Unit 1

AoS1
Term Definition

Compound Two or more atoms of different elements bonded

together

Ion Atom that has lost or gained electrons to become a

charged particle (cation and anion)

Isotope When the number of protons of an element is the

same, but there are variants due to the different
number of neutrons

Element Pure substance containing only one type of atom

Mass number The total number of protons and neutrons in a

nucleus (mass of an atom)

Molecule When two or more non-metal atoms bond by

sharing electrons

Sub- Means ‘under’ or ‘in’

Aufbau principle Rule that states that subshells are filled from the
lowest to highest energy levels

Blocks Element are sorted into discrete categories

depending on which subshell their valence
electrons are in (e.g. d block, s block0

Pauli exclusion principle That there can only be 2 electrons per orbital

Groups Columns

Period Rows

Electron configuration/energy shells or energy The arrangement of electrons around a nucleus

levels according to their energy levels

Schrodinger Model Proposed that electrons move as waves in 3D

orbitals according to energy levels, also known as
‘wave theory’

Core charge The overall attraction felt by valence electrons

(protons-inner electrons)

Electronegativity Is the ability to attract electrons towards itself

 First Ionisation Energy The energy needed to pull a valence electron away

Metallic Character How much metallic is it? Determined by how

easily electron is pulled from it.

Metalloid Have the properties which are in between metals

and nonmetals

Octet rule A atom can be stable with 8 valence electrons

Reactivity Tendency of an atom to undergo a chemical

reaction

Critical element An element which is rare in the abundance

Circular economy A system based on the reuse and regeneration of

materials (sustainable)

Linear economy A system based on collecting raw material to turn

into products until discarded

Covalent Substances
Diatomic molecule Consisting of two atoms

Permanent dipoles Permanent area of partial positive or negative

charge on a molecule

Polarity Property of having a partial positive and partial

negative charge

Polar molecule Asymmetrical molecule with partially positively

Non-polar molecule charged end and a partially negative end

Symmetrical structure or identical

electronegativity → partial charges cancel each
other out

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory a model used to predict 3-D molecular geometry
(VESPR) based on the number of valence shell electron
pairs among the atoms in a molecule or ion.

Electrostatic attraction Attraction between opposite charges

Hydrogen bonding A special type of dipole-dipole attraction between

molecules that results from the attractive force
between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to to
a very electronegative atom (F, O, N)
 Permanent dipole-dipole attraction Electrostatic force of attraction between the
permanent dipoles of adjacent polar molecules

Temporary dipole-dipole attraction (dispersion Electrostatic forces of attraction between two

force) instantaneous dipoles of adjacent molecules

Instantaneous dipole Partial charge that appears in an atom/molecule

due to the random movement of electrons

Allotrope Substances that are made of a singular element but

their structures are different making them take
different physical forms

Covalent layer lattice Atoms covalently bonded together in a two-

dimensional arrangement to form layers, held
together by weak dispersion forces

Covalent network lattice Regular 3D arrangement of atoms covalenetly

bonded together extending outwards.

Lattice A series of atoms arranged in a regular manner

Macromolecule Molecule containing a very large number of atoms

Tetramolecule Describes an atom with four electrons in its

valence shell

Reaction of metals

Crystal lattice Atoms of one type of metal element that are

metallically bonded and organised in a pattern

Ductility Ability to be hammered or stretched in a thin

shape without breaking

Electrical conductivity Ability to allow an electrical current to flow

through

Electrostatic attraction The attraction between opposite charges

Heat conductivity Ability to allow heat to pass through

Lustre Shiny and glossy appearance

Malleability Ability to deform under force without breaking

Atom economy Mass of desired product/mass of all reactants

given as a percentage

Circular economy A continuous cycle that focuses on the optimal use

 and reuse of resources from the extraction of raw
materials to the production of new materials,
followed by consumption and re-purposing of
unused and waste materials.

Green chemistry Principles aimed as reducing the chemical-related

impact on humans and the environment through
sustainable management programs

Life cycle The management of production and processing,

storage, transportation, use and disposal of a
chemical product

Linear economy Operates on a ‘make-take’ model

Sustainable Can be produced at a rate that is greater than

consumption without compromising future
generations

Reaction of Ionic compounds

Brittle Tendency of a material to fracture when subjected

to pressure

Coordination number The number of atoms, molecules or ions bonded to

a chemical species, e.g. neighbouring atoms to
entity

Crystal lattice (ionic) Symmetrical 3D arrangement of ions

Hardness Resistance to deformation when subjected to

pressure

Ion Atom that has lost or gained electrons to become

polar

Ionic bond/ ionic compound Electrostatic force of attraction between cations

and anions (a compound held together like this is
an ionic compound)

Aqueous Dissolved in water

Ionic equation Equation showing net state changes of ions

Spectator ions Aqueous ions that do not change state throughout

a reaction

Separation and Identification of the components of mixtures

 Adsorption Sticking to stationary phase

Desorption Release of component from stationary phase by

dissolving

Eluent Solvent fluid that move through the

chromatography

HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography -

mobile phase is pumped through tightly packed
stationary phase

Mobile phase Fluid which carries over the stationary phase

Stationary phase Solid which components adsorb to

Retention factor The ratio of the distance moved by component

compared to eluent (e.g. component to solvent
front)

Homogenous A mixture with uniform composition and

properties

Solution A homogenous mixture which a substance is

dissolved in another

Thin layer chromatography Uses a thin stationary phase supported by inert

backing

Paper chromatography Uses absorbent paper

AoS2
Quantifying atoms and compounds

Mass to charge ratio (m/z) The mass of an ion divided by its charge

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) no units Average weight of element’s isotopes, on a scale
where carbon-12 is 12 exactly

Relative Isotopic Mass Mass of an isotope where carbon-12 is 12 exactly

Relative Molecular Mass/Relative Formula Mass

(no units) (Mr)

Avagradro’s constant The number of atoms in exactly 12g of 12C, 6.02

* 10^23
 Entities Atoms, molecules, compounds, ions, electrons, etc

Molar Mass The mass, in gram, per mol of substance

Families of Organic Compounds

Addition Reaction One molecule combines with another molecule to

form a larger molecule

Saturated hydrocarbons Has only single bonds between carbon atoms

Substitution Reaction One atom or group replacing a part of another

molecule

Unsaturated hydrocarbons Has at least one double bond between carbons

Alkyl group A side-chain attached to the parent carbon chain

(only has C and H)

Structural isomers Same molecular formula but atoms are arranged in

a spatial arrangement

Carboxylic acid A compound which contains a carboxyl functional

group (-COOH)

Alcohol Has a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon

atom in parent chain

Carboxyl group Functional group which is double bonded to an

oxygen and single bonded to a hydroxyl group

Functional group Specific group of atoms which affect the

properties of the compound

Haloalkane Has one or more halogen atom bonded to a carbon

atom in the carbon chain

Hydroxyl group A functional group which has a oxygen bonded to

a hydrogen (-OH)

Biomass Any organic material made up of plants or animal

matter

Fossil fuel Hydrocarbon-containing material formed in

Earth’s crust from plant and animal remains

Crude oil Mixture of different sized hydrocarbons found in

underground deposits and used as a resource

Adhesivity Property of being sticky

 Bioaccumulation Process of increasing contaminant concentration
in an organism overtime

Biomagnification Process of higher contaminant concentration in

organisms higher in the food chain

Carcinogenic Having the potential to cause cancer

Polymers and Society

Unit 2
Water as a Unique Chemical
Boiling point Temperature at which the liquid transitions into a
gas

Condensation Phase change from gas to liquid

Evaporation Change from liquid to gas (another term for

vaporisation)

Group 16 Hydride Group 16 element covalently bonded to hydrogen

Heat Capacity Relationship between the heat absorbed by a

substance and its temperature change

Latent heat of vaporisation Amount of heat required to convert a mol of a

substance from its liquid state to its gaseous state
at the boiling point of the substance

Phase change Transition of a substance from one state to another

Potable Alternative term for drinkable water

Solar energy Energy produced by the sun

Specific heat capacity Energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram

of a given substance by 1 degree

Vaporisation Phase change from liquid to gas

Acid-base (proton transfer) reactions

Acid Species that donates a proton

Acid-base reaction Chemical reaction where a proton is transferred

between two species

Alkali A base that is soluble in water and neutralises

 acids

Amphiprotic A species that can either donate or accept a proton

Base A species that accepts a proton

Bronsted-Lowry Theory Definition of an acid as a chemical species which

donates a proton to a base

Corrosive A highly reactive substance that causes obvious

damage to tissue

Deprotonation Loss of a proton, from an acid

Diprotic Species that can donate up to two protons during

ionisation

Hydronium ion (protonated water) Positively charged chemical species (H3O+)

Hydroxide ion Negatively charged chemical species (OH-)

Ionisation Process by which a chemical species gains or

loses an electron to gain an electric charge

Neutralise React with an acid or base to produce water

Strength How readily an acid or base will donate or accept

a proton

Antacid A weak base that is used to neutralise stomach

acid

Heartburn A burning sensation in the chest, caused by acid

regurgitation into the oesophagus

Indigestion Pain or discomfort in the stomach

Metal hydroxide Compound that neutralises acids to form metal salt

and water

Metal hydrocarbonate and carbonate Compound that neutralises acids to form metal
salt, water and carbon dioxide

Ulcer A break in the lining of an organ like the stomach

Acidic solution Solution containing a greater number of

hydronium ions than hydroxide ions

Autoionisation Process by which an atom or molecule

spontaneously forms ions

Basic solution Hydroxide > hydronium

 Ionic product of water (KW) Expression of the concentration of ions present in
water at 25 degrees celsius

Neutral solution [OH-] = [H3O+]

pH Measure of concentration of hydronium ions in a

solution

pH scale pH values arranged on a logarithmic scale

Commercial indicator / natural indicator An artificially prepared indicator / an indicator

made from naturally sourced substances

Indicator A substance that changes colour to indicate a pH

range

Litmus paper Paper used to indicate the acidity or basicity of a

substance

pH metre An instrument used to measure the pH of a

substance

Combustion When a fuel reacts with oxygen (also called

burning)

Calcification A chemical process which forms calcium

carbonate

Decalcification A chemical process that breaks down calcium

carbonate

Carbonic acid Formed by the reaction of carbon dioxide and

water

Marine invertebrates Ocean and sea creatures that do not have a

backbone

Nitric acid Can be formed from a series of reaction in the

atmosphere between nitrogen gas, oxygen gas and
water

Sulfuric acid Can be formed from a series of reaction in the

atmosphere between sulfur, oxygen gas and water

Redox (electron transfer) reactions

Half-equation Reduction or oxidation equation of a complete

redox reaction

Oxidation Chemical reaction in which a chemical species

 loses electrons

Oxidising agent Chemical species that oxidises another substance

by accepting electrons (reduces itself)

Oxidation state Number assigned to an atom that can be used to

determine the movement of electrons in redox
reaction

Redox reaction Chemical reaction involving the transfer of

electrons between chemical species

Reducing agent Chemical that reduces another substance by giving

away electrons

Reduction Chemical reaction in which a chemical species

gains electrons

Metal displacement reaction Redox reaction in which a more reactive metal

displaces a less reactive metal’s cation from
solution

Reactivity series of metals Organised scale of metals and their cations ,

ranked according to their strength as reducing and
oxidising agents

Spontaneous redox reaction Feasible redox reaction that occurs without the
addition of any extra heat or energy

Anode Negatively charged electrode in a galvanic cell,

oxidation occurs

Cathode Positively charged electrode in a galvanic cell,

reduction occurs

Corrosion Occurs when some metals react with gases in the

atmostphere (mainly oxygen)

Galvanic cell Electrochemical cell in which chemical energy

from spontaneous redox reactions is converted
into electrical energy

Galvanised Coated with zinc

Rust Precipitate formed from the corrosion of iron with

water and oxygen

Sacrifical anode A readily oxidised anode used to coat other metals

for protection against corrosion

Sacrifical protection The use of protective layer that is readily oxidised

 Salt bridge Device used to separate the solutions in each half-
cell whilst completing the circuit

Measuring Solubility and Concentration

Concentration Amount of chemical substance in a unit of volume

Dilution Process of decreasing concentration of a solution

by adding more solvent

Molarity Also called molar concentration, is a measure of

the concentration of a chemical species in terms of
amount of substance per unit volume of solution,
measured in moles per litre

%(m/m) Mass percent concentration of solute in solution

%(w/w) Weight percent concentration of solute in solution

%(m/v) Mass percent concentration of solute per unit

volume of solution

%(v/v) Volume percent concentration of solute in solution

Eutrophication Excessive algal growth due to increased nutrients

concentration in water

Crystallisation Process by which solute molecules leave solution

to form a highly organised structure known as a
crystal

Solubility Ability to be dissolved in a given solution

Unsaturated solution Solution containing less than the maximum

amount of dissolved solute

Saturated solution Solution containing maximum amount of

dissolved solute

Supersaturated solution Solution containing more than the maximum

amount of solute that can be dissolved

Analysis for acids and bases

Aliquot Portion of a sample solution used for analysis
during titration

Concentration Amount of chemical substance per unit of volume

Concordant titres Three or more titres that fall within approximately

 0.1mL of each other

End point Point at which a colour change occurs

Equivalence point Point at which the reaction has occurred as per the
stoichiometric ratio of balanced equation

Indicator A substance that changes colour to indicate a pH

range

Meniscus Curved upper surface of liquid

Primary standard Substance used to make a primary standard

solution

Primary standard solution Solution of precisely known concentration

Titration Quantitative technique used to find the

concentration and/or amount of substance in a
solution

Titration curve Graphic representation of an acid-base titration,

with titre volume on the x-axis and pH on the y-
axis

Titre Volume of the solution delivered from the burette

to reach the end point of a titration

Volumetric analysis Quantitative analytical technique used to

determine unknown concentrations of solutions

Measuring gases
Global warming A long-term increase in the average global
temperature of Earth’s climate system since the
industrial revolution due to human activities

Greenhouse effect The natural warming of the earth that results when
gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun that
would otherwise escape into space

Greenhouse gases Molecules that absorb infrared radiation from the

sun

Ideal gas Substance assumed to be composed of molecules

of negligible volume with no intermolecular
interactions

Infrared radiation Heat energy emitted from the sun

Pressure Force a gas exert on the walls of its container

 Standard Laboratory Conditions Set of conditions used as a standard for
experiments (298K and 100kPa)

Analysis for salts

Analyte Substance which is quantified or identified

Anhydrous Without water

Gravimetric analysis Chemical analysis involving the weighing of a

precipitate formed from an analyte

Hydrated salt Contains water of crystallisation molecules

Hygroscopic Able to absorb or adsorb water from its

surroundings

Law of conservation of mass Law that states in a closed system, the total mass
of reactants equals the total mass of products

Mass-mass stoichiometry Calculation of reactants and products in a

chemical reaction using the law of conservation

Stoichiometry That relationship between relative quantities of

reactants and products in a chemical reaction

Water of crystallisation Water that is bonded into a crystal structure

Calibration curve Graph depicting the relationship between

concentration and light absorbance for a particular
substance

Colorimetry Method of determining the concentration of a

known substance which exploits the light
absorbance properties of substances

Colorimeter Instrument used to undertake colorimetric analysis

Complementary colours Colours opposite to each other on the colour

wheel

Electromagnetic radiation Waves of the electromagnetic field including

visible and ultraviolet light

Monochromator Device used to select a particular wavelength of

light

Spectroscopy Analysis of the interaction between matter and

electromagnetic radiation

Standard solution Solution with a precisely known concentration

UV-visible spectroscopy Spectroscopy method which uses the ultraviolet
light region of the electromagnetic spectrum

UV-visible spectrophotometer Instrument used in UV-visible spectroscopy