ANTENNA

Antennas are devices designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. They are fundamental
components of communication systems, allowing the transmission and reception of radio frequency (RF)
signals. The theory of antennas is based on electromagnetics and involves understanding how
electromagnetic fields propagate through space and interact with conductive structures.

An antenna is basically a transducer. It converts radio frequency (RF) signal into an electromagnetic
(EM) wave of the same frequency. It forms a part of transmitter as well as the receiver circuits. Its
equivalent circuit is characterized by the presence of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The current
produces a magnetic field and a charge produces an electrostatic field. These two in turn create an
induction field.

MORE DIFINITION

1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form of a wire, rod or any other shape with
excitation.

2. An antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.

3. An antenna is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.

4. An antenna is a transducer.

5. An antenna is an impedance matching device.

6. An antenna is a coupler between a generator and space or vice-versa

Antenna Reciprocity

The phenomenon of using the same antenna for transmission as well as for reception is called Antenna
Reciprocity. In applications where transmission and reception are not simultaneous, single antenna can
serve both the purposes equally well. The common example is Radar systems where during transmission,
output of the transmitter is connected to the antenna, and during reception, the same antenna is connected
to the input of the receiver. The switching over of connection is done by a device called Duplexer.

Common terms Used in antenna

i) Input Impedance

For an efficient transfer of energy, the impedance of the radio, of the antenna and of the transmission
cable connecting them must be the same. Transceivers and their transmission lines are typically designed
for 50 Ω impedance. If the antenna has an impedance different from 50 Ω, then there is a mismatch and
an impedance matching circuit is required.
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ii) Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the range of frequencies over which the antenna can operate
correctly. The antenna's bandwidth is the number of Hz for which the antenna will exhibit an SWR less
than 2:1.

The bandwidth can also be described in terms of percentage of the center frequency of the band.

FH is the highest frequency in the band,

FL is the lowest frequency in the band, and

FC is the center frequency in the band.

In this way, bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If bandwidth was expressed in absolute units of
frequency, it would be different depending upon the center frequency.

iii)Power Gain

The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the power input to the antenna to the power output from the
antenna. This gain is most often referred to with the units of dBi, which is logarithmic gain relative to an
isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna has a perfect spherical radiation pattern and a linear gain of one.

iv)Directivity

The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular
direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It
is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average radiation intensity

v) Beamwidth

Beamwidth of an antenna is the angular separation between its two 3 dB down points on the field strength
radiation patterns. This is given in degrees. The term is used for narrow beam antennas.

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vi) Polarization

Polarization is defined as the orientation of the electric field of an electromagnetic wave. Polarization is in
general described by an ellipse. Two special cases of elliptical polarization are linear polarization and
circular polarization. The initial polarization of a radio wave is determined by the antenna.

With linear polarization the electric field vector stays in the same plane all the time. Vertically polarized
radiation is somewhat less affected by reflections over the transmission path. Omnidirectional antennas
always have vertical polarization. With horizontal polarization, such reflections cause variations in
received signal strength. Horizontal antennas are less likely to pick up man-made interference, which
ordinarily is vertically polarized.

In circular polarization the electric field vector appears to be rotating with circular motion about the
direction of propagation, making one full turn for each RF cycle. This rotation may be righthand or
lefthand. Choice of polarization is one of the design choices available to the RF system designer.

vii) Beamwidth

An antenna's beamwidth is usually understood to mean the half-power beamwidth. The peak radiation
intensity is found and then the points on either side of the peak which represent half the power of the peak
intensity are located. The angular distance between the half power points is defined as the beamwidth.
Half the power expressed in decibels is —3dB, so the half power beamwidth is sometimes referred to as
the 3dB beamwidth. Both horizontal and vertical beamwidths are usually considered. Assuming that most
of the radiated power is not divided into sidelobes, then the directive gain is inversely proportional to the
beamwidth: as the beamwidth decreases, the directive gain increases.

viii)Sidelobes

No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction. Some is inevitably radiated in other
directions. The peaks are referred to as sidelobes, commonly specified in dB down from the main lobe.

ix)Nulls

In an antenna radiation pattern, a null is a zone in which the effective radiated power is at a minimum. A
null often has a narrow directivity angle compared to that of the main beam. Thus, the null is useful for
several purposes, such as suppression of interfering signals in a given direction

Effective aperture area Ar of receiving antenna:

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This is for the receiving antenna and is the effective area Ar through which it can receive maximum of
incident power which is given by:

Where gr = gain of the receiving antenna.

HOW DOES ANTENNA RADIATE ENERGY

When RF signal is applied to an antenna, the result is a current and voltage distribution. Now a current
flowing through a conductor is surrounded by a magnetic field, whereas voltage produces an electric
field. If the RF signal applied to the antenna can be represented sinusoidally, at peak +ve point the electric
field around the antenna is maximum and after that it starts decreasing. If frequency of RF signal is low,
the field may collapse in the antenna, but if the frequency is very high, the field cannot collapse so fast
and the result is that there is large electric field, even voltage or current across the antenna is zero. Thus
there is an electric field with no voltage. During the next (–ve) cycle when the field builds again, the
previous field gets repelled by this new field. This is repeated again and again and a series of detached
fields move outward from the antenna. The same phenomenon happens with magnetic field. We know
that according to the laws of em induction, a moving electric field produces a magnetic field and vice
versa.

The produced fields are in phase with the producer field and their direction is perpendicular to direction
of propagation. The detached electrical field produces magnetic field and vice versa. These fields when
added vectorially give one single wave which travels in a direction perpendicular to the electric and
magnetic fields both of them at perpendicular to each other.

ANTENNA CLASSSIFICATION
Antenna can be classified on the basis of:
1.Frequency
VLF, LF, HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave, Millimeter wave antenna
2.Aperture
Wire, Parabolic Dish, Microstrip Patch antenna
3. Polarization
- Linear (Vertical/Horizontal), Circular polarization antenna
4.Radiation
Isotropic, Omnidirectional, Directional, Hemispherical

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Table below summarize the type of antenna based on frequency and their application

TYPE OF ANTENNA
Some of the common types of antennas are mentioned below.
1 Wire Antennas
2 Aperture Antennas 3 Lens Antennas
4 Travelling-wave Antennas 5 Array Antennas
6 Microstrip Antennas 7 Reflector Antennas

Wire Antennas
One of the most commonly used antennas are wire antennas. They can be found in vehicles (automobiles),
ships, aircrafts, buildings etc. Wire Antennas come in different shapes and sizes like straight wire (Dipole),
monopole, loop, helix antenna.
Loop antennas need not only be circular. They may take the form of a rectangle, square, ellipse, or any
other configuration. The circular loop is the most common because of its simplicity in construction.

Figure 1 Wire antenna configurations.

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HALF-WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA

Any antenna having a physical length that is one half-wavelength of the applied frequency is called a
half-wave dipole antenna. Half-wave dipole antennas are predominantly used with frequencies above 2
MHz. It is unlikely that a half-wave dipole antenna will be found in applications below 2 MHz because at
these low-frequencies this antenna is physically too large.
𝒄
𝝀=𝒇

Development of the Half-Wave Dipole Antenna

The antenna shown in Figure 2 is composed of two quarter-wave sections. The electrical distance from
the end of one to the end of the other is a half wavelength. If voltage is applied to the line, the current is
maximum at the input and minimum at the ends. The voltage is maximum between the ends, and
minimum between the input terminals.

Figure 2 Basic half-wave dipole antenna.

Half-Wave Dipole Antenna Impedance

An impedance value may be specified for a half-wave antenna thus constructed. Generally, the
impedance at the ends is maximum, while that at the input is minimum. Consequently, the impedance
value varies from a minimum value at the generator to a maximum value at the open ends. An impedance
curve for the half-wave antenna is shown in Figure 3. Notice that the line has different impedance values
for different points along its length. The impedance values for half-wave antennas vary from about 2500
Ω at the open ends to 73 Ω at the source ends.

Radiation Pattern

The half-wave dipole antenna is termed directional because it concentrates energy in certain directions at
the expense of lower energy in other directions. Another important concept is an antenna’s beamwidth. It
is the angular separation between the half-power points on its radiation pattern.

Radiation resistance

The portion of an antenna’s input impedance that is the result of power radiated into space is called the
radiation resistance, . Note that is not the resistance of the conductors that form the antenna. It is simply

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an effective resistance that is related to the power radiated by the antenna. radiation resistance can be
mathematically defined as the ratio of total power radiated to the square of the effective value of antenna
current

𝑃
𝑅𝑟 =𝐼2

Where

𝑅𝑟 = radiation resistance

I = effective rms value of antenna current at the feed point (A)

P= total power radiated from the antenna

The radiation resistance varies with antenna length, as shown in Figure 3. For a halfwave antenna, the
radiation resistance measured at the current maximum (center of the antenna) is approximately 73 Ω.

These are free-space values, that is, the values of radiation resistance that would exist if the antenna were
completely isolated so that its radiation pattern would not be affected by ground or other reflections.

Figure 3 Radiation resistance of antennas in free space plotted against length.

Antenna Gain

The half-wave dipole antenna has a 2.15-dB gain (at right angles to the antenna) as compared to an
isotropic radiator. the dipole antenna is sometimes taken as the standard reference to which all other
antennas are compared with respect to their gain. When the gain of an antenna is multiplied by its power
input, the result is termed its effective radiated power (ERP). For instance, an antenna with a gain of 7
and fed with 1 kW has an ERP of 7 kW. The half-wave dipole antenna’s gain can be expressed as 2.15
dBi. If an antenna’s gain is given in decibels with respect to a dipole, it is expressed as dBd. The amount
of power received by an antenna through free space can be calculated by the following:

𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 = 16𝜋 2 𝑑2

𝑃𝑡 = power transmitted (W)

𝐺𝑡 = transmitting antenna gain (ratio, not dB)

𝑃𝑟 = power received (W)

𝜆 = wavelength (m)

d = distance between antennas (m)

Example 1

𝜆
Two dipoles are separated by 50 km. They are “aligned” for optimum reception. The transmitter feeds
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its antenna with 10 W at 144 MHz. Calculate the power received.(Gain = 2.15 dB).

Example 2

𝜆
We want to build a dipole to receive a 100-MHz broadcast. Determine the optimum length of the
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dipole.

Example 3

𝜆
A2 dipole is driven with a 5-W signal at 225 MHz. A receiving dipole 100 km away is aligned so that its

gain is cut in half. Calculate the received power and voltage into a 73 Ω receiver.

MONOPOLE ANTENNA

The monopole antenna (sometimes called a vertical antenna) is used primarily with frequencies below 2
MHz. The difference between the vertical antenna and the halfwave dipole antenna is that the vertical
type requires a conducting path to ground, and the half-wave dipole type does not. The monopole antenna
is usually a quarter-wave grounded antenna or any odd multiple of a quarter-wavelength.

Figure 4 Grounded monopole antenna.