Load Flow

Reference :
ETAP Training by OTI

ETAP Help User
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors. Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors as negative.
The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts
the branch impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calcul
ations. The LF reports show the branch impedance values in percent.
The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31 and the X/R = 12.14
• Given
– Load / Power consumption at all buses
– Configuration / Network Topology
– Power production for each generator
• Basic Calculation Requirements

– Power Flow for each branch
– Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
• Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
– Voltage Profile
– Power Flows
– Current Flows
– Power Factors
– Transformer LTC Settings
– Voltage Drops
– Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
– Total Generation & Power Demand
– Steady State Stability Limits
– MW & Mvar Losses
• Cable / Feeder Capacity
• Capacitor Size
• Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
• Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
• Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
• Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
• System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
• Non-Linear System
• Calculated Iteratively
– Assume the LoadVoltage (Initial Conditions)
– Calculate the Current I
– Based on the Current, Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
– Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR
– Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the results are within the specified
precision.
Load Flow Solution Methods
Problem simulations
I Y V
*
Pi jQi
Ii *
Vi
P jQ
*
Y V
V
Iterative Solution Algorithms
• The primary parameters are:
• Active power into the transmission network
• Reactive power into the transmission network
• Magnitude of bus voltage (voltage to ground)
• Angle of bus voltage referred to a common reference
Load Flow Bus Specifications
Bus Type P Q V Comments
Load Usual Load Representation

Generator or Generator or Synchronous
Synchronous when Condenser (P = 0) with var
condenser Q-<Qq<Q+ Limits
Q- = Minimum var Limit
when Q+ = Maximum var Limit
Qg< Q- V is held as long as Qg is within
or
Qg> Q+ limit.
Swing Swing bus must adjust net power
to hold voltage constant
(essential for solution).
Comparison of Load Flow Solution Techniques (1)
•.The Gauss-Seidel method is generally tolerant of power system operating conditions

involving poor voltage distribution and difficulties with generator reactive power
allocation, but does not converge well in situations where real power transfers are
close to the limits of the system.
•.The Newton-Raphson method is generally tolerant of power system situations in
which there are difficulties in transferring real power, but is likely to failure if there
are difficulties in the allocation of generator reactive power output or if the solution
has a particularly low voltage magnitude profile.
•.The Gauss-Seidel method is quite tolerant of poor starting voltage estimates but
converges slowly as the voltage estimate gets close to the true solution.
Comparison of Load Flow Solution Techniques (2)
•.The Newton-Raphson method is likely to failure if given a poor starting voltage

estimate, but is usually superior to the Gauss-Seidel method once the voltage
solution has been brought lose to the true solution.
•.The decouple Newton method will no converge when the network contains lines
with resistance close to or greater than the reactance. This is often the case in low-
voltage systems.
•.The Gauss-Seidel method will not converge if negative reactance branches are
present in the network, such as due to series capacitors or three-winding
transformer models. With modifications, the Gauss-Seidel method can be adapted to
handle negative reactance within certain constraints.
Load Flow Analysis (1)
• predefined set of criteria that the system must meet, which includes:
Voltage criteria, which are usually divided into an acceptable voltage range for
normal conditions and a wider range of acceptable voltage under outage
conditions.
Flows on lines and transformers must be within defined thermal ratings, while
the thermal criteria for lines and transformers may also have such a division
that allowing for a temporary overload capability due to the thermal time
constant of the equipment of additional forced cooling capabilities of
transformers.
Generator reactive outputs must be within the limits defined by the generator
capability curves
• To solve low-voltage problems, possible changes include:
Change in transformer tap positions
Increase in generator schedule voltage
Addition of shunt capacitors
System reconfiguration to shift load to less heavily loaded lines
Disconnection of shunt reactors
Addition of lines or transformers
• The system must be examined to check operation under
abnormal conditions (contingency analysis). These
conditions include:
Loss of a transmission line of cable
Loss of a transformer
Loss of generator
Abnormal supply conditions
Conclusion (1)
• The load flow analysis is used to design a system that has a good
voltage profile and acceptable line loadings during normal operation
and that will continue to operate acceptably when one or more lines
become inoperative due to line damage, lightning stroke, failure of
transformers, etc.
Conclusion (2)
• A study of reactive power flows on the branches can lead to reduce
line losses and improved voltage distribution. Reduction in kVA
demand due to power factor correction can lead to lower utility bills
for an industrial plant. The size and placement of power factor
correction capacitors and setting of generator scheduled voltages and
transformer tap positions can be studied with load flows.
Conclusion (3)
• Knowledge of branch flows supplies the protection engineer with
requirements for proper relay settings. The load flow studies can also
provide data for automatic load and demand control, if needed.
Conclusion (4)
• The load flow is also used to check the effects of future load
growth and the effectiveness of planned additions. These
studies are performed in the same way as studies of the
present system. The future loads are determined and
entered into the model. Base case conditions are studied
and additions made, if necessary, to get the system to meet
the performance criteria. Then outage conditions are
studied and again system changes may be required.
Thank You

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Reference :

ETAP Training by OTI

• Basic Calculation Requirements

Load Usual Load Representation

•.The Gauss-Seidel method is generally tolerant of power system operating conditions

•.The Newton-Raphson method is likely to failure if given a poor starting voltage

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