Automobile Systems, Dynamics and Control 4 - 054407
Automobile Systems, Dynamics and Control 4 - 054407
Automobile Systems, Dynamics and Control 4 - 054407
LECTURE NOTE
FOR
BY
JANUARY, 2024
COURSE OUTLINE
Automobile Systems:
✓ Introduction
✓ Tyre and Rim Fundamentals
✓ Forward Vehicle Dynamics
✓ Tyre Dynamics
✓ Driveline Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Kinematics
✓ Applied Mechanisms
✓ Steering Dynamics
✓ Suspension Mechanisms
✓ Speed Limiting Devices
Vehicle Dynamics:
✓ Applied Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Planar Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Roll Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Vibration
✓ Suspension Optimization
✓ Control of Road Vehicle Dynamics
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1.0 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS
1.1 Introduction
Definition of Automobile or Automotive: The term “automotive” or “automobile” is used to refer to a vehicle
which can be moved by itself. In other words, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the
transportation of passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. It consists of a frame supported
by a body and power-producing and power transmitting units. These units are further supported by tyres and
wheels, which are connected by springs and axles.
Definition of Automobile Engineering: is a branch of engineering which deals with designing, manufacturing
and operating automobiles. It is a segment of vehicle engineering which deals with motorcycles, buses, trucks, etc.
It includes mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety elements.
1.3 Wheels
Wheel is an important structural member of the vehicular suspension system that supports the static and dynamic
loads generated during various operating conditions of the vehicle. A wheel is a circular device that is capable of
rotating on its axis, facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load. Generally, there are four wheels
but often to enhance the load carrying capacity the number of wheels may be more than four.
Fig. 1 (a) Pressed Steel Disc Wheel (b) Fitting of the Disk Wheel to the Hub
Functions: Wheel discs transmit braking as well as driving torque and take care of cornering forces and side
thrusts.
Advantages: Pressed steel disc wheels are the most popular type of wheels and most of the cars are fitted
with this type of wheels. They are light, strong, stiff and resistant to accidental damage. Their foremost
advantage is that they are easy to produce in large numbers at low cost.
Materials: The rims may be made of aluminium or magnesium that may be die-cast or forged. These are light
in weight as compared to steel disc wheels. The wheels in an automobile are unsprung parts. This means that
their weight is not supported by suspension springs. Hence reduction in weight is important.
2. Wire wheels
Wire spoke wheels are the oldest in design but have remained in use largely because of light weight and strong
construction. In this type of wheels, the hub is attached to the rim through a number of long, thin-wired spokes
(similar to bicycle wheel). The purpose of the spokes is to bear weight, to transmit the driving and braking
torques, to withstand side forces when cornering and to avoid bending or compressive loads acting on the
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wheel. The rim of a wired wheel is not capable of fitting tubeless tyres. The wheel hub is in the centre
connected to rim with the help of wire spokes as shown in Fig. 2. These are light in weight and have better heat
dissipation.
The spokes are mounted in a complicated criss-cross fashion installed on three planes in a skilful manner. The wheel
has a rim attached to the hub through wire spokes. These are much stronger in tension and transmit all forces to
the rim. Since the spokes have very little resistance to bending, they are laced so that complex loads coming on the
wheel are resolved into tensile load evenly distributed among adequate number of spokes (Fig. 2).
Advantages: this type of wheels have light weight, high strength and easy to change whenever required.
Cast light alloy wheels are made from castings of light alloys of aluminium and magnesium. The aluminium alloy
wheels are cheaper than magnesium alloy wheels. Usually, aluminium alloy wheels are preferred for passenger cars
and trucks, and magnesium alloy wheels for sports and racing cars. When compared to steel, magnesium alloy is
50% lighter but has similar strength. Reduced weight enhances fuel economy.
They have wider rims, and radial ribs which also act as angled spokes to provide strength and air circulation. The
construction avoids any sharp lines and angles to improve strength (Fig. 3). Cast light alloy wheels are specially
used in racing cars.
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Fig. 3 Cast light alloy wheels
Advantages: Light alloys are better conductors of heat than steel, so that they transfer any heat generated by the
tyre or brake more quickly, which improves tyre life. Magnesium alloys exhibit very good fatigue properties and
excellent resilience, due to which they are capable of resisting vibrational and shock loading better than both
aluminium alloy and steel. These wheels are manufactured with a single-piece rim and disc. Cast light alloy wheels
are light in weight.
The biggest problem with alloy wheels is corrosion which places them at the biggest disadvantage. As regards the
cost, light alloy wheels are more expensive to manufacture than pressed steel wheels.
Function of alignment: Proper alignment ensures ease of steering and reduces load on suspensions and tyres.
Four angles are involved in the proper alignment of the wheel: caster, camber, toe-in, toe-out on the turns and
inclination of the steering axis.
Effect improper alignment: Poor alignment of tyres can result in a less-than-enjoyable driving experience.
a. Warning signs
The warning signs when alignment needs to be adjusted are as follows:
✓ Irregular and uneven tyre wear
✓ Heavy steering
✓ Fatigue to the driver’s steering
✓ Vehicle wandering or difficult to maintain along a straight line
✓ Vehicle steering wheel not returning to exact centre
✓ One side pulling of the vehicle
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b. Correct Alignment
✓ Prevents excessive, uneven and early wear of the tyre
✓ Increases fuel economy
✓ Enhances cornering and general handling
✓ Reduces driver fatigue
✓ Enhances tyre life
✓ Improves the life of suspension elements
2. Wheel balancing
Balancing of wheel is required for smooth operation of the wheel, long tyre life, and proper alignment of the wheel
to minimise its own vibrations. Wheel balancing is done in order to gain consistent stability and to prevent instability
in cars by applying balancing weights to the rim in order to distribute the mass of the wheel equally during rotation.
If the unequal centrifugal forces received by one side of the wheel are cancelled on the other side of the wheel,
they are said to be in balance.
✓ Drop centre
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✓ Flat base
✓ 5° tapered bead seat
✓ 15° tapered bead seat
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1.4.2.6 Wide-base two-piece rim
This type of rim is used mainly on medium-size commercial vehicles. In this type of rim one split detachable flange
and one fixed flange are integrated with the rim base. A taper of 5° is provided to tyre beads, the one on the
detachable flange side being integral with the flange. The outer detachable flange is sprung into a continuous
groove formed along the outer edge of the rim base to retain the flange in its working position. At the time of
inflation of the tyre the bead sits over the detachable-flange taper to holds its position.
1.5 Tyre
The tyre is a cushion for a car axle. This consists mostly of the outer shell, i.e., the interior of the tyre and tube. The
assembly of the tyre tube is mounted on the wheel rim. It is the air inside the tube that bears the entyre load and
provides cushioning effect.
1. Cushioning ability: wheels and tyre should provide ride comfort to the vehicle by acting as a spring
element. The flexibility of the tyre depends on elasticity of the material used and inflation pressure; and are
not as flexible as the springing components of the suspension system.
2. Rolling resistance: tyres should provide rolling resistance, since, resisting forces are encountered due to
tyre deformation, uneven road surfaces and friction force developed due to scrubbing action of the road.
Rolling resistance is affected by inflation pressure. Minimum rolling resistance will improve performance and
fuel consumption.
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3. Directional stability: Minimum slip angle is desirable in tyres. Pneumatic tyres are flexible in nature.
During free rolling, lateral forces act on the vehicle and deviates it from its straight path. This deviation is
known as the slip angle. Factors such as load, tyre inflation road surface, etc. affect the slip angle.
4. Self-aligning property: Due to presence of slip angle, the trailing portion of the tyre contact patch has
more lateral deformation than the leading portion, which shifts the centre of pressure, and cornering forces
act just behind the rotational axis of the wheel, and as a result the wheel produces self-aligning torque. At
its essence, self-aligning torque is the torque (a force that produces rotation) developed by the tyre when
you're cornering (which means turning). It aids in steering the vehicle.
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Fig. 5: Tyre Anatomy
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✓ Inner tube: A tyre’s inner tube is a flexible tube, which assumes a circular shape when inflated; it will expand
indefinitely like a balloon. A tube is protected by an outer cover of textile material and rubber. The purpose of
the inner tube is to store the trapped air for a long time.
✓ Inner-liner (inner-tube): A tyre’s inner tube is a flexible tube, which assumes a circular shape; and keeps air
inside the tyre when inflated.
✓ Bead filler: reduces flex and aids in deflection.
✓ Body plies: withstands the forces of the tyre’s inflation pressure, provides the mechanical link from the wheel
movement to the tread are and flexibility to supplement the vehicle’s suspension system.
✓ Sidewall: protects the side of the tyre from road and curb attack from atmospheric degradation.
✓ Shoulder blocks: are the tread elements of segments on the tyre tread nearest to the sidewall.
✓ Belts: stabilize and strengthen the tread, allowing forces to be efficiently transferred to the tread area.
✓ Belt edge insulation: helps to reduce friction.
✓ Tread: provides the frictional coupling to the road surface to generate traction and steering Forces.
✓ Ribs: are a pattern that includes grooves around the tyre in the direction of rotation.
✓ Grooves: are circumferential or lateral channels between adjacent tread ribs or tread blocks.
✓ Lugs: are the sections of rubber that make contact with the terrain.
✓ Voids: are the spaces that are located between the lugs.
✓ Sipes: are small lateral cuts made in the surface of the tread to improve traction.
✓ Kerfs: are shallow slits moulded into the tyre tread for added traction – this term often used interchangeably
with sipes.
1.5.5 Classification of Tyres
There are generally two types: solid and pneumatic (or air filled). Solid tyres are generally used for special
industrial applications. Tyres are also classified into tubed and tubeless, radial and non-radial tyres.
1.5.5.1 Tubed tyres
1. Tubed tyre or traditional tyre consists of a hard tyre outside with an inner soft rubber tube that assumes the form
of a tyre after inflation. The valve stem attached to the vent is used to either inflate or deflate it.
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1.5.5.2 Tubeless tyre
This type of tyre does not need a separate tube; rather, the air under pressure is filled into the tyre through a non-
return valve attached to the rim. The inner construction Wheels and Tyres of the tubeless tyre is similar to that of a
tubed tyre, except that inside it has a specialised air-retaining lining (Fig. 7) that forms a seal between the tyre
bead and the wheel rim.
Tubeless tyres have the following benefits over traditional tubed tyres:
1. The tubeless tyre is easier to fit.
2. When punctured it deflates slowly in contrast to tubed tyres where air leaks out fast.
3. Less un-sprung weight: This makes the tyre lighter, which minimises and eventually decreases the bouncing
of the drum.
4. Since there is no tube in the tubeless tyres, heat is transferred directly into the atmosphere resulting in
better cooling.
5. It can be patched easily by plugging in a very short time, although in the case of traditional tyres, it takes
quite some time to remove the tube for repair.
1.5.5.3 Radial
The radial tyre is constructed with reinforcing steel cable belts that are assembled in parallel and run side to side,
from one bead to another bead at an angle of 90 deg to the circumferential centreline of the tyre. This makes the
tyre more flexible radially, which reduces rolling resistance and improves cornering capability. Fig. 8 shows the
interior structure and the carcass arrangement of a radial tyre.
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Fig. 8: interior structure and the carcass arrangement of a radial tyre
1.5.5.4 Non-Radial tyres
The non-radial tyres are also called bias-ply and cross-ply tyres. The plies are layered diagonal from one bead to the
other bead at about a 30 deg angle, although any other angles may also be applied. One ply is set on a bias in one
direction as succeeding plies are set alternately in opposing directions as they cross each other. The ends of the
plies are wrapped around the bead wires, anchoring them to the rim of the wheel. Fig. 9 shows the interior
structure and the carcass arrangement of a non-radial tyre.
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Fig. 10:(a) Radial (b) non-Radial
The radial tyre, shown in Fig. 10 (a), flexes mostly in the sidewall and keeps the tread flat on the road. The bias-ply
tyre, shown in Fig. 10 (b) has less contact with the road as both tread and sidewalls distort under a lateral load.
1.5.6 Tyre Treads patterns
Tread of a tyre or track refers to the rubber on its circumference that makes contact with the road or the ground. As
tyres are used, the tread is worn off, limiting its effectiveness in providing traction. Tyres usually falls into one of the
following categories:
1. Directional (unidirectional) tread pattern: A directional (also called unidirectional) tread pattern is
built in such a way that the tread has to roll or rotate in one direction only. It consists of lateral grooves on
both sides of the centreline of the tyre that point in the same direction and results in V-shaped tread blocks
(Fig. 11(a)).
2. Symmetrical tread pattern: The symmetric tread pattern is the most common and consists of continuous
ribs or individual tread blocks around the entyre tread face (Fig. 11(c)).
3. Asymmetrical tread patterns: The criteria for dry grip and water dispersal/snow traction are combined
in this form of design. Asymmetric tread designs typically contain larger tread ribs/blocks on the outboard
side to improve cornering stability on dry roads by providing greater contact space (Fig. 11(b)).
4. Non-directional tread patterns: non-directional tyres have a tread pattern that is designed to perform
equally well regardless of the tyres' rotational direction. These types of tyres win the tread wear comparison
other tread patterns. Non-directional tyres can be rotated (swapped), to different sides of the vehicle,
extending their life, and making uneven tread wear easier to correct.
Fig. 13 shows the different tyre tread patterns, their features and recommended area of application.
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Fig. 13: Different tyre tread patterns.
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Fig. 13: tyre rotation
The unit is clamped shut and heat is applied for a specified time. This vulcanises the new tray into the existing
casing. The worn tyre re-treading can be achieved using the method of hot re-treading and cold re-treading
processes.
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✓ Steel cords have of late been used for breaker belts in some tyres.
a. Proper Inflation: this is maintaining inflation pressure in the tyre as specified by the manufacturer of the
automobile tyres (Fig. 14(a)). It helps to achieve longer tyre life. It provides stability to the automobile. It
provides riding comfort and also better fuel economy.
b. Under Inflation: If inflation pressure is less than specified, it causes instability, abnormal tyre wear and
enhanced fuel consumption. It also causes uneven wearing of the tyre (Fig. 14(b)).
c. Over Inflation: If inflation pressure is more than specified. The central part of the tyre is in contact with the
road surface (Fig. 14(c)). This will cause wearing of middle portion of the tyre. More than specified inflation
pressure also causes tyre bruising and uncomfortable ride.
Fig. 15 illustrates a cross section view of a tyre on a rim to show the dimension parameters that are used to
standard tyres.
Fig. 15: Cross section of a tyre on a rim to show tyre height and width
Where:
Height hT, is a number that must be added to the rim radius to make the wheel radius.
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Section width, or tyre width, wT , is the widest dimension of a tyre when the tyre is not loaded.
The speed rating of the tyre is given by the letter code, which indicates maximum recommended speed for that
tyre. Common symbols for passenger car tyres include;
• P for passenger,
• LT for light truck,
• C for commercial,
• T means temporary use as a spare wheel.
The tyre may have a load index number, indicating the maximum load a tyre can carry at the speed indicated by its
speed symbol, which follows the number.
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e.g. a P-series metric size code may read in full – P205/65 R15 92H.
Further development of high-speed tyres has expanded the speed categories to include W and Y
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1.5.13 Tyre Ratings for Temperature & Traction
One of the markings on the sidewall of a tyre is a Uniform Tyre Quality Grading or UTQG grade.
The tyre’s UTQG rating provides information on three aspects of the tyre’s durability and operational characteristics.
They are: Tread wear, traction and temperature.
The tread wear number comes from testing the tyre in controlled conditions. The higher the number the longer the
life expectancy of the tread. Since no one vehicle will be subjected to exactly the same surfaces and at the same
speeds as the controlled conditions, the number can only be an indicator of expected tread life in “normal
conditions”.
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2.0 Forward Vehicle Dynamics
Straight motion of an ideal rigid vehicle is the subject of this chapter. We ignore air friction and examine the load
variation under the tyres to determine the vehicle’s limits of acceleration, road grade, and kinematic capabilities.
When the vehicle sits statically on level ground, the load equations simplify considerably. The sine is zero and the
cosine is one, and the variables Rhx, RhZ, ax, and DA are zero. The normal force, Fz, under each of the front and rear
wheels, Fz1, Fz2, are thus:
(1)
(2)
(4)
where, a1 is the distance of the car’s mass centre, C, from the front axle, a2 is the distance of C from the rear axle,
and l is the wheel base.
(5)
provide the reaction forces under the front and rear tyres.
(6)
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(7)
(8)
(9)
When a car is parked on an inclined pavement as shown in Figure 2.2, the normal force, Fz, under each of the front
and rear wheels, Fz1, Fz2, is:
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
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(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
Example: When the front wheels are the only braking wheels,
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(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
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(25)
(26)
(32)
(33)
(34)
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When a car is speeding with acceleration a on a level road as shown in Figure 2.3, the vertical forces under the
front and rear wheels are
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
the dynamic parts indicate the weight distribution according to horizontal acceleration, and depend on the
vertical position of the mass centre.
(47)
(48)
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When accelerating a > 0, the normal forces under the front tyres are less than the static load, and under the
rear tyres are more than the static load.
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)
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(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
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3.0 Tyre Dynamics
Tyre is the main component of a vehicle that interact with the road. Accordingly, vehicle’s performance is mainly
influenced by the characteristics of its tyres; also, tyre affect vehicle’s handling, traction, ride comfort, and fuel
consumption.
It is important to know that a vehicle can manoeuvre only by longitudinal, vertical, and lateral force systems
generated under the tyres. Figure 3.1 illustrates a model of a vertically loaded stationary tyre.
To model the tyre-road interactions, we determine the tyre-print and describe the forces distributed on the tyre-print.
Figure 3.3. Front view of a tyre and measurement Figure 3.4. Top view of a tyre and measurement
of the camber angle. of the side slip angle.
3.2 Force system a tyre receives from the ground
The force system that a tyre receives from the ground is assumed to be located at the centre of the tyre-print and can
be decomposed along x, y, and z axes. Therefore, the interaction of a tyre with the road generates a 3D force system
including three forces and three moments, as shown in Figure 3.2.
1. Longitudinal force Fx: It is a force acting along the x-axis. The resultant longitudinal force Fx > 0 if the car
is accelerating, and Fx < 0 if the car is braking. Longitudinal force is also called forward force.
2. Normal force Fz: It is a vertical force, normal to the ground plane. The resultant normal force F z > 0 if it is
upward. Normal force is also called vertical force or wheel load.
3. Lateral force Fy: It is a force, tangent to the ground and orthogonal to both F x and Fz. The resultant lateral
force Fy > 0 if it is in the y-direction.
4. Roll moment Mx: It is a longitudinal moment about the x-axis. The resultant roll moment Mx > 0 if it tends
to turn the tyre about the x-axis. The roll moment is also called the bank moment, tilting torque, or
overturning moment.
5. Pitch moment My: It is a lateral moment about the y-axis. The resultant pitch moment My > 0 if it tends to
turn the tyre about the y-axis and move forward. The pitch moment is also called rolling resistance torque.
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6. Yaw moment Mz: It is an upward moment about the z-axis. The resultant yaw moment Mz > 0 if it tends to
turn the tyre about the z-axis. The yaw moment is also called the aligning moment, self-aligning moment, or
bore torque.
The moment applied to the tyre from the vehicle about the tyre axis is called wheel torque T.
The coefficient kz is called tyre stiffness in the z-direction. Similarly, the reaction of a tyre to a lateral and a
longitudinal force can be approximated by
where the coefficient kx and ky are called tyre stiffness in the x and y directions.
The practical part of a tyre’s longitudinal and lateral stiffness curves is the linear part and may be estimated by
linear equations.
The normal component is the contact pressure σz, while the tangential component can be further decomposed in the x and
y directions to make the longitudinal and lateral shear stresses τx and τy. For a stationary tyre under normal load, the tyre-
print is symmetrical.
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Due to equilibrium conditions, the overall integral of the normal stress over the tyre-print area AP must be equal to the
normal load Fz, and the integral of shear stresses must be equal to zero.
(a) Normal stress σz applied on the round. (b) Side view of a normal force Fz and stress σz (c) A model of normal stress σz(x, y) in
because of a stationary tyre under a normal load Fz applied on a stationary tyre. the tyre-print area for a stationary tyre.
Figure 3.6
The normal stress σz(x, y) may be approximated by the function
where a and b indicate the dimensions of the tyre-print, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: A mode for tyre-print of stationary radial tyres under normal load.
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The tyre-prints may approximately be modelled by a mathematical function
Example: A car weighs 800kg. If the tyre-print of each radial tyre is AP = 4 × a × b = 4 × 5cm × 12cm, then
determine the normal stress distribution for (i) n = 3 (ii) n = 2 (iii) compare (i) and (ii)
The tangential stress on a tyre is inward in x direction and outward in y direction. Hence, the tyre tries to stretch
the ground in the x-axis and compact the ground on the y-axis. Figure 3.8 depicts the shear stresses on a
vertically loaded stationary tyre.
Figure 3.8: Direction of tangential stresses on the tyre-print of a stationary vertically loaded tyre.
The force distribution on the tyre-print is not constant and is influenced by tyre structure, load, inflation
pressure, and environmental conditions. Thus, the tangential stress τx in the x-direction may be modelled by the
following equation.
where, Rg is the tyre’s geometric and unloaded radius, ωw is the tyre’s angular velocity, and vx is the tyre’s
forward velocity. Slip ratio is positive for driving and is negative for braking.
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To accelerate or brake a vehicle, longitudinal forces must develop between the tyre and the ground. When a
moment is applied to the spin axis of the tyre, slip ratio occurs and a longitudinal force Fx is generated at the
tyre-print. The force Fx is proportional to the normal force,
where the coefficient μx (s) is called the longitudinal friction coefficient and is a function of slip ratio ‘s’.
A tyre can exert longitudinal force only if a longitudinal slip is present. Longitudinal slip is also called
circumferential or tangential slip. During acceleration, the actual velocity vx is less than the free velocity Rgωw,
and therefore, s > 0. However, during braking, the actual velocity vx is higher than the free velocity Rgωw and
therefore, s < 0.
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3.2.4.2 Slip ratio is 0 < s < ∞ in driving.
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Figure 3.9: Front view of a laterally deflected tyre
A turning tyre under lateral force and the associated sideslip angle α are shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: The stress distribution τy, the resultant lateral force Fy, and the pneumatic trail ay for a turning tyre
going on a positive slip angle α.
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Lateral distortion of the tyre treads is a result of a tangential stress distribution τy over the tyre-print. Assuming
that the tangential stress τy is proportional to the distortion, the resultant lateral force Fy
We may assume the lateral force Fy is proportional to the slip angle α for low values of α.
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3.2.5.2 A model for lateral stress
Consider a tyre turning on a dry road at a low sideslip angle α. Assume the developed lateral stress on tyre-print
can be expressed by the following equation:
FIGURE 3.11: A front view of a cambered tyre and the generated camber force.
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Camber angle is assumed positive γ > 0, when it is in the positive direction of the x-axis, measured from
the z-axis to the tyre. A positive camber angle generates a camber force along the −y-axis. The camber
force is proportional to γ at low camber angles, and depends directly on the wheel load Fz. Therefore,
Ignoring the rolling resistance and aerodynamic force, and when the tyre is under a load Fz plus only one
more of the inputs α, s, or γ, the major output forces can be approximated by a set of linear equations
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4.0 Driveline Dynamics
Basically, the maximum achievable acceleration of a vehicle is limited by two factors. there are:
1. Maximum torque at driving wheels: this depends on engine and transmission performance.
2. Maximum traction force at tyreprints: it depends on tyre-road friction.
However, the function Pe = Pe (ωe), which is called the power performance function, can be estimated by a
third-order polynomial
If we use ωM to indicate the angular velocity, measured in [ rad/ s] at which the engine power reaches the
maximum value PM, measured in [ W = N m/ s], then;
For spark ignition engines we use
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The driving torque of the engine Te is the torque that provides Pe
Example: A model of Porsche 911 turbo has a flat-6-cylinder, twin-turbo engine with 3596 cm3 ≈ 220 in3
total displacement. The engine provides a maximum power PM = 353 kW ≈ 480 hp at ωM = 6000 rpm ≈
628 rad/s, and a maximum torque TM = 620 N m ≈ 457 lb ft at ωe = 5000 rpm ≈ 523 rad/ s. The car weighs
around 1585 kg ≈ 3494 lb and can move from 0 to 96 km/ h ≈ 60 mi/ h in 3.7 s. Porsche 911 has a top
speed of 310 km/ h ≈ 193 mi/ h.
The power performance equation for the Porsche 911 engine has the coefficients
Maximum power and torque at the same ωM: Ideal performance for an engine would be having
maximum power and maximum torque at the same angular velocity ωM. However, it is impossible to have
such an engine because the maximum torque TM of a spark ignition engine occurs at
that is half of the speed at which the power is maximum. When the torque is maximum, the power is at
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4.2 Driveline and Efficiency
We use the word driveline, equivalent to transmission, to call the systems and devices that transfer torque and
power from the engine to the drive wheels of a vehicle. Most vehicles use one of two common transmission
types: manual gear transmission, and automatic transmission with torque convertor. A driveline includes the
engine, clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, differential, drive shafts, and drive wheels. Figure 4.1 illustrates how
the driveline for a rear-wheel-drive vehicle is assembled.
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Figure 4.2: The input and output torque and angular velocity of each driveline component
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4.2.2 Power law
For any mechanical device in the driveline of a car, there is a simple law to remember.
✓ ηV is the engine volumetric efficiency: it identifies how much fuelled air gets into the cylinder.
• If the cylinder is filled with fuelled air at atmospheric pressure, then the engine has 100%
volumetric efficiency.
• Super and turbo chargers increase the pressure entering the cylinder, giving the engine a
volumetric efficiency greater than 100%.
• if the cylinder is filled with less than the atmospheric pressure, then the engine typically run
between 80% and 100% of ηV.
✓ ηT is the thermal efficiency: identifies how much of the fuel is converted to usable power.
• Thermal efficiency is changed by the compression ratio, ignition timing, plug location, and
chamber design.
• Low compression engines may have ηT ≈ 0.26. A high compression racing engine may have ηT ≈
0.34. Therefore, racing engines may produce about 30% more power because of their higher ηT.
• Any improvement in the thermal efficiency ηT significantly improves the final power that the
engine produces. Therefore, a huge investment is expended in research to improve ηT.
✓ ηM is the mechanical efficiency: identifies how much power is consumed by the engine to run
itself.
• Mechanical efficiency is affected by mechanical components of the engine or the devices
attached to the engine. It also depends on the engine speed.
• The greater the speed, the more power it takes to turn the engine. This means the ηM drops
with speed.
• ηM is also called friction power because it indicates how much power is needed to overcome the
engine friction.
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4.3 Gearbox and Clutch Dynamics
The internal combustion engine cannot operate below a minimum engine speed ωmin. Consequently, the
vehicle cannot move slower than a minimum speed vmin while the engine is connected to the drive wheels.
Consider a vehicle with only one drive wheel. Then, the forward velocity vx of the vehicle is proportional to the
angular velocity of the engine ωe, and the tire traction force Fx is proportional to the engine torque Te
where Rw is the effective tire radius, nd is the differential transmission ratio, ni is the gearbox transmission
ratio in gear number i, and η is the overall driveline efficiency. Equation (4.58) is called the speed equation,
and Equation (4.59) is called the traction equation.
4.3.1 Mechanical and hydraulic clutches
Mechanical clutches are widely used in passenger cars and are normally in the form of a dry single-disk clutch.
The adhesion between input and output shafts is produced by circular disks that rub against each other.
Engagement begins with the engine running at ωe = ωmin and the clutch being released gradually from time t =
0 to t = t1 such that the transmitted torque Tc from the engine to the gearbox increases almost linearly in time
from Tc = 0 to the maximum value Tc = Tc1 that can be handled in slipping mode.
The transmitted torque remains constant until the input and output disks stick together and a speed equality
is achieved. At this time, the clutch is rigid and Tc = Te.
The transmitted torque Tc should overcome the resistance force and the vehicle should accelerate sometime in
0 < t ≤ t1. The magnitude of the transferable torque depends on the applied force between the disks, the
frictional coefficient between clutch disks, the effective frictional area, and the number of frictional pairs. The
axial force is generally produced by a preloaded spring. The driver can control the spring force by using the
clutch pedal, and adjust the transferred torque.
The hydraulic clutch consists of a pump wheel connected to the engine and a clutch-ended turbine that is
equipped with radial vanes. A torque is transferred between the pump wheel and the turbine over a fluid,
which is accelerated by the pump and decelerated in the turbine. The transferred torque of hydraulic clutch
(also called Foettinger clutch) can be calculated according to the Foettinger’s law:
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4.3.2 Gearbox stability condition
Consider a vehicle moving at speed vx when the gearbox is engaged in gear number i with transmission ratio
ni. To be safe, we have to select the transmission ratios such that when the engine reaches the maximum
torque it can shift to a lower gear ni−1 without reaching the maximum permissible engine speed. The
maximum permissible engine speed is usually indicated by a red line or red region.
Let’s show the engine speed for the maximum torque TM by ωe = ωT.
Example: Consider a passenger car with the following gearbox transmission ratios:
1st gear ratio = n1 = 3.827
2nd gear ratio = n2 = 2.36
3rd gear ratio = n3 = 1.685
4th gear ratio = n4 = 1.312
5th gear ratio = n5 = 1
6th gear ratio = n6 = 0.793
final drive ratio = nd = 3.5451 (4.93)
Determine the transmission ratios and stability condition.
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None of these two sets shows a practical design. The best way to apply a constant relative ratio is to use the
first and final gears and fit four intermittent gears such that ni−1/ni = cte.
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5.0 Vehicle Kinematics
Position, velocity, and acceleration are called kinematics information. Rotational position analysis is the
key to calculate kinematics of relatively moving rigid bodies. In this chapter, we review kinematics and
show applied methods to calculate the relative kinematic information of rigid bodies. A vehicle has many
moving sub-systems such as suspensions, and the vehicle can be treated as a moving rigid body in an
inertia coordinate frame.
Figure 5.1: A rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a global frame G(OXY Z).
The motion of the body can be described by a time varying rotation transformation matrix between the global
and body frames to map the instantaneous coordinates of any fixed point in body frame B into their
coordinates in the global frame G.
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Consider a rigid body is turning about the Z-axis with α ˙ = 10 deg /s. The global velocity of a point P(5, 30, 10),
when the body is turned α = 30 deg, is
FIGURE 5.2: A rigid body with an attached coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a global coordinate frame
G(OXY Z).
The rigid body can rotate in the global frame, while the origin
of the body frame B can translate relative to the origin of G. The coordinates of a body point P in local and global
frames are related by the following equation:
where GdB indicates the position of the moving origin o relative to the fixed origin O.
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Where: GdB position vector of body coordinate frame B in G
P point
Gr position vector in global coordinate frame
Br position vector in body coordinate frame
GRB rotation matrix from local frame to global frame
GαB angular acceleration of body B expressed in G
GωB angular velocity of rigid body B expressed in G
GvP is the global velocity of point P
5.3 Angular Acceleration
Consider a rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a reference frame G(OXY Z) as shown in Figure 5.3.
FIGURE 5.3: A rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a reference frame G(OXY Z).
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The velocity vector of a point in a fixed origin body frame is given by:
When a body coordinate frame B and a global frame G have a common origin, the global acceleration of a point P in
frame B is
Example: Consider the motion of a vehicle on the Earth at latitude 30 deg and heading north, as shown in Fig. 5.4.
Figure 5.4: The motion of a vehicle at 30 deg latitude and heading north on the Earth.
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There are three coordinate frames involved. A body coordinate frame B is attached to the vehicle as shown in the
Figure 5.4. A global coordinate G is set up at the centre of the Earth. Another local coordinate frame E is rigidly
attached to the Earth and turns with the Earth. The frames E and G are assumed coincident at the moment.
Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of B.
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5.4 Rigid Body Acceleration
Consider a rigid body with an attached local coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a fixed global coordinate
frame G(OXY Z). The rigid body can rotate in the global frame, while the origin of the body frame B can translate
relative to the origin of G. The coordinates of a body point P in local and global frames, as shown in Figure 5.5, are
related by the equation
Figure 5.5. A rigid body with coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a fixed global coordinate frame G(OXY Z).
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6.0 Applied Mechanisms
Most of the mechanisms used in vehicle subsystems are made of four-bar linkages. Double A-arm for
independent suspension, and trapezoidal steering are two examples of mechanisms in vehicle
subsystems.
✓ A revolute joint (R), is like a hinge that allows relative rotation between the two connected links.
✓ A prismatic joint (P), allows a relative translation between the two connected links.
✓ Relative rotation or translation, between two connected links by a revolute or prismatic joint,
occurs about a line called axis of joint.
✓ The value of the single variable describing the relative position of two connected links at a joint is
called the joint coordinate or joint variable. It is an angle for a revolute joint, and a distance for a
prismatic joint.
✓ A set of connecting links to do a function is called a mechanism.
✓ A linkage is made by attaching, and fixing, one link of a mechanism to the ground. The fixed link is
called the ground link.
✓ There are two types of linkages, closed loop or parallel, and open loop or serial. In vehicle
subsystems we usually use closed-loop linkages. Open-loop linkages are used in robotic systems
where an actuator controls the joint variable at each joint.
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6.2 Four-Bar Linkage
Consider a four-bar linkage shown in Figure 6.2. Link number 1 is the ground link MN. The ground link is the base
and used as a reference link.
The angular position of the output and coupler links, θ4 and θ3, are functions of the links’ length and the value of the
input variable θ2. The angles θ4 and θ3 can be calculated by the following functions:
Where:
and
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The vector expression of each link shown in Figure 6.3 .is depicted in Table 6.1.
At any angle θ2, and for suitable values of a, b, c, and d, Equations (6.1) and (6.2) provide two values for the output
and coupler angles, θ4 and θ3. Both solutions are possible and provide two different configurations for each input
angle θ2.
A suitable set of (a, b, c, d) is the numbers that make the radicals in Equations (6.1) and (6.2) real.
Example: consider a linkage with the following lengths:
a=1
b=2
c = 2.5
d=3
Determine the two possible configurations for a four-bar linkage.
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Figure 6.4 depicts the two possible configurations of the linkage for θ2 = 45 deg. The configuration in Figure 6.4(a)
is called convex, non-crossed, or elbow-up, and the configuration in Figure 6.4(b) is called concave, crossed, or
elbow-down.
Figure 6.4. Two possible configuration of a four-bar linkage having the same input angle θ2.
6.3 Velocity analysis of a four-bar linkage
The velocity analysis of a four-bar linkage is possible by taking a time derivative of Equations (6.20) and (6.21),
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Assuming θ2 and ω2 are given values, and θ3, θ4 are known from Equations (6.1) and (6.2), we may solve Equations
(6.50) and (6.51), for ω3 and ω4.
Where: αi angular acceleration of link number i θi angular position of link number i i=1, 2, 3, 4, --n
Equations (6.57) and (6.58) are both correct and convertible to each other.
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6.5 Acceleration analysis of a four-bar linkage
The acceleration analysis of a four-bar linkage is possible by taking a time derivative from Equations (6.50) and
(6.51),
Where
Assuming θ2, ω2, and α2 are given values as the kinematics of the input link, θ3, θ4 are known from Equations (6.1)
and (6.2), and ω3, ω4 are known from Equations (6.53) and (6.54), we may solve Equations (6.59) and (6.60), for α3
and α4.
Where
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Where
then, the Grashoff criterion states that the linkage can have a rotary link if
l+s<p+q (6.77)
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6.9 Dead positions for a four-bar linkage
When the input link of a four-bar linkage locks, we say the linkage is at a dead position. It happens when the angle
between the output and coupler links is either 180 deg or 360 deg. Limit positions of a four-bar linkage, if there are
any, must be determined by the designer to make sure the linkage is never stuck in a dead position. A dead position
for a four-bar linkage is shown in Figure 6.6.
Worked example: The input and output links of the main four-bar linkage at three different positions are shown in
Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9. input-output links of the main four-bar linkage of a windshield wiper at three different positions
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The beginning and the end angles for the input link are show by θ21 and θ23, and for the output link by θ41 and θ43
respectively. Design the mechanism that must match the angular positions of the left and right blades at the
beginning and at the end positions.
Solution: let’s match the angular positions of the left and right blades at the beginning, middle and end positions as
indicated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Matched the angular positions of input-output
Substituting the input and output angles in Freudenstein’s equation provides the following set of three equations:
The set of equations (6.92) is linear for the unknowns J1, J2, and J3
The three factors J1, J2, J3 should be used to find four numbers for the links’ length.
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So, we may pre-set the length of one of the links, based on the physical situation. Traditionally, we use a = 1 and find
the remaining lengths. Then, the designed mechanism can be magnified or shrunk to fit the required geometry. In
this example, we find
Assuming a distance d = 75 cm ≈ 29.5 in for a real passenger car, between the left and right fixed joints M and N, we
find the following dimensions:
Figure 6.10: The main four-bar linkage of the windshield wiper at the initial position measured in [ cm].
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7.0 Steering Dynamics
The steering system in a vehicle is used to move the vehicle in a particular direction. This is a very
important sub-system in a car without which it would be impossible for a vehicle to follow its desired
path. The steering system can be used to steer all kinds of vehicles like cars, trucks, buses, trains, tanks
etc.
The conventional steering system consisted of turning the front wheels in the desired direction. But now
we have four-wheel steering system mostly used in heavy vehicles, to reduce the turning radius, rear
wheel steering system, differential steering system etc.
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7.1 Kinematic Steering
Consider a front-wheel-steering 4W S vehicle that is turning to the left, as shown in Figure 7.1. When the
vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a kinematic condition between the inner and outer wheels that
allows them to turn slip-free. The condition is called the Ackerman condition and is expressed by:
where, δi is the steer angle of the inner wheel, and δo is the steer angle of the outer wheel. The inner and
outer wheels are defined based on the turning centre O.
Figure 7.2 illustrates a vehicle turning left. So, the turning centre O is on the left, and the inner wheels are the left
wheels that are closer to the centre of rotation. The inner and outer steer angles δi and δo may be calculated from
the triangles 4OAD and OBC as follows:
Figure 7.2; A front-wheel-steering vehicle and steer angles of the inner and outer wheels.
The mass centre of a steered vehicle will turn on a circle with radius R,
The angle δ is the equivalent steer angle of a bicycle having the same wheelbase l and radius of rotation R.
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To find the vehicle’s turning radius R, we define an equivalent bicycle model, as shown in Figure 7.3. The radius of
rotation R is perpendicular to the vehicle’s velocity vector v at the mass centre C. Using the geometry shown in the
bicycle model, we have
The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles are zero.
There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to balance each other. The Ackerman steering condition
is also called the kinematic steering condition, because it is a static condition at zero velocity.
A device that provides steering according to the Ackerman condition (7.1) is called Ackerman steering,
Ackerman mechanism, or Ackerman geometry. There is no four-bar linkage steering mechanism that can
provide the Ackerman condition perfectly. However, we may design a multi-bar linkage to work close to
the condition and be exact at a few angles.
Figure 7.4 illustrates the Ackerman condition for different values of w/l. The inner and outer steer angles
get closer to each other by decreasing w/l.
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FIGURE 7.4. Effect of w/l on the Ackerman condition for front-wheel-steering vehicles.
Example: Consider a vehicle with the following dimensions and steer angle:
l = 103.1 in ≈ 2.619 m
w = 61.6 in ≈ 1.565 m
a2 = 60 in ≈ 1.524 m
δi = 12 deg ≈ 0.209 rad
Determine the turning radius, or radius of rotation.
Steering Ratio is defined as the ratio of the turn of the steering wheel to the corresponding turn of the
wheels, both which are measured in degrees.
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It plays an important role in determining the ease of steering. A higher ratio would mean that a large
number of turns of the steering wheel is required to negotiate a small turn. A lower ratio would enable
better handling. Sports cars usually have lower ratio while heavier vehicles have a higher steering ratio.
The Rack and Pinion steering system is the most common system found mostly in modern vehicles. It
employs a simple mechanism. The parts of this system are steering column, pinion gear, rack gear, tie
rods, kingpin. The circular motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion gear through the
steering column and universal joint. The pinion is meshed with a rack which translates the circular motion
into linear motion thus providing the necessary change in direction. It also provides a gear reduction, thus
making it easier to turn the wheels. This system is preferred because of its compactness, efficiency, ease
of operation. But at the same time, it gets easily damaged on impact.
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8.0 Suspension Mechanisms
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a
vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose — contributing to the car's road
holding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants
comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations, etc. These goals are
generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for
the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all
the forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tyres. The suspension also
protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear.
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✓ Ensure that steering control is maintained during travel by proper positional and directional
attitude with respect to the road surface
✓ Ensure that the vehicle responds favourably to control forces produced by the tyres as a of
result the forces generated in various operating conditions by resisting squat, dive and roll of
the vehicle body
✓ Provide isolation from high-frequency vibration arising from tyre excitation and road noise
✓ Provide required structural strength to resist the loads imposed on the suspension
8.2 Classification of the Suspension System
Generally, the suspension system can be broadly classified into
A. Rigid axle suspension system
B. Independent suspension system
8.3 Components of Suspension System
1. Control Arm: A movable lever that fastens the steering knuckle to the frame of the vehicle.
2. Control Arm Busing: This is a sleeve which allows the control arm to move up and down on the
frame.
3. Strut Rod: Prevents the control arm from swinging forward and backwards.
4. Ball Joints: A joint that allows the control arm and steering knuckle to move up and down and
sideways as well
5. Shock absorbers or Struts: prevents the suspension from bounce after spring compression and
extension
6. Stabilizer Bar: Limits body roll of the vehicle during cornering
7. Spring: Supports the weight
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resists accelerating, braking and side forces. The struts are designed with more simplicity, and thus takes
up less space horizontally. They also display low un-sprung weight, an advantage that reduces the overall
weight of the vehicle as well as increases the car’s acceleration. Lower un-sprung weight also makes your
ride more comfortable. Another major advantage of this system is its ease of manufacturing as well as
low cost of manufacture compared to other standalone suspension systems. Without an upper arm, the
suspension system designers can directly block vibration from reaching the passenger compartment.
Nevertheless, the MacPherson struts come with their own drawbacks. Being a long, vertical assembly, you
would encounter difficulties if you lower your car as they may be collision with the structure of your car.
Thus, they do not work well with racing cars that are normally lowered. The MacPherson struts also have
problems working with wider wheels that have increased scrub radius, where you would need extra effort
to navigate your car in this situation. There is also the problem with the small camber change with
vertical movement of the suspension, which could mean the tyres have less contact with the road during
cornering. This could reduce handling abilities of your vehicle.
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The double-wishbone-type suspension provides a large amount of design freedom; roll centre and pitch
axis can be chosen freely; there is limited change in camber and track width; it provides high lateral
stiffness and very good ride and handling (Figure 8.1).
There are many parts to the system, and thus every time any of these malfunctions of fail, your whole
system fails. Repair, modification and maintenance costs and complexities for double wishbone suspension
systems are normally higher due to these reasons. This suspension system also proves to be flexible for
design engineers, as the arms of the system can be fixed at different angles to the surface, parameters
such as camber gain, roll centre height and swing arm length can be determined and designed flexibly to
suit and road surface in condition.
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the rear differential into the axle body. They provide wide loading surface to the non-driven axle,
robustness and large loading capacity. The beam-type axle is used to support two stub axle pivots. With
the beam axle suspension, the wheel alignment is maintained most effectively because it does not
demand more rigidity at the front-end structure of the chassis frame. There is less tyre wear as the track
distance remains constant and the front wheels remain perpendicular to the road in the presence of
body roll. The use of a beam axle also ensures that the ground clearance of a commercial vehicle remains
constant in both unladen and laden conditions.
8.5 Air Suspension
In air suspension, air springs, also called bellows, are used instead of metal springs. A suspension that
uses both metal springs and air springs is not referred to as air suspension.
Air suspension consists of the following parts:
1. Air supply: Supply of compressed air through compressor, air tanks, valves, and air lines.
2. Air bellows: A bladder which holds the compressed air.
3. Height-controlled valves: these help in controlling the air in the system as per requirement, height-
controlled valves may be mechanically or electronically operated.
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9.0 Speed Limiting Devices
Speed Governor
The governor is a device which is used to controlling the speed of an engine based on the load
requirements. Basic governors sense speed and sometimes load of a prime mover and adjust the energy
source to maintain the desired level. So it’s simply mentioned as a device giving automatic control (either
pressure or temperature) or limitation of speed.
The governors are control mechanisms and they work on the principle of feedback control. Their basic
function is to control the speed within limits when load on the prime mover changes. They have no
control over the change in speed (flywheel determines change in speed i.e. speed control) within the
cycle.
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9.1 Types of Governors:
The governor can be classified into the following types. These are given below,
1. Centrifugal governor
3. Pickering Governor
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4. Equilibrium speed: The equilibrium speed means, the speed at which the governor balls, arms,
sleeve, etc, are in complete equilibrium and there is no upward or downward movement of the
sleeve on the spindle, is called as equilibrium speed.
5. Mean Equilibrium speed: The mean equilibrium speed is defined as the speed at the mean position
of the balls or the sleeve is called as mean equilibrium speed.
6. Maximum speed: The Maximum speed is nothing but the speeds at the maximum radius of
rotation of the balls without tending to move either way is called as maximum speed.
7. Minimum speed: The Minimum speed is nothing but the speeds at the minimum radius of rotation of
the balls without tending to move either way is called as minimum speed.
8. Governor effort: The mean force working on the sleeve for a given change of speed is termed as the
governor effort.
9. Power of the governor: The power of the governor is state that the product of mean effort and lift of
the sleeve is called as power of the governor.
10. Controlling force: The controlling force is nothing but an equal and opposite force to the centrifugal
force, acting radially (i.e., centripetal force) is termed as controlling force of a governor.
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10.0 Vehicle Planar Dynamics
When the forward, lateral and yaw velocities are important and are enough to examine the behaviour of a
vehicle, the planar model is applicable.
A vehicle may be effectively modelled as a rigid bicycle in a planar motion by ignoring the roll of the vehicle.
Such a vehicle has three DOF in a body coordinate frame attached to the vehicle at C: forward motion, lateral
motion, and yaw motion. The dynamic equations of such a vehicle are can be expressed in (vx, vy, r) variables
in the following set of three coupled first order ordinary differential equations.
Example:
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unsprung mass mu is in direct contact with the ground through a spring ku, and a damper cu representing the tire stiffness
and damping.
To find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the quarter car model, we have to drop the damping and forcing terms
and analyze the following set of equations.
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Searching for the first-unit expression of u1 and u2 provides the following mode shapes.
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12.0 Vehicle Rollover Dynamics
A vehicle weighs 20 kN. The centre of gravity height is 100 cm. The suspensions and tyres are assumed to be
rigid. The average track width is 150 cm. Determine the static rollover threshold (SRT) and plot the rollover
moment diagram up to a roll angle of 10 degrees. For the following cases:
1. the vehicle centre of gravity height is increased from 100 cm to 150 cm;
2. the track width of the vehicle is increased from 150 cm to 180 cm;
3. the total weight is increased from 20 kN to 40 kN.
Solution.
i. For case 1 the centre of Gravity Height Changes, determine Static Rollover Threshold given:
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Fig. iii: Effect of increasing the vehicle track width on SRT
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