Lecture 5

Introduction to Control
Systems (ECEg 4170)
ECEg Department
Institute of Technology
University of Gondar
Lecture notes
4. Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems
4.1. Introduction
â The first step in analyzing a control system is to derive a mathematical

model of the system.
â Once such a model is obtained, various methods are available for the anal-
ysis of system performance.
â The response of control systems where time is independent variable, it is

called time domain response of a system.
â The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient
response and the steady-state response.
â By transient response, we mean that which goes from the initial state to
the final state.
4.1. Introduction
â By steady-state response, we mean the manner in which the system output

behaves as t approaches infinity. Thus
c(t) = ctr (s) + css (t) (1)
â In analyzing and designing control systems, we must have a basis of com-

parison of performance of various control systems.
â This basis may be set up by specifying particular test input signals and by
comparing the responses of various systems to these input signals.
â The commonly used test input signals are: step functions, ramp functions,
acceleration functions, impulse functions, etc.
4.1. Introduction

0, t < 0 0, t<0
1. Step signal r (t) = 2. Ramp r (t) =
A, t ≥ 0. At, t ≥ 0.

0, t<0 0, t 6= 0
3. Acc. r (t) = 4. Impulse r (t) =
At 2 /2, t ≥ 0. ∞, t = 0.
4.1. Introduction
â A control system is in equilibrium if, in the absence of any disturbance or

input, the output stays in the same state.
â A LTI control system is stable if the output eventually comes back to its
equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial condition.
â A linear time-invariant control system is critically stable if oscillations of

the output continue forever.
â It is unstable if the output diverges without bound from its equilibrium
state when the system is subjected to an initial condition.
â If the output of a system at steady state does not exactly agree with the
input, the system is said to have steadystate error.
â In analyzing a control system, we must examine transient-response behavior
and steady-state behavior.
4.2. First order systems
â Consider the first-order system and its simplified block diagram
â Physically, this system may represent an RC circuit. With zero IC:

ei (t) = Ri(t) + eo (t)
deo (t)
= RC + eo (t)
dt
=⇒ Ei (s) = RCsEo (s) + Eo (s)
â The input-output relationship is given by:

Eo (s) 1 1
= = (2)
Ei (s) RCs + 1 τs + 1
Unit-Step Response of First-Order Systems

â Since the Laplace transform of the unit-step function is 1/s, substituting
R(s) = 1/s into Eq. (2), we obtain
1 1
C (s) =
τs + 1 s
â Partial fraction expansion of C (s) is:
1 τ 1 1
C (s) = − = − (3)
s τs + 1 s s + 1/τ
â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (3)
c(t) = 1 − e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (4)

â Eq. (4) states that initially the output c(t) is zero and finally it becomes
unity.
â One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c(t)
is that at t = τ the value of c(t) is 0.632, or reached 63.2% of its total
change.
c(t) = 1 − e −τ /τ = 1 − e −1 = 0.632 (5)

Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order Systems

â Since the Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is 1/s 2 , substituting
R(s) = 1/s 2 into Eq. (2), we obtain
1 1
C (s) =
τ s + 1 s2
â Partial fraction expansion of C (s) is:
1 τ τ2
C (s) = − + (6)
s2 s τs + 1
â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (6)
c(t) = t − τ + τ e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (7)

â The error signal is then:
e(t) = r (t) − c(t) = τ (1 − e −t/τ ) for t ≥ 0 (8)
â As t approaches infinity, e −t/τ approaches zero, and thus the error signal
e(t) approaches τ .
â The error in following the unit-ramp input is equal to τ for sufficiently large
t, and it is small for smaller τ .
Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order Systems

â Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is 1, substituting
R(s) = 1 into Eq. (2), we obtain
1
C (s) =
τs + 1
â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above Eq.

1 −t/τ
c(t) = e for t ≥ 0 (9)
τ
â As t approaches infinity, e −t/τ approaches zero, and hence response decays.

An Important Property of Linear Time-Invariant Systems

â In the analysis above, it has been shown that for the unit-ramp input the
output c(t) is
c(t) = t − τ + τ e −t/τ for t ≥ 0
â For the unit-step input, which is the derivative of unit-ramp input, the
output c(t) is
c(t) = 1 − e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (10)
â Finally, for the unit-impulse input, which is the derivative of unit-step input,
the output c(t) is
1 −t/τ
c(t) = e for t ≥ 0 (11)
τ
â In conclusion, the response to the derivative of an input signal can be

obtained by differentiating the response of the system to the original signal.
â Also the response to the integral of the original signal can be obtained by
integrating the response of the system to the original signal
â For this case, the integration constant is determined from from the zero
output initial condition.
â This is a property of linear time-invariant systems.
â Linear time-varying systems and nonlinear systems do not possess this prop-
erty.
Performance specifications for FoS

1. Time Constant (τ ) is the time required to reach 63% of the final value.
2. Rise time (tr ) is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90% of its final value.
3. Settling time (ts ) is the time taken to reach 98% of its final value.
Mostly, ts ≥ 4τ .
Performance specifications for FoS

1. Time Constant (τ ) is the time required to reach 63% of the final value.
2. Rise time (tr ) is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90% of its final value.
3. Settling time (ts ) is the time taken to reach 98% of its final value.
Mostly, ts ≥ 4τ .
Example: Find the performance specifications τ , tr and ts for the following
RC circuit where ei is a unit step function and the capacitor was initially
fully discharged.
Solution: The transfer function is obtained in Eq. (2) as
Eo (s) 1
= (12)
Ei (s) RCs + 1
When the values are inserted:

Eo (s) 1
= (13)
Ei (s) 10s + 1
Then the response becomes:

1 1 1
Eo (s) = Ei (s) = (14)
10s + 1 10s + 1 s
The time domain response is:
eo (t) = (1 − e −t/10 )u(t) (15)

From the above result, it is clear that
τ = 10
The rise time is:

tr = t0.9 − t0.1
where t0.9 and t0.1 are obtained as follows:
1 − e −t0.9 /10 = 0.9 1 − e −t0.1 /10 = 0.1

=⇒ e −t0.9 /10 = 0.1 =⇒ e −t0.1 /10 = 0.9
t0.9 = 23.03 sec. t0.1 = 1.05 sec.
Then tr = 23.03 − 1.05 = 21.98 sec.
Finally, the settling time can be obtained from 1 − e −ts /10 = 0.98 as
ts = 39.12 sec.
4.3. Second order systems
â We consider a servo system that consists of a proportional controller and

load elements (J and B) as an example of a second-order system.
â Suppose that we wish to control the output position c in accordance with
the input position r .
â The differential equation that represents the load is:
J c̈ + B ċ = τ
â where τ is the torque produced by the proportional controller whose gain

is K .
â By taking Laplace transforms of both sides of this last equation, assuming
the zero initial conditions, we obtain
Js 2 C (s) + BsC (s) = τ (s)

â So the transfer function between C (s) and τ (s) is
C (s) 1
= 2
τ (s) Js + Bs
â The closed-loop transfer function is then
C (s) K K /J
= 2 = 2 (16)
R(s) Js + Bs + K s + (B/J)s + (K /J)
â Such a system where the closed-loop transfer function possesses two poles
is called a second-order system.
â The closed loop transfer function can be written as:

K
C (s)
= s J s 
R(s) 2 2
B B K B B K
s + + −  s + − − 
2J 2J J 2J 2J J
â The closed-loop poles are complex conjugates if B 2 − 4JK < 0 and they
are real if B 2 − 4JK ≥ 0.
â In the transient-response analysis, it is convenient to write
K B
= ωn2 , = 2ζωn = 2σ
J J
â where σ is called the attenuation; ωn , the undamped natural frequency;

and ζ, the damping ratio of the system.
â The damping ratio
√ is the ratio of the actual damping B to the critical
damping Bc = 2 JK
B B
ζ= = √
Bc 2 JK
â The standard form of the second-order system in terms of ζ and ωn as:
C (s) ωn2
= 2 (17)
R(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
â The characteristic equation of the second order systems is s 2 +2ζωn s +ωn2 =

0.
p
â Then the poles of the system are s1,2 = −ζωn ± ωn ζ 2 − 1.
â The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be described in
terms of two parameters ζ and ωn .
â Depending on the value of ζ, the system may be:
X If 0 < ζ < 1, the closed-loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the
left-half s plane. The system is then called underdamped, and the
transient response is oscillatory.
X If ζ = 0, the transient response does not die out and is called undamped.
X If ζ = 1, the system is called critically damped.
X Overdamped systems correspond to ζ > 1.
â In the next discussion, the response of the second order system to a unit-
step input will be solved.
1. Underdamped case (0 < ζ < 1):

p
â Here, the poles are complex conjugates s1,2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2.
â In this case, the unit-step response can be written as
ωn2
C (s) = (18)
(s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 )s
â The partial fraction expansion will be

A Bs + c
C (s) = + 2
s ωn + 2ζωn s + ωn2
1 s + 2ζωn
= − 2
s s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
1 s + ζωn ζωn
= − 2 −
s 2
(s + ζωn ) + ωd (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2
p
â Where ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 is called the damped natural frequency.
â The time domain response can be obtained from the inversee Laplace trans-
form, i.e.
!
ζ
c(t) = 1 − e −ζωn t cos(ωd t) + p sin(ωd t)
1 − ζ2
p !
e −ζωn t −1 1 − ζ2
=1− p sin ωd t + tan for t ≥ 0 (19)
1 − ζ2 ζ
â From Eq. (19), it can be seen that the frequency of transient oscillation is
the damped natural frequency ωd and thus varies with the damping ratio
ζ.
â The error signal for this system is the difference between the input and
output and is
p !
e −ζωn t 1 − ζ2
e(t) = r (t) − c(t) = p sin ωd t + tan−1 for t ≥ 0
1 − ζ2 ζ
â This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation and at steady

state, or at t = ∞, no error exists between the input and output.
â If the damping ratio ζ is equal to zero, the response becomes undamped

and oscillations continue indefinitely.
â The response c(t) for the zero damping (s1,2 = ±jωn .)case may be obtained
by substituting ζ = 0 in Eq. (19), yielding
c(t) = 1 − cos(ωn t)
â Thus, from Eq. above ωn is the frequency at which the system output
would oscillate if the damping were decreased to zero.
2. Critically damped case (ζ = 1):
â If the two poles of C (s)/R(s) are equal (s1,2 = −ωn ), the system is said
to be a critically damped one.
â For a unit-step input, R(s) = 1/s and C (s) can be written
ωn2
C (s) = (20)
(s + ωn )2 s
â The inverse Laplace transform of Equation (5-14) may be found as
c(t) = 1 − e −ωn t (1 + ωn t) t≥0 (21)

3. Over damped case (ζ > 1):
â In this case, the two poles of C (s)/R(s) are negative real and unequal.
â For a unit-step input, R(s) = 1/s and C (s) can be written
ωn2
C (s) = p p (22)
(s + ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1)(s + ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1)s
â The partial fraction expansion of the above Eq. is:

A B C
C (s) = + p + p
s (s + ζωn + ωn ζ − 1) (s + ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1)
2
1 1
p p p p
1 2 2
2 ζ − 1(ζ + ζ − 1) 2 ζ − 1(ζ − ζ 2 − 1)
2
= + p − p
s (s + ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1) (s + ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1)
â The time domain response will be

√
1 2 1
c(t) = 1 + p p e −(ζ+ ζ −1)ωn t − p p ×
2 ζ 2 − 1(ζ + ζ 2 − 1) 2 ζ 2 − 1(ζ − ζ 2 − 1)
√
2
e −(ζ− ζ −1)ωn t
−p1 t
e −p2 t

ωn e
=1+ p − for t ≥ 0
2 ζ2 − 1 p1 p2
p p
where p1 = ωn (ζ + ζ 2 − 1) and p2 = ωn (ζ − ζ 2 − 1)
â Note that two second-order systems having the same ζ but different ωn ,
will exhibit the same overshoot and the same oscillatory pattern.
â Such systems are said to have the same relative stability.
â From Fig below, an underdamped system with 0.5 < ζ < 0.8 gets close to
the final value more rapidly than a critically damped or overdamped system.
â Among the systems responding without oscillation, a critically damped sys-

tem exhibits the fastest response.
â An overdamped system is always sluggish in responding to any inputs.
Transient-Response Specifications
â The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching steady state.
â In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to a
unit-step input, it is common to specify the following:
1 Delay time, td ,
2 Rise time, tr ,
3 Peak time, tp ,
4 Maximum overshoot, Mp ,
5 Settling time, ts ,
1 Delay time, td , is the time required for the response to reach half the final
value the very first time.
2 Rise time, tr , is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90% (for overdamped s/m), 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% (for underdamped
s/m) of its final value.
3 Peak time, tp , is the time required for the response to reach the first peak
of the overshoot.
4 Maximum (percent) overshoot, Mp ,: is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from final value. It is defined by
c(tp ) − c(∞)
Mp = × 100%
c(∞)
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the

relative stability of the system
5 Settling time, ts ,: is the time required for the response curve to reach and
stay within a range about the final value of usually 2% or 5%. It is related
to the largest time constant of the control system.
â Which percentage error criterion to use may be determined from the

objectives of the system design in question.
Second-Order Systems and Transient-Response Specification
â For underdamped systems, let’s find the expression for each of the time
domain specifications interms of ζ and ωn .
1 Rise time tr : For underdamped second order systems, the time domain
response is given by Eq. (19) and c(tr ) = 1
!
−ζωn tr ζ
c(tr ) = 1 = 1 − e cos(ωd tr ) + p sin(ωd tr )
1 − ζ2
Since e −ζωn tr 6= 0
ζ
cos(ωd tr ) + p sin(ωd tr ) = 0
1 − ζ2
p
−1 1 − ζ2
ωd tr = − tan
ζ
â Rearranging the above equation:
ωd t r = π − β
π−β
∴ tr = (23)
ωd
2 Peak time tp : Referring to Eq. (19), we may obtain the peak time by
differentiating c(t) w.r.t time and letting it equal zero. Since
!
dc(t) ζ
= ζωn e −ζωn t cos(ωd t) + p sin(ωd t)
dt 1 − ζ2
!
−ζωn t ζωd
+e ωd sin(ωd t) − p cos(ωd t)
1 − ζ2
â Then:
dc(t) ωn
=p e −ζωn tp sin(ωd tp ) = 0 =⇒ sin(ωd tp ) = 0
dt t=tp 1 − ζ2
â The above equation gives:
ωd tp = 0, π, 2π, 3π . . .
â Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot, ωd tp = π.

Hence
π
tp = (24)
ωd
â The peak time tp , corresponds to one-half cycle of the frequency of damped

oscillation.
3 Maximum overshoot Mp : The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time

or at t = tp = π/ωd .
â Assuming that the final value of the output is unity, Mp is obtained from
Eq. (19) as
Mp = c(tp ) − 1
!
−ζωn (π/ωd ) ζ
= −e cos(π) + p sin(π)
1 − ζ2
√ 2
= e −(σ/ωd )π = e −(ζ/ 1−ζ )π (25)
â The maximum percent overshoot is e −(σ/ωd )π × 100%.

â If the final value c(∞) of the output is not unity, then we need to use the
equation given in pp. 32.
4 Settling time ts : For an underdamped second-order system, the transient

response is obtained from Eq. (19) as
p !
e −ζωn t −1 1 − ζ2
c(t) = 1 − p sin ωd t + tan for t ≥ 0
1 − ζ2 ζ
â From the above equation note:

X The curves 1 ± (e −ζωn t / 1 − ζ 2 )
p
are the envelope curves of the

transient response to a unit-step
input.
X The envelope curves have
τ = 1/ζωn
â The speed of decay of the transient response depends on the value of the
time constant.
â For a given ωn the settling time is a function of the damping ratio ζ.

â The settling time corresponding to a ±2% or ±5% tolerance band may be
measured in terms of the time constant τ
4
ts = 2% criterion (26)
ζωn
3
ts = 5% criterion (27)
ζωn
â It is important to note that the Equations (23) to (27) are valid only for
the standard second-order system defined by Eq. (17).
Example: Consider the second order system shown in pp. 22, where ζ =
0.6 and ωn = 5 rad/sec. Obtain the rise time tr peak time tp maximum
overshoot Mp and settling time ts , when the system is subjected to a
unit-step input.
Solution: For the given values of ζ and ωn , the damped natural frequency
and the attenuation is:
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = 4
σ = ζωn = 3
Then:
π−β 3.14 − β
tr = =
ωd 4
where
ωd 4
β = tan−1 = tan−1 = 0.93 rad
σ 3
And
3.14 − 0.93
tr = = 0.55 sec
4
The peak time is:
π 3.14
tp = = = 0.785 sec
ωd 4
Maximum overshoot:
Mp = e −(σ/ωd )π = e (3/4)3.14 = 0.095
The maximum overshoot is 9.5%.

Settling time:
4 4
ts = = = 1.33 sec for 2% criterion
σ 3
3 3
ts = = = 1 sec for 5% criterion
σ 3
4.4. Steady state errors in unity feedback control systems
â Errors in a control system can be caused from:

X changes in the reference input,
X imperfections in the system components,
X aging or deterioration.
â In this section, we will investigate a type of steady-state error that is caused

by the incapability of a system to follow particular types of inputs.
â Whether a given system will exhibit steady-state error for a given type of
input depends on the type of open-loop transfer function of the system.
â Control systems may be classified according to their ability to follow step
inputs, ramp inputs, parabolic inputs, and so on.
â The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these individual inputs

are indicative of the goodness of the system
â Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-loop

transfer function G (s):
K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

G (s) = (28)
s N (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â The term s N in the denominator represents a pole of multiplicity N at the

origin.
â A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2,. . . , if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2,. . . ,

respectively.
â As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved; however, increasing
the type number aggravates the stability problem.
â For a unity feedback control systems, the transfer function is

C (s) G (s)
=
R(s) 1 + G (s)
â The transfer function between the error signal e(t) and the input signal
r (t) is
E (s) C (s) 1
=1− =
R(s) R(s) 1 + G (s)
â The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find the steady-state

performance of a stable system. That is:-
ess = lim e(t) = lim sE (s)
t→∞ s→0
sR(s) R(s)
= lim ∵ E (s) =
s→0 1 + G (s) 1 + G (s)
Static Position Error Constant Kp
â The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is
s 1 1
ess = lim =
s→0 1 + G (s) s 1 + G (0)
â The static position error constant Kp is defined by
Kp = lim G (s) = G (0)

s→0
â Thus,the steady-state error in terms of the static position error constant

Kp is given by
1
ess =
1 + Kp
â For a type 0 system
K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

Kp = lim =K
s→0 (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â For a type 1 or higher system,
K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

Kp = lim = ∞, N≥1
s→0 s N (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â For a unit-step input, the steady-state error ess may be summarized as

follows:
1
, for type 0 system
ess = 1+K
0, for type 1 or higher system.
Static Velocity Error Constant Kv
â The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp input is
s 1 1
ess = lim = lim
s→0 1 + G (s) s 2 s→0 sG (s)
â The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by
Kv = lim sG (s)
s→0
â Thus,the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error constant Kv

is given by
1
ess =
Kv
sK (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

Kv = lim =0
s→0 (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â For a type 1 system,
sK (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

Kv = lim =K
s→0 s(τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
sK (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)

Kv = lim = ∞, N≥2
s→0 s N (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â For a unit-ramp input, the steady-state error ess may be summarized as

follows:

1

 = ∞, for type 0 system
 K1v



1
ess = = , for type 1 system
 Kv K
1


= 0, for type 2 or higher system.



Kv
Static Acceleration Error Constant Ka
â The steady-state error of the system for a unit-acceleration input is
s 1 1
ess = lim = lim 2
s→0 1 + G (s) s 3 s→0 s G (s)
â The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by
Ka = lim s 2 G (s)
s→0
â Thus,the steady-state error in terms of the static acceleration error constant

Ka is given by
1
ess =
Ka

s 2 K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)
Ka = lim =0
s→0 (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)

s 2 K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)
Ka = lim =0
s→0 s(τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)

s 2 K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)
Ka = lim =K
s→0 s 2 (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)

s 2 K (τa s + 1)(τb s + 1) . . . (τm s + 1)
Ka = lim = ∞, N≥3
s→0 s N (τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1) . . . (τp s + 1)
â For a unit-acceleration input, the steady-state error ess may be summarized

as follows:
1


 = ∞, for type 0 system

 K a
1


= ∞, for type 1 system



ess = Ka
1 1

 = , for type 2 system
K K

a


 1 = 0,


for type 3 or higher system

Ka
â The following table summarizes the steady-state errors for type 0, type 1,
and type 2 systems when they are subjected to various inputs.
Step input Ramp input Acceleration input

r (t) = 1 r (t) = t r (t) = t 2 /2
1
Type 0 system ∞ ∞
1+K
1
Type 1 system 0 ∞
K
1
Type 2 system 0 0
K
4.5. Stability analysis of control systems
â The most important characteristic of the dynamic behavior of a control

system is absolute stability,that is, whether the system is stable or unstable.
â A control system is in equilibrium if, in the absence of any disturbance or
input, the output stays in the same state.
â A LTI control system is stable if the output eventually comes back to its
equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial condition.
â A linear time-invariant control system is critically stable if oscillations of
the output continue forever.
â It is unstable if the output diverges without bound from its equilibrium

state when the system is subjected to an initial condition.
â A control system is stable if and only if all closed-loop poles lie in the
left-half s plane.
â Most linear closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the
form
C (s) b0 s m + b1 s m−1 + . . . + bm−1 s + bm B(s)
= n n−1
=
R(s) a0 s + a1 s + . . . + an−1 s + an A(s)
where the ai ’s and bi ’s are constants and m ≤ n.

â A simple criterion, known as Routh’s stability criterion, enables us to de-
termine the number of closed-loop poles that lie in the right-half s plane
without having to factor the denominator polynomial.
â The procedure in Routh’s stability criterion is as follows:
1 Write the characteristic equation as follows:
a0 s n + a1 s n−1 + . . . + an−1 s + an = 0 (29)
2 If any of ai ≤ 0 in the presence of at least one positive ai , there is a root/s that
are imaginary or that have positive real parts.Therefore, in such a case,the system
is not stable. If all ai ’s are negative, they can be made positive by multiplying both
sides of the equation by -1.
3 If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows
and columns according to the following pattern:
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ...
s n−1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ...
s n−2 b1 b2 b3 b4 ...
s n−3 c1 c2 c3 c4 ...
s n−4 d1 d2 d3 d4 ...
.. .. ..
. . .
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g1
â The coefficients b1 , b2 , b3 , and so on, are evaluated as follows:

a1 a2 − a0 a3 a1 a4 − a0 a5 a1 a6 − a0 a7
b1 = ; b2 = ; b3 = ...
a1 a1 a1
â The evaluation of the bi ’s is continued until the remaining ones are all zero.
Similarly, ci and di are obtained from:
b1 a3 − a1 b2 b1 a5 − a1 b3 b1 a7 − a1 b4
c1 = ; c2 = ; c3 = ...
b1 b1 b1
and
c1 b2 − b1 c2 c1 b3 − b1 c3
d1 = ; d2 = ...
c1 c1
â This process is continued until the nth row has been completed.
Routh’s stability criterion states that the number of roots of Eq. (29) with
positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the coefficients
of the first column of the array.
Example: Use Routh’s stability criterion to check the stability of the system
having the following characteristic equation.
s 4 + 2s 3 + 3s 2 + 4s + 5 = 0
Solution: First construct the following array:
s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4 0
s2 1 5
s1 -6
s0 5
The number of changes in sign of the coefficients in the first column is 2.

This means that there are two roots with positive real parts.
â Special Case(1): If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining
terms are not zero: the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number
and the rest of the array is evaluated.
â For example, consider the following equation:
s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 2 = 0
â The array of coefficients is
s3 1 1
s2 2 2
s1 0≈
s0 2
â If the sign of the coefficient above the zero () is the same as that below
it, it indicates that there are a pair of imaginary roots.
â Special Case(2): If all the coefficients in any derived row are zero, the
auxiliary polynomial is then formed from the coefficients of the prior row.
â Example consider:
s 5 + 2s 4 + 24s 3 + 48s 2 − 25s − 50 = 0
â The array of coefficients is:
s5 1 24 -25
s4 2 48 -50 ←Auxiliary polynomial P(s)
s3 0 0
dP
P(s) = 2s 4 + 48s 2 − 50 =⇒ = 8s 3 + 96s
ds
â The terms in the 3rd row are replaced by the coefficients of the last equation,
that is, 8 and 96.
s5 1 24 -25
s4 2 48 -50
s3 8 96 ←Coefficients of dP(s)/ds
s2 24 -50
s1 112.7 0
s0 -50
â We see that there is one change in sign in the first column of the new array.
Thus,the original equation has one root with a positive real part.
â One of the application of Routh’s stability criterion to control system anal-

ysis is to determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a
system by examining the values that cause instability.
â Consider the closed loop system shown below:
â The corresponding closed loop transfer function is:

C (s) K
=
R(s) s(s 2 + s + 1)(s + 2) + K
â The characteristic equation becomes:

s 4 + 3s 3 + 3s 2 + 2s + K = 0
s4 1 3 K
s3 3 2 0
s2 7/3 K
s1 2 − 9K /7
s0 K
â For stability, K must be positive,And all coefficients in the first column

must be positive. Therefore,
0 < K < 14/9

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Introduction to Control

Systems (ECEg 4170)

â The first step in analyzing a control system is to derive a mathematical

â The response of control systems where time is independent variable, it is

â By steady-state response, we mean the manner in which the system output

c(t) = ctr (s) + css (t) (1)

â In analyzing and designing control systems, we must have a basis of com-

â A control system is in equilibrium if, in the absence of any disturbance or

â A linear time-invariant control system is critically stable if oscillations of

â Consider the first-order system and its simplified block diagram

â Physically, this system may represent an RC circuit. With zero IC:

â The input-output relationship is given by:

Unit-Step Response of First-Order Systems

â Partial fraction expansion of C (s) is:

â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (3)

c(t) = 1 − e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (4)

c(t) = 1 − e −τ /τ = 1 − e −1 = 0.632 (5)

Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order Systems

â Partial fraction expansion of C (s) is:

â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (6)

c(t) = t − τ + τ e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (7)

â The error signal is then:

e(t) = r (t) − c(t) = τ (1 − e −t/τ ) for t ≥ 0 (8)

Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order Systems

â Taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above Eq.

â As t approaches infinity, e −t/τ approaches zero, and hence response decays.

An Important Property of Linear Time-Invariant Systems

c(t) = t − τ + τ e −t/τ for t ≥ 0

c(t) = 1 − e −t/τ for t ≥ 0 (10)

â In conclusion, the response to the derivative of an input signal can be

Performance specifications for FoS

Performance specifications for FoS

Solution: The transfer function is obtained in Eq. (2) as

When the values are inserted:

Then the response becomes:

eo (t) = (1 − e −t/10 )u(t) (15)

From the above result, it is clear that

The rise time is:

1 − e −t0.9 /10 = 0.9 1 − e −t0.1 /10 = 0.1

â We consider a servo system that consists of a proportional controller and

â The differential equation that represents the load is:

â where τ is the torque produced by the proportional controller whose gain

Js 2 C (s) + BsC (s) = τ (s)

â So the transfer function between C (s) and τ (s) is

â The closed-loop transfer function is then

â The closed loop transfer function can be written as:

â where σ is called the attenuation; ωn , the undamped natural frequency;

â The standard form of the second-order system in terms of ζ and ωn as:

â The characteristic equation of the second order systems is s 2 +2ζωn s +ωn2 =

1. Underdamped case (0 < ζ < 1):

â The partial fraction expansion will be

â This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation and at steady

â If the damping ratio ζ is equal to zero, the response becomes undamped

2. Critically damped case (ζ = 1):

â The inverse Laplace transform of Equation (5-14) may be found as

c(t) = 1 − e −ωn t (1 + ωn t) t≥0 (21)

3. Over damped case (ζ > 1):

â The partial fraction expansion of the above Eq. is:

â The time domain response will be

â Among the systems responding without oscillation, a critically damped sys-