Rational mechanics

1: Mathematical tools
Vector calculus
Torsors
Moment of a force relative to a point
Moment of a force relative to an axis

2: Statics
Fundamental concepts of statics
Connections and their reactions
Equilibrium of a system of concurrent forces
Plane system of forces
Equilibrium of solid bodies in space
Analytical and graphical equilibrium of solid bodies
3: Kinematic of a solid
Positioning of a solid (absolute, relative and entrainment
speeds)
Euler angles
Field of speeds and accelerations of a solid
Movement of a solid with a fixed point
Kinematics of solids in contact
 Introduction
Rational mechanics is a science that studies the motion of matter in its
simplest form, a science that deals with the general laws governing
mechanical motion and the state of equilibrium of bodies and parts of bodies.
The study of the state of rest or motion of bodies under the action of the forces
to which they are subjected.
The course in rational mechanics is divided into three main parts: statics,
cinematics and dynamics.

Statics: is the part of mechanics that studies the conditions of equilibrium,

therefore the conditions of equilibrium of the body to which they are
applied and the means of reducing a system of forces to an elementary
form.
Kinematics: studies the dependencies solely between the geometric elements
of movement and time, without taking into account the forces acting on the
moving bodies.
Dynamics: studies the movement of a material body under the action of the
forces applied to it.
The fundamental laws of mechanics
The first fundamental law of mechanics (Fundamental Principle of Inertia):
any body at rest or in uniform motion, in a straight line, remains in the state
of rest or motion in which it is, unless a force causes it to change that state.

The second fundamental law of mechanics (Principle of the independent

action of each force): The acceleration of a given material point is
proportional to the force applied to it and is directed along the straight line
along which the force acts.

The third fundamental law of mechanics (the principle of action and reaction):
for every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction, or the mutual
actions of any two bodies are always equal and in opposite directions.
Limits of classical mechanics

- Mechanics as we have defined it cannot explain or predict the movements

of very small material systems (typically the constituent elements of matter,
or even certain fine particles (order of magnitude: one mm).

- Similarly, the movements of galaxies are not perfectly taken into account by
classical mechanics.

- If the speed of a system is close to the speed of light, classical mechanics no

longer applies.

- Not all interactions between systems are taken into account, even though
some of them can be significant (temperature variations, material fatigue, ....).
Chapter 1 mathematical tools

I. Introduction

This chapter will introduce us to the main mathematical tools we will be

using to study the following chapters. In this chapter we will study the
mathematical operations on vectors, which are very important tools in
rational mechanics, as well as the calculation of torsors and moments.
II. Vectors
A vector is a line segment OA on which we have chosen an
origin O and an endpoint A; it is defined by:

a) The support is the line that

carries the vector; it is
defined by the angle
measured between a
reference axis and the
support.
b) The direction represents
orientation of the origin and
endpoint of the vector and is
symbolized by an arrow.

c) The intensity, norm, or module,

represents the value of the quantity
measured by the vector.
Notation: V, or |V|.

d) The point of application is the point

that serves as the origin for a
representation of the vector.
Types of vectors
A- free vector
A free vector can move freely in space. For example, if a body is not rotating,
the movement of any point on the body can be associated with a vector, and
this vector perfectly describes the displacement of each point on the body.

A free vector is defined by its support, its direction, and its value, with its
point of application (origin) being arbitrary in space.
One can replace a free vector with any equivalent vector anywhere in space.

Example: the vector of gravitational acceleration g is a free vector.

B- Sliding vector
A sliding vector acts along a precise line in space. An external force acting on a
rigid body can be applied at any point along its line of action without changing
its effect on the entire body

A sliding vector is defined by its line of action (support), its direction and value,
and its point of application, which can be any point on the line of action.

A siding vector can be moved along its line of action

Example: a force applied to a rigid solid can slide along its line of action without
altering the effect it produces.
C- Linked vector
A linked vector acts at a specific point of application and therefore has a fixed
position in space. The action of a force acting on a deformable body must be
represented by a vector linked to the point of application of that force.

A linked vector is defined by its line of action, its direction, its value, and its
point of application.
A linked vector cannot be replaced by another vector.

Example: The weight of a body P is a linked vector.It is a vector that has a

well-defined point of application, which is the center of gravity of the
body.
II.1 component of a vector

let's consider a basis of the space d noted as:

The base is orthonormal if:

The basis is said to be direct if an observer positioned at the end of the

vector sees the vector turning towards the vector , in this basis
in a counterclockwise direction. A vector with components (x, y, z)
would be written as:
II.2 Law of internal composition:
• Vector sum

The sum of two vectors and is a vector such us:

We have
Analytical addition of vectors

Let two vectors and be defined in (x, y, z):

• Subtraction

The difference between vectors and can be reduced to an addition by

adding the opposite vector _ .

 Properties of the vector sum
• The vector sum is commutative:

• The neutral element is defined by:

• To every vector corresponds an opposite vector denoted such us:

• Multiplication by a scalar

If is a real number and is a vector, their product is a vector

• The vector is collinear with vector

• If the vector

The vector would be written as:

Properties
• distribution in relation to the addition of scalars.

• distribution in relation to the vector sum

• Associativity for multiplication by a scalar

 Projection of vectors
The orthogonal projection of vector A onto axis defines the componet of
this vector along that axis. We also use the designation projected vector.
The orthogonal projection of vector A onto the orthogonal axes (x, y, z)
defined by their unit vectors (i, j, k) is given by:
 II.3 Scalar product of two vectors
The scalar product of two vectors 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 is an external composition law that associates
a scalar (real number) to the two vectors, denoted as:
such as:

;where the angle is in degrees

The result of a scalar product is a scalar.

The scalar product is zero if:

• The two vectors are orthogonal.
• One of the vectors is zero.
Properties of the scalar product

a) Linearity:

b) Symmetry with respect to vectors:

The scalar product is a linear symmetric form associated with the

vectors and .
Analytical expression of the scalar product

Let's consider a basis b of the space denoted by .

this basis is orthonormal if:

The base b is said to be direct if an observer positioned at the end of the

vector e3 sees the vector e1 rotate towards the vector e2 in a
counterclockwise direction.
Let and be two vectors; their expressions in this basis are

The scalar product of the two vectors is given by:

Norm or modulus of a vector:

The norm or module of a vector , denoted as , is the positive
square root of the inner product of the vector with itself.
Orthogonal vectors:
Two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their scalar product is zero:

If three non-zero vectors are pairwise orthogonal, then they are linearly
independent and form an orthogonal basis in ..

Orthonormal basis
A basis is said to be orthonormal if the vectors that constitute it are
mutually perpendicular and if their norms are equal to 1.
If is orthonormal, then we have:
II.4 Vector product of two vectors:

The vector product of two vectors and in space is a vector

perpendicular to and , defined by:

where : is a unit vector perpendicular to and

The vector product is zero if:

• The two vectors are collinear.

• One of the vectors is zero.
The properties of the vector product:
a) the module of the vector product is equal to the area of the parallelogram
formed by and
b) The vector product is distibutive on the left and on the right for the
vector sum:

c) The vector product is associative for multiplication by an even

number:

d) The vector product is antisymmetric (anticommutative)

The vector product of unit vectors in an orthonormal basis

If is orthonormal, we have:

direct direction:

opposite direction :
Analytical expression of the vector product in a direct orthonormal basis:

The vector product of two vectors and with respective components in a

direct orthonormal basis R:
 Mixed product
The mixed product of three vectors taken in that order is defined as
the real number:
The mixed product is therefore a scalar equal to the volume of the
parallelepiped formed by the three vectors.

The mixed product is zero, if:

• The three vectors lie in the same plane

• two of the vectors are collinear
• One of the vectors is zero
Rule of sines in a triangle:
Given any triangle ABC, we can establish a relationship between the three
sides and the three angles of the triangle.
In triangles ABD and CBD, we have:

In the triangles AEC and BEC,

we have:
III. Moments and torsors:
III.1 Moments
A moment is a physical vector quantity that expresses the ability of this
force to turn a mechanical system.
The direction of the moment is determined in accordance with the
trigonometric direction (also known as the geometric direction):

Moment of a vector with respect to a point:

The moment of a vector of origin B (sliding or

linked) with respect to a point A is equal to the vector
product of the position vector and the vector

It is written as:
Moment of a vector about an axis

The moment of a vector about an axis defined by a point A and a

unit vector , is equal to the projection of the moment onto the axis

The moment with respect to the axis

is independent of point A
III.2 Torsors
The torsor represents the mathematical model of the motion of a solid body.
A torsor [T] is a vector field defined as a set of two vector fields (force
and moment). At each point A.
A resultant R of the torsor [T] independent of point A.

A moment MA at point A of the torsor [T] which depends on point A.

The torsor associated with the vector field is:

Changing the reduction point of a torsor
Let be the torsor defined by these reduction elements at point A. The
reduction elements of this torsor at a point O in space are given by:

• General result: it is unchanged because it is invariant.

• The resultant moment at a point A in space is given by:

Torsor operations:
• Addition of torsors

• Product of a scalar

• Product of two torsors

Vector invariant of a torsor
The resultant is a free vector, independent of the centre of reduction of the
torsor, and is the vector invariant of the torsor.
• Scalar invariant of a torsor or automoment
the scalar invariant of a given torsor is by definition the scalar product of the
elements of reductions at any point of this torsor.

• Central axis of a torsor

Consider a given torsor with a non-zero resultant. The central axis is defined
by the set of points P in space such that the moment of the torsor at this
point is parallel to the resultant.
• The central axis of a torsor is parallel to the line carrying the resultant
of the torsor;
• This central axis exists and is unique for all torsors, except for:
the null torsor the torque torsor
• Quelque soit P appartenant à l’axe central le moment en ce point est
minimum.
Central axis vector equation:
Let O be the origin of the coordinates in an orthonormal reference frame
and the central axis of a torsor [T]. We have:

And:

Using the double vector product property, we arrive at:

The first term in this equation is independent of the point P. It can be
written as a vector and the second term depends on the

point P because it is a vector parallel to

We pose hence

The central axis of the torsor [ T ] passes through the point P0

defined from O by the equation:
and parallel to
So it is parallel to the unit vector :
Torsor step
We have:

is called the «torsor step »and is only defined if:

The scalar product of this expression and the vector invariant gives:

Hence:
Elementary torsors
Elementary torsors are torsors whose scalar invariant is zero, and there are two
types:
• The torque torsor
• The sliding torsor

 If the scalar invariant is not zero, the torsor is said to be arbitrary.

Sliding torsor
A torsor is a slider if and only if there is a point where its moment is zero and
its resultant is non-zero.
Its scalar invariant is zero
[T] is a slider if:
torque torsor
A torsor is a torque torsor if its resultant is zero. knowing that is
invariant, so for a torque torsor the moment is invariant and does not
depend on the observation point.

[T] is a torque torsor if:

ENP Constantine Rational mechanics

TT1 : Mathematical tools

Exercise1 :
Two points A and B have the following coordinates in space: A(2.3.-3), B(5.7.2)

Determine the components of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 as well as its modulus, support and direction.

Exercise2 :
The result of two forces 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 is equal to 50N and makes an angle of 30° with the force
𝐹1 =15N. Find the modulus of force 𝐹2 and the angle between the two forces.

Exercise3 :
⃗ and 𝑈
⃗ 1 = 𝐴1 𝑖 + 𝐴2 𝑗 + 𝐴3 𝑘
Consider the following two vectors: 𝑈 ⃗
⃗ 2 = 𝐵1 𝑖 + 𝐵2 𝑗 + 𝐵3 𝑘

1) Calculate the scalar products: ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑈1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑈2 ; ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑈1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑈1 ; ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑈2 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑈2

We give : 𝑉 ⃗ , 𝑉
⃗ 1 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 5𝑘 ⃗
⃗ 2 = −3𝑖 + 1.5 𝑗 − 7.5 𝑘 ⃗
⃗ 3 = −5𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 𝑘
, 𝑉

2) Calculate: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 ᴧ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉2

3) Without graphing, what can be said about the direction and the support of the vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉2
in relation to ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 .

𝑉1 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4) Calculate the following products: ⃗⃗⃗ (𝑉2 ᴧ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉3 ) and ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ᴧ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 ᴧ(𝑉 𝑉3 )
⃗ 2 and ⃗⃗⃗
5) Determine the area of the triangle formed by the vectors 𝑉 𝑉3

Exercise4 :
Let be the vectors:
⃗ ,
⃗ = 2𝑖 + 6𝑘
𝑈 ⃗ , 𝑃⃗ = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 2𝑘
⃗ = 8𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝑉 ⃗ , 𝑄 ⃗
⃗ = −2𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 12𝑘

⃗ and 𝑉
1) Determine y and z so that the vectors 𝑈 ⃗ are collinear;

⃗ are perpendicular.
2) Determine the value of y so that vectors 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄

Exercise5 :
⃗ such that:
⃗ , 𝑃⃗ , 𝑄
Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose sides are the vectors: 𝑈
⃗ ,
⃗ = 2𝑖 + 6𝑗 , 𝑃⃗ = 3𝑗 + 5𝑘
𝑈 𝑄 ⃗
⃗ = 𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘

1
ENP Constantine Rational mechanics

Exercise6 :
⃗ ) is given
The trajectory of a moving body in a direct orthonormal reference frame 𝑅(0, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘
by the following parametric equations:
𝑡3
𝑥 = 4𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 4(𝑡 − 3 ) , 𝑧 = 3𝑡 + 𝑡 3

⃗ makes a constant angle with the oz axis. What is the value of

Show that the speed vector 𝑉
this angle

Exercise7 :
The following points are given in a direct orthonormal reference frame: A(2,1,0); B(1,3,0);
C(1,1,4).
1) Calculate the area of triangle ABC, the volume of tetrahedron OABC and the distance OH
from O to plane ABC.
2) Give the expression for the unit vector perpendicular to plane ABC

Exercise8 :
⃗ ), two points A and B have the following
In an orthonormal reference frame 𝑅(0, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘
coordinates: A(2,2,-3) and B(5,3,2); Determine:

1) The moment of the sliding vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 with respect to the centre O of the reference frame;

2) The moment of the sliding vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 with respect to the line (∆)) passing through point
O and point C(2,2,1).

Exercise9 :
Let be the three vectors 𝑉 ⃗ , 𝑉
⃗ 1 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 ⃗
⃗2 = 𝑗 + 2 𝑘 ⃗3 = 𝑖 − 𝑗
, 𝑉
⃗ ) and linked respectively to the points
defined in an orthonormal reference frame 𝑅(0, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘
A(0,1,2), B(1,0,2), C(1,2,0)

2
ENP Constantine Rational mechanics

⃗1 , 𝑉
1) Construct the torsor [𝑇]0 associated with the system of vectors 𝑉 ⃗ 2, 𝑉
⃗3 ;

2) Deduce the automoment;

3) Calculate the step of the torsor;
4) Determine the central axis of the torsor.

Exercise10 :
Let two torsors [𝑇1 ]𝐴 and [𝑇2 ]𝐴 be defined at the same point A by their reduction elements
in an orthonormal reference frame 𝑅(0, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘⃗):

1) Determine the central axis and the step of the [𝑇1 ]𝐴 torsor;
2) Determine the automoment of the [𝑇1 ]𝐴 torsor and show that it is independent of the
point A;
3) Construct the torsor [𝑇]𝐴 = 𝑎[𝑇1 ]𝐴 + 𝑏 [𝑇2 ]𝐴 with 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼𝑅;
4) What relationship must a and b satisfy for the torsor [𝑇]𝐴 to be a torque torsor?
5) Show that the torque torsor is independent of the point at which it is measured;