See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/371221269

Orbital Mechanics

Research · June 2023

CITATIONS READS

0 590

1 author:

Mohammed Ezzelrgal
Beni Suef University
2 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammed Ezzelrgal on 02 June 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

|Page1
Introduction:
Orbital mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects
in space under the influence of gravitational forces. It is primarily concerned
with the motion of satellites, planets, moons, and other celestial bodies in orbit
around each other.

The fundamental principle behind orbital mechanics is Isaac Newton's law of

universal gravitation, which states that any two objects with mass attract each
other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This
gravitational force is responsible for keeping objects in orbit around larger
bodies like planets or stars.

The motion of objects in orbit can be described using Kepler's laws of planetary
motion, formulated by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century. These laws
provide a mathematical description of how objects move in elliptical orbits
around a central mass. The three laws are as follows:

1. Kepler's First Law, or the law of ellipses: Every planet or satellite moves in
an elliptical orbit around the central mass (usually a star or a planet), with the
central mass located at one of the foci of the ellipse.

2. Kepler's Second Law, or the law of areas: The line connecting a planet or
satellite to its central mass sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
This means that an object in orbit moves faster when it is closer to the central
mass and slower when it is farther away.

3. Kepler's Third Law, or the law of periods: The square of the orbital period
of a planet or satellite is proportional to the cube of its average distance from
the central mass. In other words, the farther an object is from the central mass,
the longer its orbital period.

|Page2
These laws, along with Newton's laws of motion, form the basis for
understanding and predicting the motion of objects in space. Engineers and
scientists use orbital mechanics to calculate and plan satellite launches, design
spacecraft trajectories, and predict celestial events such as eclipses and
planetary conjunctions.

Orbital mechanics is a complex field that involves various mathematical

techniques, such as differential equations and vector calculus, to solve the
equations of motion. It also takes into account other factors such as atmospheric
drag, solar radiation pressure, and the gravitational influence of multiple bodies
when analyzing more complex orbital scenarios.

|Page3
Vectors:
Vectors are mathematical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
They are used to represent various physical quantities such as displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum. In mathematics and physics,
vectors are an essential tool for describing and analyzing the physical world.

A vector is typically represented graphically by an arrow. The length of the

arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, and the direction of the arrow
represents its direction. The starting point of the arrow is often considered to be
the vector's origin or initial point.

Vectors can be added together using the parallelogram law of vector addition.
When adding two vectors, you place them head-to-tail and draw a vector from
the tail of the first vector to the head of the second vector. The resulting vector,
called the resultant, is the vector that connects the tail of the first vector to the
head of the second vector.

Vectors can also be multiplied by a scalar, which is a real number. Scalar

multiplication scales the magnitude of the vector without changing its direction.
For example, multiplying a vector by 2 doubles its magnitude, while
multiplying it by -1 reverses its direction.

In three-dimensional space, vectors are often represented using their

components along three orthogonal axes, such as the x, y, and z axes. These
components can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of the
vector along each axis. By combining the components, you can determine the
magnitude and direction of the vector.

Vectors can be manipulated mathematically using vector algebra and calculus.

Vector algebra involves operations such as addition, subtraction, and scalar
multiplication. Vector calculus extends these operations to include
differentiation and integration of vector functions, which are useful for
analyzing motion and forces in physics.

|Page4
Vectors have numerous applications in various fields, including physics,
engineering, computer graphics, and navigation. They provide a powerful
framework for understanding and solving problems involving quantities that
have both magnitude and direction.
Cross Product:
The cross product, also known as the vector product, is a mathematical
operation that takes two vectors as inputs and produces a third vector
perpendicular to the plane defined by the input vectors. It is denoted by the
symbol "×".
The cross product of two vectors, let's say vector A and vector B, is written as A
× B. The result is a vector that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to both A and B.
The magnitude of the cross product vector represents the area of the
parallelogram formed by A and B, and its direction is given by the right-hand
rule.
The right-hand rule states that if you align the fingers of your right hand in the
direction of vector A and then curl them towards the direction of vector B, your
thumb will point in the direction of the cross product vector (A × B).
Mathematically, the cross product can be calculated using the following
formula:
A × B = |A| |B| sin(θ) n
where |A| and |B| are the magnitudes of vectors A and B, θ is the angle between
the vectors, and n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane defined by A and B.

The rule of triple cross product is a mathematical property that relates three
vectors in a cross product operation. It states that the triple cross product of
three vectors A, B, and C can be expressed as follows:
A x (B x C) = B(A · C) - C(A · B)
In this formula, "·" represents the dot product, "x" represents the cross product,
and A, B, and C are vectors.
Dot Product:
The dot product, also known as the scalar product or inner product, is a
mathematical operation that takes two vectors as inputs and produces a scalar (a

|Page5
single number) as the result. It is denoted by a dot (·) or by placing the vectors
side by side without any operator.
The dot product can be calculated using the formula:
A · B = |A| |B| cos(θ)
where A and B are the vectors, |A| and |B| are their magnitudes, θ is the angle
between the vectors, and the result is a scalar value.
In this formula, the dot product is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the
vectors, multiplied by the cosine of the angle between them.
Geometrically, this formula can be understood as the projection of one vector
onto another, multiplied by the magnitude of the other vector. It measures the
component of one vector that is parallel to the other vector.
The dot product has important applications in various areas, including physics,
geometry, and engineering. Some of its uses include:
• Determining the angle between vectors: By rearranging the formula, you
can solve for the angle θ. This allows you to find the angle between two
vectors based on their dot product and magnitudes.

• Testing for parallel or perpendicular vectors: If the dot product of two

vectors is zero, it means the vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each
other. If the dot product is positive, it indicates that the vectors are pointing
in the same general direction, and if it is negative, they are pointing in
opposite directions.

• Calculating work and energy: In physics, the dot product is used to calculate
the work done by a force on an object. It is also used to determine the
energy transferred between two systems.

• Finding projections and component analysis: The dot product allows you to
find the projection of one vector onto another. It helps determine how much
of one vector lies in the direction of another, or the component of one vector
parallel to another.

• Testing for collinearity: If the dot product of two vectors is equal to the
product of their magnitudes, it indicates that the vectors are collinear (lying
on the same line) or pointing in the same or opposite directions.

|Page6
Two Body Problem:
The Two-Body Problem is a fundamental concept in classical mechanics and
celestial mechanics. It refers to the mathematical problem of predicting and
understanding the motion of two celestial bodies under the influence of their
mutual gravitational attraction, while neglecting the gravitational effects of
other objects.
In this problem, the two bodies are assumed to be point masses, which means
their size and shape are not considered, and only their masses and initial
positions and velocities are considered. The motion of these bodies is governed
by Newton's laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.

The two-body problem assumes that the masses of the bodies are much larger
than any other nearby objects, so their gravitational effects dominate the system.
It also assumes that the bodies move in a vacuum without any other external
forces acting upon them.

Solving the two-body problem involves finding the mathematical equations that
describe the motion of the bodies over time. For a given set of initial conditions,
such as the masses and initial positions and velocities, these equations can be
solved to determine the trajectory of the bodies and predict their future
positions.

The two-body problem has been extensively studied and has various solutions
depending on the specific conditions. In some cases, the orbits can be simple
and predictable, such as in the case of a planet orbiting around a star. However,
in more complex scenarios, such as when the bodies have comparable masses or
when their orbits are highly eccentric, the problem becomes more challenging,
and analytical solutions may not exist. In such cases, numerical methods or
computer simulations are often used to approximate the motion of the bodies.

The two-body problem serves as a foundation for understanding more complex

systems, such as the motion of three or more bodies interacting gravitationally,
which is known as the n-body problem. It also has important applications in
celestial mechanics, space mission planning, and astrodynamics.

|Page7
• Relative Equation of Motion:
o 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 .
o 𝑹𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑚1 .
o 𝑹𝟐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑚2

o 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝒓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚2 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚1

▪ 𝒓 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏

▪ 𝒓̈ = 𝑹𝟐̈ − 𝑹𝟏̈ (1)

o 𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∶

𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
▪ 𝐹= 𝑟2
o 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∶
▪ 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎
o 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚 2
▪ ∴ 𝐹12 = 𝑚1 𝑹𝟏̈ =
𝑟2
𝐺 𝑚2
▪ 𝑠𝑜 → 𝑹𝟏̈ = 2 (2)
𝑟

𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚 2
▪ ∴ 𝐹21 = 𝑚2 𝑹𝟐̈ =
𝑟2
𝐺 𝑚1
▪ 𝑠𝑜 → 𝑹𝟐̈ = 2 (3)
𝑟

o 𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1

𝐺 𝑚1 𝐺 𝑚2 𝒓 𝐺 (𝑚1 −𝑚2 ) 𝒓
▪ 𝒓̈ = ( − )𝑟 = −
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟
o 𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
o 𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒

o 𝑆𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚2 :
𝐺 𝑚1 𝒓 𝐺 𝑚1
▪ 𝒓̈ = − = − 𝒓
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟3
o 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜇
𝜇
▪ 𝒓̈ = − 𝑟 3 𝒓 → 𝐓𝐰𝐨𝐁𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

|Page8
Specific angular momentum (h) :
The specific angular momentum (h) vector is perpendicular to both the position
vector and the velocity vector. Its magnitude represents the rate at which the
object is rotating or moving in a circular path per unit mass, while its direction
indicates the orientation of the rotation.

𝒉 = 𝒓 × 𝒗
where:
h is the specific angular momentum vector,
r is the position vector from the reference point to the object,
v is the velocity vector of the object,
× denotes the cross product.
The conservation of angular momentum still holds in the two-body problem,
and the total angular momentum of the system remains constant as long as no
external torques act on the bodies. Similarly, the specific angular momentum of
each individual body is conserved throughout their motion.
Now we want to prove that the specific angular momentum is a constant:
Let’s derive the specific angular momentum vector:

𝒉̇ = 𝒓̇ × 𝒗 + 𝒓 × 𝒗̇
We know that 𝒓̇ = 𝒗 , 𝒓̈ = 𝒗̇ = 𝒂
𝜇
So → 𝒉̇ = 𝒓̇ × 𝒗 + 𝒓 × 𝒓̈ = 𝒓̇ × 𝒗 + 𝒓 × − 𝒓
𝑟3
𝜇
∴ 𝒉̇ = 𝒓̇ × 𝒗 − ( ) 𝒓 ×𝒓
𝑟3
𝜇
∴ 𝒉̇ = 𝒓̇ × 𝒓̇ − ( ) 𝒓 ×𝒓
𝑟3

We know that 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 0 = 0 → 𝑨 × 𝑨 = ⃑0

𝑠𝑜 → 𝒓̇ × 𝒓̇ = 𝟎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 × 𝒓 = 𝟎
∴ 𝒉̇ = 𝟎
⃑ −𝟎
⃑ =𝟎
⃑
as the deive of h = 0 that is mean that h is a constant.

|Page9
specific orbital energy (𝜺 ) :
In the context of celestial mechanics, specific orbital energy refers to the total
energy per unit mass associated with the motion of a body in an orbit around a
central mass, such as a planet orbiting a star. The specific orbital energy is a
conserved quantity, meaning it remains constant throughout the orbit unless
there are external influences or energy transfers.

The specific orbital energy, denoted as 𝜺, is given by the sum of the kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit mass of the orbiting body:

𝑣2 𝐺𝑀
𝜺 = −
2 𝑟
where:

𝜺 is the specific orbital energy,

𝑣 is the velocity of the orbiting body,
𝐺 is the gravitational constant,
𝑀 is the mass of the central body,
𝑟 is the distance between the orbiting body and the central body.
The first term on the right-hand side represents the kinetic energy per unit mass,
which is proportional to the square of the velocity of the orbiting body. The
second term represents the potential energy per unit mass, which is inversely
proportional to the distance between the bodies.

Since the specific orbital energy is a constant, it means that the sum of the
kinetic and potential energy remains the same throughout the orbit. This
conservation principle is a consequence of the conservation of mechanical
energy, which holds as long as no external forces or energy transfers (such as
atmospheric drag) are present.

The conservation of specific orbital energy has important implications. For

example, it helps in understanding the behavior of orbits, predicting the speeds
of satellites, and calculating orbital transfers. It allows us to determine the
relationship between the distance and velocity of an orbiting body and provides
insights into the stability and characteristics of orbital motion.
| P a g e 10
Now we want to prove the conservation of specific orbital energy:
We will start from the two body problem equation:
𝜇
𝒓̈ = − 𝒓
𝑟3
By doing a dot product multiply to both sides with 𝒓̇
𝜇
𝒓̈ . 𝒓̇ = − 𝒓 . 𝒓̇
𝑟3
Now we will consider to the left hand side:
𝑑
First if we have to derive 𝒓̇ . 𝒓̇ → 𝒓̇ . 𝒓̇ = 𝒓̇ . 𝒓̈ + 𝒓̇ . 𝒓̈ = 2 𝒓̇ 𝒓̈
𝑑𝑡
𝟏 𝒅
S0→ 𝒓̈ . 𝒓̇ = 𝒓̇ . 𝒓̇
𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅
∴ 𝒓̈ . 𝒓̇ = 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒓̇ 𝟐 = 𝒗 𝟐
(1)
𝟐 𝒅𝒕
……………………………………………….
𝑎𝑠 𝒓 . 𝒓 = 𝑟2
If we take a derive to both sides:
𝑑 𝑑
(𝒓 . 𝒓) = 𝑟2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝒓 . 𝒓̇ + 𝒓̇ . 𝒓 = 2𝑟𝒓̇ → 2𝒓̇ . 𝒓 = 2𝑟𝒓̇ → 𝒓̇ . 𝒓 = 𝑟𝒓̇ (2)

……………………………………………….
1 𝑑 1 1
Now we need to take derive of → = − 𝒓̇ (3)
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟2
……………………………………………….
Now we will consider to the Right hand side:
From equation (2) and (3)
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝑑 𝜇
− 𝑟 3 𝒓 . 𝒓̇ = − 𝑟 3 𝑟𝒓̇ = − 𝒓̇ = (4)
𝑟2 𝑑𝑡 𝑟

| P a g e 11
From equation (1) and (4):
1 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝜇
𝑣 =
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑 𝑣2 𝜇
𝑑𝑡
(2 − 𝑟 ) = 0
𝑣2 𝜇
as 𝜇 = 𝐺𝑀 → −𝑟= 𝜺
2

so the derive of 𝜺 is equal zero and that is mean that the 𝜺 is constant.

| P a g e 12
Eccentricity Vector (e) :
The eccentricity vector, also known as the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, is a
vector quantity that characterizes the shape and orientation of an elliptical orbit
in celestial mechanics. It provides information about the eccentricity and
direction of the orbit.
The eccentricity vector is defined as follows:
𝒗 ×𝒉 𝒓
𝒆 = −
𝜇 |𝒓|
where e is the eccentricity vector, 𝒗 is the velocity vector of the orbiting object,
h is the specific angular momentum vector (cross product of the position vector
r and the velocity vector v), r is the position vector of the object with respect to
the central body, and 𝜇 is the gravitational parameter of the central body (G
times the mass of the central body).
The eccentricity vector points towards the periapsis (the closest point to the
central body in the orbit) and its magnitude represents the eccentricity of the
orbit. The eccentricity of an orbit determines its shape, with values ranging from
0 (for a circular orbit) to 1 (for a parabolic orbit) or greater (for a hyperbolic
orbit).
The direction of the eccentricity vector provides information about the
orientation of the orbit in space. Specifically, the vector points along the major
axis of the elliptical orbit, from the periapsis towards the apoapsis (the farthest
point from the central body in the orbit).

The eccentricity vector is a conserved quantity for two-body systems under the
influence of a central force, such as gravity. This means that its magnitude and
direction remain constant throughout the orbit, regardless of the object's
position in the orbit.

The eccentricity vector is a useful tool in celestial mechanics for analyzing and
characterizing orbits, predicting orbital properties, and understanding the
dynamics of orbital motion. It helps describe the shape, orientation, and energy
of an orbiting object.
We Need to Prove that eccentricity vector is constant:

| P a g e 13
First we need to do cross product to angular momentum vector with velocity
vector: 𝒉 × 𝒗
Now we well take a derivative of this cross product:
𝑑
𝒉 × 𝒗 = 𝒉 × 𝒗̇ + 𝒉̇ × 𝒗
𝑑𝑡
We know that 𝒉̇ is equal to ⃑𝟎
𝑑
so → 𝒉 × 𝒗 = 𝒉 × 𝒗̇
𝑑𝑡
we know that 𝒉=𝒓 ×𝒗
𝑑
so → 𝒉 × 𝒗 = 𝒗̇ × (𝒓 × 𝒗)
𝑑𝑡
The rule of triple cross product is a mathematical property that relates three
vectors in a cross product operation. It states that the triple cross product of
three vectors A, B, and C can be expressed as follows:
A x (B x C) = B(A · C) - C(A · B)
In this formula, "·" represents the dot product, "x" represents the cross product,
and A, B, and C are vectors.
𝑑
So → 𝒉 × 𝒗 = ( 𝒗̇ . 𝒗 )𝒓 − (𝒗̇ . 𝒓)𝒗
𝑑𝑡

we know 𝒗̇ = 𝒓̈
𝑑 𝜇 𝜇
So → 𝒉 × 𝒗 = (− 𝑟 3 𝒓. 𝒗 ) 𝒓 − (− 𝑟 3 𝒓 . 𝒓) 𝒗
𝑑𝑡

𝒓 . 𝒓 = 𝑟2
𝑑 𝜇 𝜇
∴ 𝑑𝑡 𝒉 × 𝒗 = (− 𝑟 3 𝒓. 𝒗 ) 𝒓 − (− 𝑟 ) 𝒗

By taking the 𝜇 as a common factor:

𝑑 𝒓.𝒗 𝒗
∴ 𝑑𝑡 𝒉 × 𝒗 = 𝜇 ( 𝒓−𝑟) (1)
𝑟3

| P a g e 14
Now we need to take derivative to the r unit vector:
𝑑 𝒓 𝑑 𝒓̇ 𝒓 𝒗 𝒓.𝒗
= ( 𝒓 𝑟 −1 ) = − 2 𝒓̇ = − 𝒓 (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟3
Now you should observe that equation number (2) is similar to equation number
(1) but without 𝜇 ,so we can multiply equation number (2) with 𝜇 , then we
can equal it to equation number (1):
𝑑 𝑑𝒓
∴ 𝒉 ×𝒗=𝜇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
1 𝑑 𝑑𝒓 𝑑 𝒉 ×𝒗 𝒓
∴ 𝒉 ×𝒗= → ( − ) = ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝟎
𝜇 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜇 𝑟
𝒗 ×𝒉 𝒓
As 𝒆 = 𝜇
− |𝒓|

𝑑
∴ ⃑⃑⃑
𝒆= 𝟎
𝑑𝑡
And that is mean that e vector is constant in the direction of perigee point

| P a g e 15
Orbit Equation:
The orbit equation of motion describes the motion of an object in orbit around
another object under the influence of gravitational forces. It is derived from the
.laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation

The orbit equation of motion is commonly expressed in polar coordinates,

where the distance between the two objects is represented by the radial distance
(r) and the angle from a reference direction is represented by the polar angle (θ).
:The equation takes the following form

ℎ2 1
𝑟 =
𝜇 1 + 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
In this Equation:

r is the radial distance from the center of the central object to the orbiting object
.at a given angle θ
h is the specific angular momentum of the orbiting object, which is equal to the
.cross product of the position vector and the velocity vector
μ is the standard gravitational parameter, which is the product of the
.gravitational constant (G) and the mass (M) of the central object. μ = G * M
e is the eccentricity of the orbit, which represents how elongated the orbit is. It
.ranges from 0 (for a circular orbit) to less than 1 (for an elliptical orbit)
.θ_0 is the angle at which the orbiting object is located at a reference time
The orbit equation of motion allows us to determine the position of the orbiting
object at any given angle θ. By knowing the specific parameters of the orbit,
such as the specific angular momentum and the eccentricity, we can calculate
.the radial distance (r) at various points along the orbit

It's important to note that the above equation assumes a two-body problem,
where the mass of the orbiting object is much smaller compared to the mass of
the central object. In more complex scenarios involving multiple objects or

| P a g e 16
significant mass differences, additional terms and calculations may be required
to accurately describe the motion of the objects in orbit.
Let’s Define How we get this Equation:
We will start from equation of Eccentricity Vector e:
𝒉 ×𝒗 𝒓
𝒆= −
𝜇 𝑟
Now we will Multiply both sides with r
𝒉 ×𝒗
𝒓. 𝒆 = ( − 𝒓/𝑟 ). 𝒓
𝜇

(𝒓 × 𝒗 ) × 𝒉 𝒓 × 𝒓
∴ 𝒓. 𝒆 = −
𝜇 𝑟
As 𝒉 = 𝒓 × 𝒗
2
𝒉 . 𝒉 𝑟2 ℎ
∴ 𝒓. 𝒆 = − = −𝑟
𝜇 𝑟 𝜇
We know that: A · B = |A| |B| cos(θ)
∴ 𝒓. 𝒆 = 𝑟 𝑒 cos 𝜃
ℎ2
∴ 𝑟 𝑒 cos 𝜃 = −𝑟
𝜇
ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑟 𝑒 cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 = → 𝑟( 1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃 ) =
𝜇 𝜇

2
ℎ 1
∴ 𝑟 =𝜇
1 + 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)

| P a g e 17
Conic Section:
A conic section, also known as a conic, is a geometric curve that can be
obtained by intersecting a cone with a plane. The type of conic section formed
depends on the angle and position of the plane relative to the cone. There are
.four types of conic sections: the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola

Circle: When the plane intersects the cone such that it is perpendicular to the
axis of the cone, a circle is formed. A circle is a closed curve in which all points
.on the curve are equidistant from the center point

Ellipse: When the plane intersects the cone at an angle that is not perpendicular
to the axis but not too steep, an ellipse is formed. An ellipse is a closed curve in
which the sum of the distances from any point on the curve to two fixed points
.(called the foci) is constant

Parabola: When the plane intersects the cone at a steep angle, a parabola is
formed. A parabola is an open curve with a focus and a directrix. The shape of a
parabola is such that all points on the curve are equidistant to the focus and the
.perpendicular distance to the directrix is constant

Hyperbola: When the plane intersects the cone at an angle steeper than that of a
parabola, a hyperbola is formed. A hyperbola is an open curve with two
branches. The shape of a hyperbola is such that the absolute difference between
the distances from any point on the curve to two fixed points (the foci) is
.constant

Conic sections have applications in various fields, including mathematics,

physics, engineering, and astronomy. They are used to describe the trajectories
of celestial bodies in space, the shapes of lenses and mirrors, and the paths of
.projectiles, among other things.

| P a g e 18
Circular Orbit:
A circular orbit is a specific type of orbit where an object, such as a satellite or a
planet, moves around another object in a perfectly circular path. In a circular
orbit, the distance between the orbiting object and the central object remains
.constant throughout the orbit

Here are some key characteristics of a circular orbit:

• Constant distance: In a circular orbit, the distance between the orbiting

object and the central object remains fixed throughout the orbit. This means
that the orbiting object maintains a constant radius from the center of the
object it is orbiting.

• .Constant speed: The object in a circular orbit moves at a constant speed

throughout the orbit. This speed is determined by the gravitational force
between the two objects and is balanced by the centrifugal force experienced
by the orbiting object.

• .Balanced forces: In a circular orbit, the gravitational force between the two
objects provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the orbiting object
moving in a circular path. The centripetal force acts toward the center of the
orbit and is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the centrifugal
force experienced by the orbiting object.

• .Orbital period: The time taken for the orbiting object to complete one full
revolution around the central object is known as its orbital period. In a
circular orbit, the orbital period remains constant.

Circular orbits are commonly observed in various celestial bodies.

| P a g e 19
Elliptical Orbit:
elliptical orbit, is a type of orbit in which an object, such as a satellite or a
planet, follows an elongated, oval-shaped path around another object. Unlike a
circular orbit, the distance between the orbiting object and the central object
varies throughout the orbit.
Here are some key characteristics of an elliptic orbit:

• Varying distance: In an elliptic orbit, the distance between the orbiting

object and the central object changes as the object moves along its path.
At certain points, called the apogee or apoapsis, the object is farthest from
the central object. At other points, called the perigee or periapsis, the
object is closest to the central object.

• Varying speed: Due to the varying distance between the orbiting object
and the central object, the speed of the orbiting object also changes along
its path. When the object is closer to the central object, it moves faster,
and when it is farther away, it moves slower. This variation in speed is
governed by Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

| P a g e 20
 • Unbalanced forces: In an elliptic orbit, the gravitational force between
the two objects provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the object
in orbit, just like in a circular orbit. However, because the distance varies,
the gravitational force and the centripetal force are not always equal. This
results in an unbalanced force that causes the object to accelerate or
decelerate as it moves along its elliptical path.

• Orbital period: The time taken for the orbiting object to complete one
full revolution around the central object is still known as its orbital
period. In an elliptic orbit, the orbital period is not constant since the
speed of the object changes at different points along its path. The object
spends more time in the region of its path where it is farther from the
central object, and less time in the region where it is closer.

Elliptical orbits can be found in various celestial bodies, including the orbits of
planets around the Sun. The eccentricity of the orbit determines how elongated
the ellipse is, with eccentricity values ranging from 0 (for a circular orbit) to
less than 1 (for an elongated elliptical orbit).

Understanding the characteristics of elliptical orbits is crucial in space

exploration, satellite positioning, and astronomical calculations.

| P a g e 21
Parabolic Trajectory:
A parabolic trajectory is a specific type of projectile motion where an object
follows a curved path called a parabola. It occurs when the object is launched
with a specific initial velocity and angle such that it experiences no additional
.forces (like air resistance) and moves under the influence of only gravity
Here are some key characteristics of a parabolic trajectory:

• Symmetry: The trajectory of the object forms a symmetric curve known

as a parabola. The shape of the parabola is such that the object reaches its
maximum height at the midpoint of its horizontal range.

• Single launch angle: There is a specific launch angle at which the object
is launched to achieve a parabolic trajectory. This launch angle is
typically between 0 and 90 degrees, where 0 degrees represents a
horizontal launch and 90 degrees represents a vertical launch.

• Constant acceleration: In a parabolic trajectory, the only force acting on

the object is gravity, which causes a constant acceleration downward. The
object accelerates vertically downward at a constant rate of
approximately 9.8 m/s^2 (assuming no air resistance).

• Maximum height and range: The object reaches its maximum height at
the vertex of the parabolic trajectory. The horizontal distance covered by
the object is called the range, and it is the farthest point reached
horizontally during its flight.

• Symmetric time of flight: The time it takes for the object to reach its
maximum height and return to the same vertical level is the same as the
time it takes to descend from the maximum height to the ground. The
total time of flight for a parabolic trajectory is determined by the initial
velocity and launch angle.

| P a g e 22
Parabolic trajectories are commonly observed in various scenarios, such as the
motion of projectiles launched at an angle, including baseballs, cannonballs, and
projectiles in sports like javelin throw and discus throw.

It is important to note that in reality, air resistance and other factors can affect
the trajectory of an object, and it may deviate from a perfect parabola. However,
under ideal conditions with negligible external forces, a parabolic trajectory is
an accurate description of the motion of a projectile.

Hyperbolic Trajectory
A hyperbolic trajectory is a specific type of trajectory followed by an object
when its initial velocity exceeds a certain threshold in relation to the
gravitational pull of a central body. It is characterized by a curve called a
hyperbola, which represents the path of the object as it moves through space.
Here are some key characteristics of a hyperbolic trajectory:

• Open curve: The trajectory forms an open curve known as hyperbola.

Unlike a closed curve (like a circle or an ellipse), a hyperbola has two
separate branches that extend indefinitely.

• Escape trajectory: A hyperbolic trajectory indicates that the object has

enough velocity to escape the gravitational pull of the central body. This
means that the object will not return to the central body but will continue
its path into space.

| P a g e 23
 • Asymptotic approach: The two branches of the hyperbola approach two
asymptotic lines, which are imaginary lines that the object gets closer to
but never reaches. These asymptotes represent the limiting paths that the
object would follow if the central body's gravitational influence were
negligible.

• Constant energy: In a hyperbolic trajectory, the object's total energy

remains constant. The object's kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy change as it moves along the trajectory, but the sum of these
energies remains constant throughout.

• High eccentricity: The eccentricity of a hyperbolic trajectory is greater

than 1. Eccentricity is a measure of how elongated the path is compared
to a circle. A hyperbolic trajectory has a significantly elongated shape,
with the distance between the object and the central body increasing as
the object moves away.

Hyperbolic trajectories are commonly observed in scenarios involving space

missions and interplanetary travel. For example, spacecraft can be launched on
hyperbolic trajectories to perform flybys of planets or to achieve escape
velocities from a planet or moon's gravitational field.

It's important to note that in reality, the influence of other celestial bodies, such
as planets and moons, can affect the trajectory of an object and cause deviations
from a perfect hyperbolic path. Additionally, factors like atmospheric drag and
propulsion maneuvers can also impact the trajectory. Nonetheless, under ideal
conditions and in the absence of significant external forces, a hyperbolic
trajectory accurately describes the motion of an object with sufficient velocity
to escape a central body's gravitational field.

| P a g e 24
References:
Curtis, H. D. (2013). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students.
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Prussing, J. E., & Conway, B. A. (1993). Orbital Mechanics. Oxford
University Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications.
Microcosm Press.
Bate, R. R., Mueller, D. D., & White, J. E. (1971). Fundamentals of
Astrodynamics. Dover Publications.
Battin, R. H. (1999). An Introduction to the Mathematics and Methods of
Astrodynamics. AIAA Education Series.

Conclusion and Final Remarks:

This report introduced the mechanics of orbit, covering various important
concepts. We began by discussing the role of vectors in describing the motion
of celestial bodies, emphasizing their magnitude and direction.
Next, we explored the two-body problem, which is fundamental to
understanding the dynamics of orbits. This problem involves studying the
motion of two objects under their mutual gravitational attraction and serves as
the foundation for analyzing orbital mechanics.
Specific angular momentum and specific orbital energy were introduced as
crucial parameters in characterizing orbits. Specific angular momentum

| P a g e 25
 describes the rotational characteristics of an object's motion, while specific
orbital energy quantifies the total energy of the orbiting body.
We then delved into the concept of eccentricity vector, which plays a key role
in determining the shape of an orbit. The eccentricity vector provides insight
into the elongation and orientation of elliptical orbits, distinguishing them from
circular, parabolic, and hyperbolic trajectories.
The orbit equation was explained, demonstrating its significance in calculating
the position of an object along its path. This equation combines the knowledge
of specific orbital energy, specific angular momentum, and eccentricity vector
to describe the geometry of the orbit.

Lastly, we explored circular, elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic trajectories,

each with their unique characteristics. These trajectories offer insights into the
behavior of celestial bodies in various scenarios, such as the circular orbits of
planets, the elliptical paths of satellites, and the escape trajectories of space
missions.
In conclusion, it is my hope that this report has provided valuable insights into
the mechanics of orbits and that readers will find it beneficial for their
understanding of celestial motion. The knowledge gained from studying orbital
mechanics is instrumental in diverse fields, including space exploration, satellite
operations, and astronomical research. By comprehending these concepts, we
can unravel the mysteries of the universe and advance our exploration of the
cosmos.

[email protected]
Mohammed Ezzelrgal

| P a g e 26

View publication stats