ZLY 202 LECTURE NOTE

CLASS AMPHIBIA (AMPHIBIANS)

INTRODUCTION

The amphibians are the first group of vertebrates to live out of water. The transition of
vertebrates from water to land involved the following changes:

1. The development of limbs in place of paired fins

2. The replacement of gills by lungs and the modification of the circulatory system to
provide for a pulmonary circulation.
3. Conversion of the scaly skin of the fish into a glandular respiratory surface
4. Strengthening of the skeleton to support the body outside water
5. Changes in the metabolism and excretion to form less toxic nitrogenous waste instead
of ammonia.
6. Acquisition of sense organs that can function in both water and air
The amphibians evolved from crossopteryglian lobed-fin fishes which flourished in
freshwater lakes and streams of the Devonian period-a time of alternating drought and
flood. The crossopterygians could be said to be pre-adapted to life on land in two
respects
1. They possessed lungs which enabled them to utilize atmospheric oxygen when the
pools dried up or when the oxygen became depleted
2. They possessed strong leaf-shaped lobed fins which they used as paddles to
waddle across land in search of another pool that still contained water. The lobed
fins had a series of skeletal elements that clearly fore-shadowed the pentadactyl
limb of tetrapods.

The amphibians are not completely adapted to life on land. They have not solved
the problems of
1. Water loss
2. Reproduction and
3. Temperature fluctuation on land
Amphibians are unable to reproduce under truly terrestrial conditions partly
because they lack a means of internal fertilization and on land sperms cannot
be sprayed over eggs as is the case in water. Amphibians therefore spend their
larval life in fresh water and their adult land on land. This double life is
expressed in their name ‘Amphibia’ meaning double life
(Amphi=double;bio=life)

It remains for the reptiles to complete the conquest of land with the
development of internal fertilization and a shelled or cleidoic egg with extra
embryonic membranes which fully freed vertebrates from a reproductive
attachment to the aquatic environment
 A concominant of life on land is the loss of water through evaporation. The
ability of amphibians to conserve water is rudimentary. Considerable water is
lost by evaporation through their thin moist skin. It was left to the reptiles to
achieve an acceptable measure of skin water-proofing.
Amphibians excrete large volumes of water to flush out highly toxic ammonia
through their kidneys. Their inability to survive in sea water as well as on very
dry land is related to their inability to concentrate urine.
Movement to land brought greater risks of encountering thermal
extremes/fluctuation. Like the fishes, amphibians are ectotherms, they lack
internal mechanism for regulating body temperature. In the temperate zone
therefore, amphibians hibernate during winter to avoid freezing while tropical
amphibians aestivate during the dry season to avoid dehydration.

These are vertebrates distinguished by their ability to exploit both aquatic and terrestrial
habitats. They include the frogs and toads, salamanders and newts. The name is derived from
the Greek word amphibios meaning ‘living a double life’, reflects this dual life strategy.
Despite this distinction, however, some species are permanent land dwellers, while other
species have a completely aquatic mode of existence.

Being the earliest tetrapods to adapt to a terrestrial existence, primitive amphibians are
regarded as intermediary life forms between fishes and reptiles. Modern amphibians are not,
however, strictly transitional in their morphology; during their successful radiation
throughout the world, they have achieved a variety of modifications that do not exemplify
this intermediate status but are specific adaptations to their environment. One such example is
the skin, which is kept moist by mucus-secreting glands and is involved in respiration and
maintenance of water balance.

The living amphibians are grouped into three extant orders

1. Anura i.e the tailess amphibians (frogs and toads)

2. Caudata or uredela i.e the tailed amphibians (salamanders and newts)
3. Apoda i.e legless amphibians (caecilians)

Frogs and toads are tailless, somewhat squat amphibians with long, powerful hind limbs
modified for leaping. Salamanders and newts have tails and two pairs of limbs of roughly the
same size and have less-specialized structures than the other two orders. Caecilians differ
markedly in their structural appearance. They are limbless, wormlike, and highly adapted for
a burrowing existence

Traditionally, these orders have been united in one class by the feature unique to them among
all tetrapods, the amniotic egg. Other general defining characteristics include glandular skin
that lacks epidermal structures such as hair or feathers, two lungs, a three-chambered heart,
and a biphasic lifestyle common to most groups in which aquatic larvae metamorphose into
adult forms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN AMPHIBIANS

1. Skeleton mostly bony, with varying numbers of vertebrae; ribs present in some,
absent or fused to vertebrae in others
2. Body forms vary greatly among species: Salamanders usually have distinct head,
neck, trunk and tail; adult frogs have a compressed body with fused head and trunk
and no intervening neck; caecilians have an elongated trunk not strongly demarcated
from the head and a terminal anus.
3. Have two pairs of limbs for walking or swimming
4. Three chambered heart (two atria and one ventricle)
5. Skin is smooth, moist and soft with both poison and mucuos glands without scales
6. Respiration by skin and in some forms by gills and/ or lungs; presence of gills and
lungs varies among species and by developmental stage of some species.
7. Ectothermic, body temperature dependent upon environmental temperature and not
modulated by metabolically generated heat
8. Excretory system of paired mesonephric or opisthonephric kidneys; urea is the main
nitrogenous waste
9. They possess ear with tympanic membrane (ear drum) and stapes (columella) for
transmitting vibrations to inner ear.
10. For vision in air, cornea rather than lens is principal refractive surface for bending
light; eyelids and lachrymal glands protect and wash eyes
11. Mouth usually large with small teeth. They are carnivores
12. They possess ten pairs of cranial nerves
13. Separate sexes; fertilization is mostly external, internal in salamanders and the
fertilized eggs develop outside and undergo complete metamorphosis.

CLASSIFICATION
Caecilians: Order Gymnorphiona (Apoda)
Caecilians are the least studied amphibians, and definitely the most alien form. They
contain approximately 173 species of elongate, limbless, burrowing creatures. They
inhabit tropical forests of South America, Africa, India and Southeast Asia. Caecilians
possess a long, slender body, small dermal scales in the skin of some, many vertebrae,
long ribs, no limbs, and a terminal anus. Eyes are small, and most species are blind as
adults. Special sensory tentacles occur on the snout. Because they are almost entirely
Burrowing or aquatic, caecilians are seldom observed. Their food consists mostly of
worms and small invertebrates, which they find underground
Salamanders: Order Urodela (caudata)
The order Caudata comprises tailed amphibians, approximately 553 species of
salamanders. Salamanders occur in almost all northern temperate regions of the
world, and they are abundant and diverse in North America.
They are short bodied, moist skinned animal, about 10 to 15cm long. They are often
boldly patterned or brightly coloured. They are carnivores as larvae and adult, preying
on worms, small arthropods, and small molluscs. Like all amphibians, they are
ectotherms with a low metabolic rate.
Frogs and toads: Order Anura (Salientia)
 Approximately 5283 species of frogs and toads that compose order Anura. They are
the most familiar Amphibians. Frogs and toads occupy a great variety of habitats.
Anurans are a diverse group of amphibians, ranging in size from a few millimetres to
a couple feet in length. Externally, anurans differ from caudates and caecilians by the
presence of fore limbs, of which the hindlimbs are typically larger and modified for
leaping or climbing. Anurans are also unique in that they are capable of vocalizing
and produce an array of sounds from squeaks to barking noises. Unlike the majority
of salamanders and caecilians, most anurans are external fertilizers; lack a tail in the
adult stage, only Ascaphus contains tail.

PROBLEMS FACING THE FIRST LAND LIVING VERTEBRATES

RESPIRATION

One of the important problems with which the early amphibians had to contend was breathing
or respiration. The fish ordinarily obtains its oxygen from the water by means of gills,
whereas the land living vertebrate secures oxygen from the air by means of lungs. As we
have seen, the problem of respiration out of the water had been solved for the amphibians by
their fish ancestors, the crossopterygians, in which lungs were well developed and probably
frequently used. We may say, therefore, that the amphibians have a head start on the
problem of breathing in the air, so that it was actually not much of a problem for them; they
had merely to go on using the lungs that they had inherited from the crossopterygians. These
first land-living vertebrates were primarily air-breathing animals, using their lungs for this
function, although in their young or larval stages they continue to breathe by means of gills.

GRAVTY (SUPPORT)

To an animal living on the land, gravity is a powerful factor influencing much on the
structure and the life of the individual, whereas to the fish, gravity is of lesser consequences,
since the fish is supported by the dense water in which it makes its home. Of course the first
amphibians had to contend with increased effects of gravity when they were out of water, and
because of this, they develop

1. A strong backbone
2. strong limbs at an early stage in their evolution.

LOCOMOTION

The early terrestrial vertebrates became adapted to a new method of locomotion, and here, the
limbs and feet were of prime importance. They served not only to hold up the body in
counter-action to the force of gravity but also to propel the animal across the land. Here we
see a reversal in locomotor functions between the fish and the amphibian. In the fish,
locomotion was effected primarily by the body and tail, and the paired fins were used for
balancing functions, whereas in the early land-living vertebrates the tail was attenuated to
become in some degree a balancing organ and the paired appendages became the chief
locomotor organs.

DESSICATION

Another problem to confront the first land-living vertebrates was desiccation or drying-up.
This is no problem to the fish, which is continually bathed by the liquid in which it lives, but
to the land-living animal. It is a crucial and severe problem. The first amphibians therefore
were faced with the necessity of retaining their body fluids when they were no longer
immersed in the water.

REPRODUCTION

The fishes commonly deposit their unprotected eggs in the water where they hatch. Land
living animals must either go back to the water to reproduce or they must develop methods
for protecting the eggs on the land. The amphibians made several great advances in their
adaptations to life on the land, but they never solved the problem of reproducing themselves
away from moisture. Consequently, these animals throughout their history have been forced
to return to the water, or among some specialized forms to moist places to lay their eggs.

SENSE ORGANS

The organs for the reception of stimuli in aquatic animals are adapted for use in water which
is an almost incompressible medium of specific gravity 1, refractive index 1.33, high sound
conductivity and capable of carrying a great variety and a high concentration of molecules of
chemosensory importance. In air, the water adapted eye would be short-sighted, the ear
insufficiently stimulated by sound waves and therefore insensitive, the nose inadequately
bombarded by stimulating molecules and the sensory processes of the lateral line receptor
cells damaged by exposure to dry air.

TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS

Water has a high thermal stability and so temperature changes occur slowly. On land,
vertebrates had to adapt to a wider range of ambient temperature.

BIOLOGY OF BUFO REGULARIS

1. Habits and habitat

The common African toad Bufo regularis is widely distributed throughout Africa
particularly in regions with high annual rainfall.
The adults live mainly on dry land. They however depend on water for breeding.
Toads are mostly active at night when the temperature is lower and the insects upon
 which they feed can be caught. In the daytime, they remain in hidden damp situations,
under plants or stones where there is a humid atmosphere.

2. EXTERNAL FEATURES
The body consists of the head and the trunk. There is no neck or visible post anal tail.
The head bears a wide terminal mouth, two external nares, two large eyes protected
by the upper and lower eyelids and the nictitating membrane. An oval tympanic
membrane is located on either side of the head.
Parotid glands (flask shaped poison glands) located behind the ear drums, produce a
milky white bitter fluid when the toad is irritated.
The forelimbs are short and terminate in four digits. The long powerful limbs are
modified for jumping. The hind legs bear five long webbed digits used for swimming.
The trunk bears a terminal cloaca.

3. THE SKIN
The toad’s skin is very different from that of fishes in that scales are lacking. The
multi-layered epidermis shows little cornification since the skin serves for respiration.
The skin is thus prone to water loss. To facilitate the use of the skin for respiration,
the skin is moistened by numerous mucus secreting, epidermal flask shaped
multicellular glands. Some of the glands produce a bitter poisonous milk white
secretion.
The dermis consists of an outer spongy layer with abundant blood vessels. Pigment
cells between the epidermis and dermis effect colour changes for camouflage

4. SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION

The skeleton is highly ossified. The notochord is present only in the embryo. In the
adult it is replaced by the vertebral column leaving only intervertebral discs.
The skeleton shows various specialisation connected with the method of locomotion
i.e leaping. The vertebral column is much stronger than in fishes. The central of the
vertebrae are thoroughly ossified; successive vertebrae are interlocked securely by
means of overlapping articular processes (the zygapophyses) on the neural arches.
Only limited movement is therefore possible between the vertebrae. The vertebral
column can therefore support most of the animal’s weight. It can also withstand the
powerful force exerted by the hind limbs during leaping and during swimming. A
feature peculiar to Anurans (frogs and toads) is the considerable shortening of the
vertebral column as an adaptation to jumping. The column consists of only 9
vertebrae-The atlas, seven other vertebrae and the long urostyle formed by fused
vertebrae. The Urostyle serves for the attachment of many of the jumping muscles.
The forelimbs are shorter and smaller than the hind limbs. They serve as shock
absorbers when the animal lands at the end of a leap or to support the body when it is
at rest. The hind limbs which are the chief source of propulsion are considerably
elongated and powerful.
LOCOMOTION
Frogs and toads have three methods of locomotion-swimming, walking and leaping.
 The frogs powerful hind legs are adapted for both swimming and leaping. The strong
extensor muscles of the thigh contract, extending the limb and thrusting the foot
against the ground or against the water. The thrust is transmitted through the body of
the frog by the pelvic girdle and the spine so that the whole animal is pushed forward.
In the water the webbed hind feet provide a greater surface area for pushing
backwards on the water. The smaller fore-limbs help to steer when the frog is
swimming and absorb the shock of landing after a jump on land. On moving from
water to land or over rough ground the frog will crawl rather than leap.

5. FEEDING
The adult toad is carnivorous while the tadpole is herbivorous. Adult frogs feed on
worms, beetles, flies and other insects. Insects are caught by rapidly flicking out the
sticky tongue which is hinged in front. The adult gut is relatively much shorter than
that of the tadpole. In frog, the prey is swallowed whole but there are rows of tiny ,
closely set teeth in the upper jaw and in the roof of the mouth which prevent the prey
escaping. In swallowing, the eyes are often pulled farther into the head and press
down on the prey.

6. RESPIRATION
Toads have three respiratory surfaces
i. The well vascularized moist skin
ii. The bucco-pharyngeal lining
iii. The lungs
During normal activity, the lungs are not used; the skin and the bucco-
pharyngeal membrane provides sufficient surface area for gas exchange.
7. CIRCULATION
The heart in larvae is fishlike, with one atrium and a ventricle. It receives only
unoxygenated blood, which is pumped directly to the gills. Adults have two atria and
one ventricle. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the skin and lungs, the
right unoxygenated blood from the general circulation.
8. EXCRETION
The main excretory product is urea which is less toxic in higher concentrations than
ammonia. Large amounts of urine is excreted daily and this contribute considerably to
the dehydration problem. A bilobed urinary bladder opens out from the cloaca. It
lacks direct connection to the urinary tract.
9. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS
The brain of Frogs has the following characteristics when compared to that of dogfish.
i. Smaller olfactory lobes
ii. More prominent optic lobes indicating a greater reliance on sight than smell
iii. Larger cerebral hemisphere- correlated with a wider range of activities and
more complex behavioural patterns such as different types of locomotion
iv. Smaller cerebellum-correlated with lower level of muscular activity when
compared to fishes
SENSE ORGANS
 The eyes are adapted to life on land; movable eyelids are present. The eyes
moistened by glandular secretions.
In addition to the inner ear of fishes, there is a middle ear developed from the
first branchial pouch of fishes. The pouch is closed by the tympanic membrane
and is linked to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. The hyomandibular arch
forms the columela auris (stapes) which transmits sound (vibrations) from the
tympanic membrane to the inner ear.

10. REPRODUCTION
Most amphibians mate in water, where their eggs are deposited and hatch and where
the resulting larvae live and grow until they metamorphose into the adult stages. Each
species has a characteristic type of breeding place such as a large quiet lake or pond, a
stream, or a transient pool; some breed on land. Male toads and frogs, upon entering
the water, begin croaking to attract females. As each ripe female enters, she is clasped
by a male, who clings on her back. As she extrudes her eggs, the clasping male
discharges sperm over them to effect tertilization.