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    Efc9bb95 291e 4f2f A5fad219ab4ec

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    Ayush Tyagi
    Physio Cns pjysi h

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    Efc9bb95 291e 4f2f A5fad219ab4ec

    Uploaded by

    Ayush Tyagi
    6 views9 pages
    Physio Cns pjysi h

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    efc9bb95-291e-4f2f-a5fad219ab4ec

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    Physio Cns pjysi h

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    6 views9 pages

    Efc9bb95 291e 4f2f A5fad219ab4ec

    Uploaded by

    Ayush Tyagi
    Physio Cns pjysi h

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 9

    Chapter 2: Homeostasis

    Milieu interior

    Term coined by Claude Bernard

    Also known as internal environment of the body

    Cells are in contact with interstitial fluid which in turn is in constant


    exchange with plasma. Cells get nutrients and other requirements
    from their surrounding (i.e ECF: Interstitial fluid and plasma) and
    release the end products into it. Also to perform functions
    adequately , they need to be maintained in an appropriate
    environment of pH, temperature, electrolyte concentration etc. Hence
    the concentration of various substances in the internal environment
    of body i.e ECF needs to be maintained.

    Fundamentally milieu interior refers to the extracellular fluid

    Homeostasis

    Term coined by Walter B Cannon

    Definition:
    Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal
    environment

    What is the need for homeostasis ?

    Cells function only within a limited range of


    Temperature
    pH
    Osmolarity
    Electrolyte composition

    These variables need to be maintained in a physiological range in


    the internal environment for proper functioning of cells

    Mechanisms of homeostasis

    Various systems participate directly or indirectly in maintaining


    homeostasis.

    Systems: Groups of organs that perform related functions and


    interact to accomplish a common activity essential to survival of the
    whole body

    The integration between various organ systems is brought about by


    CONTROL SYSTEMS which are either

    1. Neural mechanisms: nerves are involved, are very fast


    2. Hormonal mechanisms: hormones are involved, slower to act ,
    especially important for regulating metabolic functions
    3. Neurohormonal mechanisms: Initial activation nerves which
    causes the release of hormones

    In order to maintain homeostasis, control system must have


    certain characteristics.

    1. They should have a sensor to detect deviations in the value of


    the variable from normal in the internal environment or detect the
    current value of the variable

    2. They should integrate this information with other relevant


    information (controller)

    3. They should make appropriate adjustments in order to restore the


    variable to its desired value (effector)

    For doing so, control systems have various components:

    5 Components of control system

    1. Sensor detects actual value of the variable, or deviations in value


    of the variable or in case of feedforward systems, sensor detects the
    disturbance which can cause change in the value of the variable

    E.g. Baroreceptors sense current value of mean blood pressure


    (Feedback systems)
    Thermoreceptors detect core body temperature (Feedback
    systems) and surface body temperature which is a surrogate of
    environmental temperature (Feedforward systems)
    2. Afferents send the information to control center

    E.g IX and X cranial nerve send the information from baroreceptors


    to control center

    3. Control center: Integrates the information

    E.g Nucleus Tractus Solitarius integrates the information coming


    from baroreceptors (current value of mean blood pressure) with
    other information, for e.g. coming from peripheral chemoreceptors
    i.e pO2. E.g If pO2 is less, and current value of BP is more than
    normal range of mean blood pressure, yet the control center will not
    reduce the BP

    4. Efferents: Send the information from control center to effectors

    E.g. If after integration, calculations in control center need to correct


    the BP, control center sends information to effectors by Sympathetic
    and parasympathetic nerves which are the efferents

    5. Effectors: Bring about change in their activity due to efferents.

    E.g. Heart and Blood


    vessels will change
    their activity in
    response to
    change in the
    sympathetic and
    parasympathetic input
    to them

    Control systems

    Control systems are of various types

    1. Feedback mechanisms

    Negative feedback mechanism

    Positive feedback mechanisms

    2. Feedforward mechanisms

    Characteristics of control systems

    Feedback systems

    The property of a control system to use its output as its input.


    Hence output is fed back as input into the system.
    Negative feedback:
    The type of feedback when a deviation in the controlled quantity
    is counterbalanced by the control system.

    E.g. If blood pressure decreases, a negative feedback control system


    will tend to increase the blood pressure and vice versa

    E.g: Decrease in BP is detected by Baroreceptors (Sensors). The


    information is conveyed by IX and X cranial nerves (afferents) to NTS
    (Control center). Control center integrates information and sends it
    to heart and vessels (effectors) which change their functionality
    (Response - CO increases and BVs constrict). This brings the BP back
    to the original level.

    Characteristics

    Most common homeostatic system


    Monitors end result of activity
    Has time lag which leads to oscillations
    Gain determines the efficiency of the system
    Can be neural, humoral or neurohumoral

    Gain of the system - defines effectiveness of control system

    Gain = correction / residual error


    Where correction = Actual change - predicted change
    And residual error is residual change with regulation

    E.g. How to calculate gain?


    Look at the table below while reading the scenario for understanding

    Suppose there is blood loss which decreases BP from 100 mmHg. If


    baroreflex was not working, the BP would have dropped to 50
    mmHg (B). But due to Baroreflex correction, BP dropped only to 80
    mmHg (C). So change without regulation (WOR) and change with
    regulation (WR) are determined.

    BP BP Change BP Residual Correction Gain


    (mm without without with change (Actual (Correctio
    Hg) regulati regulatio regulat with change - n/error)
    on n (Final ion regulation predicted
    (A) value - (Error) change)
    (B) Initial (C)
    value) (WR) =
    Actual
    (WOR) = change
    Predicted
    change

    100 50 50 - 100 80 80-100 = -20 - 30/-20 =


    = -50 (a -20 (-50) = - 1.5
    decrease +30
    of 50
    mmHg
    Positive feedback:
    The type of feedback when a deviation in the controlled quantity
    is further amplified by the control system

    In simple terms, output is in same direction of disturbance.

    E.g.
    Blood coagulation: Initiation of coagulation by activation of clotting
    factors leads to further activation of clotting factors and hence
    amplification of the original change
    Oxytocin release
    Parturition
    Action potential generation ( = Hodgkin’s cycle)
    LH surge

    Characteristics:

    Positive feedback is a vicious cycle. If it continues beyond a


    desired value, then uncontrolled activity and hence amplification
    may even lead to death.

    In physiological conditions, positive feedback stops when original


    stimulus is removed. Also, positive feedback systems generally
    work under the loop of negative feedback such that when a
    desired value of the variable is reached, it leads to switching of
    the system to negative feedback.

    Feed forward control

    Control system in which the sensors detect the disturbance


    rather than the actual value of the variable.

    Based on the amount of disturbance, they make necessary


    anticipatory corrections in the variable. For e.g. surface
    thermoreceptors detect the change in body temperature which is a
    surrogate for environment temperature. The control system then
    makes anticipatory responses so that the core body temperature is
    maintained.

    Characteristics
    • Anticipates changes in regulated variable
    Such as Internal body temperature
    • Improves speed of body’s homeostatic responses
    • Minimizes fluctuations in levels of variable being regulated
    • Always neural
    • Can learn - Adaptive control (The responses of this system can
    change over time. So this system is capable of learning)

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