Residual stresses play a crucial role in the lifespan of !
1X n
2
components, as highlighted in the literature. Although some S=N ¼ 10 log y ðEq 1Þ
progress has been made in stress analysis studies employed in n k¼1 k
industries and on site, further research is warranted to predict
stresses accurately under specific operating parameters for where yk is residual stress for the given parameter-level
diverse materials. This need arises from the vast array of combination and n is number of responses in the process
materials and specific operating parameters for different parameter-level combination.
materials due to huge variety of materials and machining For the process optimization, a second-order response
parameters available (Ref 2, 23-31). surface method is used to find the optimal combination of
This study aims to develop a predictive model for determining factors speed, feed, and DOC that minimize the response y
the nature and magnitude of residual stresses induced by end (residual stress). The general formula for a quadratic response
milling operations of AISI 1045 steel. The main objective is to surface model with three factors can be written as follows (Ref
study the residual stresses and optimize the key parameters that 33):
cause the residual stress. Machinability and the resulting residual y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ b3 x3 þ b11 x21 þ b22 x22 þ b33 x23
stresses are caused by various parameters, such as speed, feed, and þ b12 x1 x2 þ b13 x1 x3 þ b23 x2 x3 þ e
depth of cut. This research distinguishes itself from prior research
by focusing on the feed rate’s statistically significant influence on ðEq 2Þ
residual stress, offering valuable insights for optimizing machining where x1, x2, and x3 are the coded values of the factors
conditions. Recognizing feed rate as the primary factor affecting representing speed, feed, and DOC, y is residual stress, b0 is
residual stress in AISI 1045 steel offers valuable insights for the intercept term, b1, b2, and b3 are the coefficients of the first-
efficient process optimization, cost savings, and informed deci- order terms, representing the main effects of factors x1, x2, and x3,
sion-making in machining. respectively, b11, b22, and b33 are the coefficients of the second-
order terms, representing the curvature of the response surface
2. Method along x1, x2, and x3, respectively, b12, b13, and b23 are the
interaction term coefficients, e represents the random error term.
To determine the effect of various machining parameters on Additionally, to identify critical process parameters on the
the machining-induced residual stresses on AISI 1045 steel, end residual stress, a general multiple linear regression model is
milling operation is used. Speed, feed, and depot of cut (DOC) used (Ref 32).

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 Table 2 Parameters related to the measurement of
residual stresses in AISI 1045
Parameters Value

Material AISI 1045 steel

Tube Cr_K—Alpha
Wavelength 2.291
Bragg angle 156.41 degrees
Peak location Gaussian 80%
d0 1.170 Angstroms
Young’s modulus (E) 210 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (m) 0.29

Based on Table 4, S/N ratio is determined with the aim of

Fig. 1 Specimen with measurement location
identifying the largest effect of the process parameters on the
residual stress using smaller-the-better approach. For this
purpose, Minitab 17 is used to determine S/N ratio by sketching
the main effect plot of means for each factor level. The best
y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ    þ bk xk þ e ðEq 3Þ setting that minimizes residual stress is the one that maximizes
S/N ratio. Therefore, the lowest residual stress is observed in
where y is residual stress, bj are regression coefficients (where Run #6 with combination of the process parameters such as
j = 0. 1, 2, …, k) and represent expected change in residual speed of 500 m/min; feed of 80 mm/min; DOC of 0.2 mm; and
stress per change in process parameters, xj is process param- S/N =  47.78 dB. The other results are shown in Fig. 2 and
eters, e is random error. Table 5.
The diagram of main effect shows how each factor affects
2.1 Residual Stress Measurement response variable (residual stress). Referring to Fig. 2 and
Evaluation of residual stresses is based on a non-destructive Table 5, it is observed that feed is most influencing process
x-ray diffraction method, which is widely used in academia and parameter on the residual stress.
industry due to its accuracy. The equipment used is iXRD The main effects plot of means for S/N ratio indicates that
Diffractometers with MGR40P Stress measurement system feed process parameter has the largest effect of 4.51 on the S/N
PROTO CANADA make. The machined specimen surface is ratio, which has a linear relationship between S/N ratio and feed
shown in Fig. 1. rate is observed. The next but much smaller main effect of 3.11
The PROTO XRDWIN 2.0 software was an integral part of on the S/N ratio has depth of cut, while the speed parameter has
the XRD Diffractometers machine, which records all the a very small effect of 1.17 on the SN ratio.
necessary data, calculations and provides the user with surface Since the goal of the experiment is to minimize residual
residual stresses values. The measurement location is shown in stress, optimal process parameters of controllable factors are
Fig. 1(b). The anode was chromium type anode (Cr_K – Alphas identified based on the data characteristics with values close to
type). The psi angles were 8.20, 3.55, 0,  8.32,  11.80, zero. Based on Fig. 2 and Table 5, the best level for each
 15.28,  23.60,  27.15,  31.80. The other parameters process parameter can be identified as follows:
related to the measurement of residual stresses in AISI 1045
steel are listed in Tables 2 and 3. • Speed—the best level is Level #3 with S/N =  50.56.
The specimen preparation involved end milling operations • Feed—the best level is Level #3 with S/N =  48.89.
using a vertical milling machine VF 1, manufactured by Bharat • DOC—the best level is Level #1 with S/N =  49.23.
Fritz Werner, equipped with an auto-feed mechanism. A steel
plate with dimensions 50 9 50 mm and a thickness of 6 mm
was used as the specimen. For each experimental run, a single- 3.2 Critical Process Parameters
pass end milling operation was performed. Throughout the The critical process parameters were identified using a
experiments, a 4-flute, 6-mm-diameter end mill tool made of regression model. The result of regression coefficient calcula-
high-speed steel (HSS) was consistently used. Climb milling tion as well as its significance is shown in Table 6 at 0.95
was done in order to reduce the clamping requirements. Dry confidence interval.
cutting conditions were applied for the research. Referring to Table 6, it was observed that only feed rate (x2
variable) is the most influential process parameter in generating
residual stress in AISI 1045 steel (p < 0.05). The other two
3. Results and Discussion process parameters, speed and DOC, were not statistically
significant. Therefore, residual stress can be predicted using
linear regression model. Predicted model can be described
3.1 S/N Ratio Analysis
using the following mathematical formulation.
Induced residual stress was measured in an experimental
design for various combinations of process parameters. Table 4 ^y ¼  456:7 þ 0:08x1 þ 3:11x2  328:7x3 ðEq 4Þ
presents the S/N ratio values and the influence of process To have further insights into the performance of the model,
parameters on the residual stress. the distribution of residuals around the predicted values is

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Table 3 Parameters related to the measurement of residual stresses in AISI 1045
Beta Angles Psi Sin^2psi DSpacing 2Theta Strain*E3 FWHM Breadth Intensity

20.00 8.20 0.0204 1.170255 156.39 0.040 3.052 3.40 1932.79

15.35 3.55 0.0038 1.170255 156.39 0.039 3.105 3.38 1938.67
11.80 0.00 0.0000 1.170209 156.41 0.000 3.050 3.49 1918.15
3.48  8.32 0.0209 1.170172 156.43  0.031 3.130 3.45 1876.99
0.00  11.80 0.0418 1.170102 156.46  0.092 3.109 3.40 1908.50
 3.48  15.28 0.0694 1.170102 156.46  0.091 3.094 3.49 1926.94
 11.80  23.60 0.1602 1.169939 156.54  0.230 3.241 3.48 1914.42
 15.35  27.15 0.2082 1.169912 156.55  0.253 3.143 3.44 1908.32
 20.00  31.80 0.2776 1.169799 156.60  0.350 3.248 3.50 1842.58

Table 4 Influence of process parameters on the residual stress and S/N ratio in TaguchiÕs L9 orthogonal array
Run Speed, m/min Feed, mm/min DOC, mm Residual stress, MPa S/N ratio, dB

1 355 20 0.2  389.9  51.82

2 355 40 0.3  448.3  53.03
3 355 80 0.5  291.5  49.29
4 500 20 0.3  523.1  54.37
5 500 40 0.5  448.7  53.04
6* 500 80 0.2  245  47.78
7 710 20 0.5  501.2  54.00
8 710 40 0.2  253.4  48.08
9 710 80 0.3  301.8  49.59
*Provides the lowest residual stress

Fig. 2 Main effect plot of means for S/N ratios

examined. Figure 3 shows normal probability plot of residuals no apparent pattern, which indicates that the model makes
and residuals vs. fitted values plots and shows that the data are unbiased predictions. Particularly, it is observed that there is
adequate for this analysis. nothing unusual; the residuals are randomly distributed around
Normal probability plot shows the data were normally zero value, no trends or patterns, no residuals far away from the
distributed around the mean. The other plot of residuals vs. pattern; therefore, it can be concluded there is linear relation-
fitted values displays residual distribution around the fitted ship, the variance of the error is equal, there are no outliers, and
value. The residuals are randomly distributed around zero with the model makes unbiased predictions. The calculated residual

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Table 5 Response table of main effects for S/N ratios (Smaller is better)
Level Speed Feed DOC

1  51.38  53.40  49.23*

2  51.73  51.38  52.33
3  50.56*  48.89*  52.11
Effect 1.17 4.51 3.11
Rank 3 1 2
*The best levels

Table 6 Relationship between process parameters and the residual stress

Regression coefficients Standard error t Stat P2 value Lower 95% Upper 95%

Intercept  456.67 109.60  4.17 0.01  738.39  174.95

Speed (x1) 0.08 0.15 0.54 0.61  0.31 0.47
Feed (x2)* 3.11 0.89 3.50 0.02 0.83 5.40
DOC (x3)  328.71 177.69  1.85 0.12  785.47 128.04
*Significant

Fig. 3 Residual plots for means

stress error value using the linear regression model is approx- 3.3 Optimum Set of Parameters
imately 40 MPa. Since the measured residual stress values are
To find the best set of process factor levels that produce the
in the range of hundreds of MPa, the error is relatively
least residual stress, a response surface model is developed,
moderate compared to the scale of the problem. It is worth
which represents the mathematical relationship between the
noting that the error suggests that the predictions might not be
process parameters and the resulting residual stress. Figure 4
highly accurate in cases when precision is crucial in AISI 1045
shows an optimal set of process parameter that produce
steel machining.
minimum residual stress in AISI 1045 steel.
These findings align with some earlier research where it is
It was observed that minimum residual stress of
concluded that feed rate is an influential factor on residual stress
 145.4 MPa will be induced at speed of 710 m/min, feed of
in AISI 1045 steel (Ref 20), AISI 52100 (Ref 34), AerMet100
80 mm/min, and DOC 0.2 mm. These values represent the
steel (Ref 35), and some others (Ref 36). Some prior studies
optimized set of machining parameters for AISI 1045 steel, and
reported varying optimal parameters for minimizing residual
it is recommended to be implemented in manufacturing to
stress, suggesting that the specific machining conditions and
achieve minimal residual stress.
material properties might lead to different outcomes (Ref 36-
The predictive model is specific to AISI 1045 steel.
38). The possible reasons for these discrepancies could be
Engineers should interpret model predictions with certain
variations in material composition, machining techniques, or
caution. The predictive equations are recommended within
measurement methods, which highlight the need for context-
the range of process parameters studied but may not provide
specific investigations to yield more accurate and reliable
accurate predictions outside that range, especially for different
results (Ref 39).
materials or unaccounted environmental factors. Therefore,
further research and experimentation may be necessary to

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 4 Optimum set of parameters

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