African Journal of

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Volume 10 Number 2 February 2018
ISSN 2141-6672
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Editors
Pedro A. Fuertes-Olivera
Ndlovu Sabelo
University of Valladolid
Ferguson Centre for African and Asian Studies,
E.U.E. Empresariales
Open University, Milton Keynes,
Paseo del Prado de la Magdalena s/n
United Kingdom.
47005 Valladolid
Spain.
Biodun J. Ogundayo, PH.D
University of Pittsburgh at Bradford
Brenda F. McGadney, Ph.D.
300 Campus Drive
School of Social Work,
Bradford, Pa 16701
University of Windsor,
USA.
Canada.
Julius O. Adekunle
Ronen A. Cohen Ph.D.
Department of History and Anthropology
Department of Middle Eastern and
Monmouth University
Israel Studies / Political Science,
West Long Branch, NJ 07764
Ariel University Center,
USA.
Ariel, 40700,
Percyslage Chigora Israel.
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Dept of History and Development Studies
Midlands State University
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Gweru, Zimbabwe.
Editorial Board
Dr. Antonio J. Monroy Antón Dr Jephias Mapuva
Department of Business Economics African Centre for Citizenship and Democracy
Universidad Carlos III , [ACCEDE];School of Government;
Madrid, University of the Western Cape,
Spain. South Africa.

Dr. Samuel Maruta Dr Aisha Balarabe Bawa

Southern Institute of Peace-building and Development Usmanus Danfodiyo University, Sokoto,
2806 Herbert Chitepo Road, Nigeria.
Ruwa ,
Zimbabwe. Dr Wan Suhaimi Wan Abdullah
Associate Professor
Prof. Christophe D. Assogba Department of Aqidah and Islamic Thought,
Department of History and Archaeology, Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya,
University of Abomey-Calavi, Kuala Lumpur,
Benin. Malaysia.

Dr. Aju Aravind

Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Social Science,
Indian School of Mines ,
Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004,
India.
 African Journal of History and Culture

Table of Contents: Volume 10 Number 2 February 2018

ARTICLES

Global networking and the fate of family in Ethiopia 25

Belayneh Girma

Women empowerment through ‘Abegar’ in South

Wollo: A critical ethnography 34
Rukya Hassen
 Vol. 10(2), pp. 25-33, February 2018
DOI: 10.5897/AJHC2017.0378
Article Number: CD6DA7755709
ISSN 2141-6672 African Journal of History and Culture
Copyright © 2018
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJHC

Full Length Research Paper

Global networking and the fate of family in Ethiopia

Belayneh Girma
Dilla University, Ethiopia.
Received 11 May, 2017; Accepted 6 June, 2017

Globalization is largely the gift of networking. In global networking, Information Technology is the
leading actor which plays a role of catalyst. The process of globalization is intensifying as different
parts of the world are increasingly linked with one another as a result of this global networking. This
article claims that while global networking has brought the people of the world, who are spatially far
away closer, it however drew those who have been geographically nearer very far apart. Discussing
comparatively the nature of social cohesion in Ethiopia before and after an intensive application of
global networking tools in the country, an attempt has been made to coagulate the claim that global
networking is indeed disintegrating family in Ethiopia. Major assertions made in this article are
inferences from the data collected through interviews and discussions held with teachers and students
of three universities of the country i.e. Gondar, Dilla and Bahir Dar Universities. Families, online friends,
media persons are also consulted. Moreover, personal observation and other studies also make an
integral part of the study.

Key words: Globalization, social media, Ethiopian family, social cohesion, integration.

INTRODUCTION
The term Globalization and claims associated with it are intensified global integration (Suter, 2003).
argumentative since the days of its inception (Maguire, Socially, the flow of cultural practices across the globe
2002; Mark, 2000). The term is widely used to describe which is said to have resulted in the sharing of customs
the current state of affairs of worldwide relation in and practices by the people of the world is also claimed
economic, political, cultural, and technological terms to have manifested the increasing integration and
among others. The increasing flow of capital and other interconnection of human kind across the globe.
resources across national borders is taken as an Moreover, the sharing of the latest technology
illustration of global economic integration (Proedrou and development throughout the world swiftly has greatly
Frangonikolopoulos, 2010). enhanced this claim of global integration. No matter how
The growing people-to-people relation as opposed to disputable globalization might be, there is no doubt that
state-to-state relation and the rising power of transnational worldwide integration in numerous aspect of human life
corporations which appeared to be a challenge to the has promptly intensified.
sovereignty of states is argued to have shown how As a result it has come almost impossible to define
political integration has changed its traditional trend and globalization devoid of an escalating level of integration.

E-mail: [email protected].

Author agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
26 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

This swift process of worldwide integration has made other than Israel in the world as writers like Rogers
people of the world to know each other closely and (1936) and Lee (2011) confirmed.
communicate easily. It has made the significance of In addition, the distinct ceremonies and festivals are the
spatial and distance barriers nearly negligible. However, other spiritual flavors given recognition by United Nations
the other face of this integration hides an interesting Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
problem that is, disintegration. This is a complete (UNESCO). Its classical religious rituals make up some of
paradox. While globalization is said to have integrated the most praised intangible assets of the world. It is a
the world, it is also in its underground mission nation with unique history and rich culture in Africa which
disintegrating the formerly integrated one. This study is is able to manage to withstand foreign incursion on its
conducted to reveal how the seemingly hard taken claim ancient civilization (Tibebu, 1996).
that global networking plays a disintegrating role is The architecture of its ancient civilizations is unique in
apparent in the case of Ethiopia. the world. The obelisk of Aksum which was erected in the
Ethiopia, though is at the top rank of less developed 5th century was one of its ancient civilizations. The
nation in the world, is important nation in Africa for architectural knowledge and skill utilized to get this
numerous reason. Firstly, it is taken as a symbol of liberty obelisk built was very strange let alone to that time even
for black people in general and African people in to today‘s Ethiopia.
particular. It was the only nation which survived from the Among the many architectural assets that melted the
scramble for Africa of European mission (Adejumobi, heart of Italy in its occupation of Ethiopia in the 1935, the
2007; Metaferia, 2009; Mohr, 2001; Paulos, 2011; obelisk of Aksum was worth mentioning. It was evidently
Prochazka, 1935; Sundaram, 2014). the incredible architectural engineering and historical
In the course of history, Ethiopians were devoted to importance that lead Italy to ship the 1700 years old, 150
sacrifice their life for their unity and dignity. The country tones weighty and 24 meter high obelisk in 1937
Ethiopia is hard to understand where enough emphasis is (Šopova, 2008). The designs carved on the obelisk are
not given to the commitment paid by its people to keep unique and mysteries to the world (Mohr, 2001).
the nations identity at the utmost priority. It has been The Ark of the Covenant which was the centre of
acknowledged that unity to fight for independent Ethiopia worship in Judaism is believed to have been kept secretly
marked the identity of the nation (Adejumobi, 2007). in Aksum (Adejumobi, 2007). The rock-hewn Lalibela
Ethiopia is a nation that showed to the world how unity Churches were one of the great architectural assets and
and patriotism are more important than modern artilleries cultural heritages registered in UNESCO. The eleven
and weapons to defend the sovereignty of a nation in its rock-hewn churches of Lalibela are admired as one of the
fight against the colonial power, Italy. As a result, most enthralling tourist site in the world (Gathanju, 2015;
Ethiopia until very recently managed to keep its Šopova, 2008; Sundaram, 2014).
thousands of years pride and dignity. This sense of The blessing of the country by cultural heritages is
national and cultural pride was apparent practically by manifest in the identification of about 40,000 heritages
unprecedented collaboration and unity of the peoples of and out of which ten are registered in UNESCO‘s list of
the nation during Italian invasion in the last decade of World Heritages (Ellene et al., 2003). Ethiopia is full of
19th century. The confidence and pride of Ethiopians with both tangible and intangible cultural and spiritual
their culture was known even to ancient and medival heritages (Gnisci, 2012; Karbo, 2013). Currently Ethiopia
Greek Roman authors like Herodotus, Diodorus Si-culus has got 12 heritages registered in UNESCO.
and Homer. Tangible heritages include sacred books, worshiping
According to some ancient literature, Ethiopia has been materials and buildings among others whereas the
described as ― a region of marvelous peoples, and of intangible heritages include spiritual and cultural festivals,
incredible customs‖ (Bulletin Museum of Fine Arts, 1918, thoughts and philosophies (Paulos, 2011). Moreover, ―It
p. 67). Significanct number of historians argue that the has an old culture and tradition and is a home for the
country labeled as Ethiopia was vast enough to say that it remains of the oldest black civilization‖ (Alemayehu,
is today‘s Ethiopia proper. Undeniably the Ethiopia 2001).The other expression of Ethiopian‘s identity lies in
mentioned in classical literature was indeed very broad their artistic clasical painting. Painting which is made on
and may include some other states beyond the present parchment, wood and canvas is the other old tradition
Ethiopia (Rogers, 1936). through which Ethiopians expressed their identity
However, the neclues or the core of the land lies in (Rogers, 1936).
today‘s Ethiopia. So, it is only tiny exagration to attribute Since the introduction of Christianity to the country,
what classical writers asserted about Ethiopia to the painting has become one way of manifesting a belief.
present day Ethiopia. Spiritually, it is a country which is Numerous painting that one may find in all Churches and
mentioned more than forty times in the bible and monasteries were not only figurative expressions of
according to Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church biblical stories but also the nation‘s identity. It is through
History, accepted Christianity very early than any nation an attempt to make holy images fit so well into the color
 Girma 27

and identity of Ethiopians that the people of the country online face book chatting, long journeys that penetrate through a
showed their self love and confidence. number of villages which are not yet covered by internet networks
still provide the opportunity for extended discussions. The non-
Nevertheless, the country‘s identity which has had such university youth which constitute the subject of this study are
a deep rooted historical existence is now facing a danger accessed using this opportunity.
of disintegration. This study is aimed at properly Furthermore, 50 online friends, who have different background,
portraying how family, which is the base of the country‘s also provided another supplement to the sum of the primary data
historical integration, is now being challenged by the collected. Finally, to provide a good conceptual framework for the
expansion of global networking. study, other studies and related literature were critically reviewed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The methodology employed in this study is decidedly qualitative. The danger of disintegration
Personal observation, discussion, interview and review of related
literature were the chief methods of data collection. The aspiration Ethiopia, a nation which is known for thousands of year‘s
to conduct this study sprung from the bosom of personal
observation.
history of unity despite some discrete political
An in-depth interview was conducted with an assistant professor fragmentation in the early 16th, late 18th and early 19th
and five university lecturers who are from three different universities centuries is now on the verge of disintegration. Though
that is, Dilla, Gondar and Bahir Dar Universities. Those universities the ethnic federalism established in the early 1990‘s is
were selected by probability sampling method. Probability sampling held responsible for the current danger of political
was used to avoid bias in extracting data. The interviewees teach disintegration (Alemayehu, 2001; Karbo, 2013; Sarbo,
courses that have to do with globalization, morality and culture
under department of Civics and Ethical Studies.
2009; Vaughan, 2004), the disintegration which is the
Thus, relevantly close in their specialization to the issues of concern of this study is not that sort. It is obvious that the
globalization. It is based on this merit that they were purposely political crumbling in the history of Ethiopia also
selected as the respondents‘ of the study. In order to identify undermined the cultural values of the country.
student discussants purposive sampling was preferred because of Particularly, the early 19th century political
two reasons.
disintegration has adversely affected the classical values
First, student population in all public universities shares the same
attribute because of the system of placement applied by ministry of of the nation (Adejumobi, 2007). The traditional value
education. Student from every corner of the country are distributed disheartenments in this and other similar political
to all public universities. So, a student population across universities turmoil‘s period were short lived. When the politics was
is almost similar. reunited the values were also repaired. Nonetheless, the
Second, the homogeneity of the student population across disintegration that is of interest to this article is hardly
universities provided equal level of representativeness. However,
selecting students of Dilla University in which I teach has got an
political.
additional advantage that is, cost effectiveness. The disintegration witnessed on social cohesion in
Thus, the study reasonably employed convenient sampling to general and the family in particular is the prior concern of
identify discussant students. The discussion was held among 120 this article. Despite some other factors, I will attribute this
students. For the simplicity of the discussion students were disintegration to the global networking. To learn how
stratified based on their academic performance. 15 better family is disintegrated in the country as a result of
performers were trained to facilitate the discussion and report the
results of their discussion.
globalization, it is imperative to assess the history and the
In addition, for there is a need to include people outside current state of Ethiopian foreign relation, define
universities, family and the youth that is not part of the university globalization in a bit detail and take a look at how family
community were included. 27 families who have their sons and was organized in Ethiopia initially.
daughters in various public universities were conveniently selected
for discussion. The reason to select these families by convenient
sampling method has to do with their accessibility to me for open A brief history of Ethiopian foreign relations
discussion.
The voice of parents as it is heard through different public and Ethiopia has had external relation since antiquity. It had a
private Medias was also given due concern to include the views of
very old relation with the Far East, the Middle East and
the families that are not accessible to me due to spatial and
financial constraints. Discussion was also held with 23 non- Europe. Especially its relation with Egypt is mentioned as
university youths. The choice of these non-university youths was one of the oldest in the international political history
made using accidental selection method. (Erlich, 1998; Paulos, 2011).
At this juncture, it would be essential to note that, it is a common The relation between the two countries was based
culture for Ethiopians to hold discussion with fellow citizens largely on religion and hydro-politics. Religiously, Egypt
wherever they meet. Especially, when long journeys are made by
bus or when people meet in some places where they have to stay
has assumed leadership of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido
long, it is very customary to pick a hot point of discussion so that Church for nearly one and half millennia. Bishops and
the journey or their stay would not be boring. patriarchs were appointed for the Church since 4th
Though this social value has recently come to be replaced by century until 1920‘s when Ethiopia got her Ethiopian
28 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

bishop ordained for the first time. Yet it was only in the Although much has been said and much has been written
1959 that Ethiopia was able to get her first Ethiopian about it, Globalization is still shrouded in mystery
patriarch appointed (Markos, 1993). For about fifteen (Bharadwaj, 2003).
centuries and now, Egyptians claim that Ethiopia shall not A proper conception of globalization requires an
independently appoint its own patriarch. elucidation of the different dimensions involved in it. Its
Considering Ethiopia as diocese until late 1950‘s, they comprehensiveness has embraced the economical,
preserved the responsibility of administration of the political, Ethical/cultural/social, technological aspect of
Church to themselves (Erlich, 1998; Getnet, 1998; human life. Though a large numbers of literature
Markos, 1993). But the very puzzle to scholars who emphasize on the economic aspect of globalization, the
studied the Church is that even though the Church was controversy about what globalization in clear terms is
administered by Egyptians, it was very little influenced by hitherto persist.
their culture. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church From the economic perspective globalization is defined
accepted the bible in its own language; Ge‘ez. The as an increasing commercial integration, capital and
translation of holy literature to Ge‘ez was made from other resources flow across borders. The political side of
ancient language: Hebrew, Greek, and Syriac (Getnet, globalization perceives globalization as the process
1998; Roudometof, 2014). introducing new actors other than the pre-dominant state
The liturgy and all other religious rituals were done in in the sphere of power. It is viewed as the development of
local language. The history of other similar orthodox sharing and even shifting power from state to other
church‘s reveals that the influence of Slavonic as liturgy international actors like, Non Governmental Organizations
language and the development of Cyrillic alphabet were (NGO‘s), Transnational Corporations (TNC‘s), and
significant (Roudometof, 2014). Intergovernmental organizations (IGO‘s) (Suter, 2003).
In addition, even the translation made on many Globalization viewed from social perspective is
religious manuscripts customized to fit well into the determining a way of life and speeding up the rate of
history and culture of the country. A high degree of social dynamism. Coleman and Brydon declare that:
customization made the church unique in its orientation
and practices (Getnet, 1998). Not only the contents but ―Over the past several decades, processes now termed
even when the names that appear on different globalization have been restructuring the way many
inscriptions appear to be strange to the nation, they used people live and how they relate to others. They are
to localize the naming. This was not only evident on reducing many limits on social interaction once imposed
religious manuscripts but also on other non-religious by time and place.‖ (2009, p. 325).
writings. Ethiopians were voracious enough to collect and
study notable works across the world. For instance the The cultural aspect of globalization is the most relevant
works of Greek philosophers were translated and studied aspect of globalization to discuss it here in a bit detail.
thousands of years ago. The name of those philosophers Cultural globalization is perhaps the most contested
was yet customized to suit into local language. aspect of globalization. It is not unusual to come across
Accordingly, Aristotle was labeled ―Aristatalis‖ and Plato very polarized arguments in ones review of literature in
―Aflaton‖ (Hiwote, 2016). this area.
These are illustrations of Ethiopians determination to The conclusions drawn about cultural globalization by
keep their identity. They were not completely closed to different authors alarmed different scholars to take heed
the civilization of the rest of the world but they were wise from rushing into hasty generalization. The Punic felt by
enough to bring everything they come across to domestic authors about the risk involved in the process of rushing
interpretation and context. Interpretation bound to the into some bold conclusions on cultural globalization
countries context has become one of a distinctive feature compelled them to warn that we be careful with the term
of the country, Ethiopia (Rogers, 1936). cultural globalization (Feng, 2002).
According to Sovacool (2010), cultural globalization is
that aspect of globalization which involves the extensive
Defining globalization expansion of language, values, products and norms due
to an increasing contact of people across borders. Liu
Defining globalization as the interconnectivities of the and Yan mention that ―Globalization accelerates cultures‘
people of the world in numerous aspects of life is not as interactions and facilitates transmission of values from
simple as it appears at first sight. It is one of the one group to another‖ (2015, p. 632).
contested issues of the 21st century (Maguire, 2002). For other authors however cultural globalization is
According to some authors (Bharadwaj, 2003; Coleman manifested through homogenization. Some cultures
and Brydon, 2009), it is not only controversial but a much across the globe are spreading rampantly to cover and
misused term. It has become almost a custom to praise dominate other cultures. Specifically, western culture is
and make scapegoat of everything to globalization. emerging triumphant over non-western cultures. Western
 Girma 29

culture made use of the media and communication though the organization of the extended family is based
facilities to encroach upon other cultures in the world. on blood relationship, its sense of solidarity however
In line with this view, Yan and Liu (2015) insisted that extends to neighbors and other social members. It is
the worldwide use of English language and the virtually common in Ethiopia to share the sorrow and pleasure of
omnipotence of McDonald‘s and Hollywood movies neighbors or the society in general. In times of happiness
among others is a clear manifestation of cultural like when children are born, weddings are made and
homogenization. Li Shenzhi (1994) arguing from Chinese other rites are celebrated the house of the person would
perspective asserted not only that globalization in its be filled with people of shining faces. The person hosting
move towards homogenization has severely affected the event would be congratulated on by everybody with
Chinese ethics and culture and put china in a state of pleasure and blessing. No one would be leaving without
coercion to promote the worth of foreign culture but blessing and good wishes for the sustenance of the
cultural self-awareness is also recently perking up in happiness.
China. In the time of sadness when for instance one of the
Quite different from the view that cultural globalization family members of kin leaving far away is heard to have
is cultural colonization and hegemony Hao (2008) passed away, anyone would gather to sooth, pay tribute
viewed cultural globalization as the natural tendency for and show their solidarity. Even when a person dies and is
the cultural development of the contemporary. on the way for burial anyone who encountered the
Accordingly, it is not legitimate to term the cultural aspect mourners on the way pays tribute by pausing their activity
of globalization as cultural homogenization or cultural until the mourners pass by; standing up if they are
imperialism. It has to be understood as state of inevitable seated; take their cape off (if any) and turn their head
gradual cultural development. down. This was the culture of the country which was also
honored even by the king and the royal families.
As Markos (1993) recorded, Emperor Haile Selassie
How was family in Ethiopia organized? used to do the same. The other sections of the society
especially the youths and the adults show their solidarity
In Africa families are more important than individuals. by carrying some distance the body of the dead person to
According to Swigart (2001), it is the family that builds its burial. Even some others, particularly mothers may
African society. Ethiopia is no exception in this respect. It weep even though they may not know the dead person
is a matter of fact that Family in Ethiopia is the base of physically. To facilitate and maintain these and other
the country. similar social values, there are different socially
The respect and courtesy children show to their parents organized associations (Poluha, 2004). But the role of
and grandparents is the fundamental of morality to the these associations in keeping social values and customs
people of Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, extended families along is recently wearing away.
with the community raises morally nurtured children In Ethiopia, parents and grandparents were paid
(Mohr, 2001). respect because they were considered to be sources of
In the context of this article, extended family refers to life, knowledge, and identity. Knowledge and history has
people of the same household tied through blood leaving been transmitted from generation to generation largely
together or at least closer with each member exhibiting a through oral tradition. Grandparents take the lion share in
significant level of interaction and solidarity. The definition getting their culture preserved. According to Reminick
given to extended family as those which are related (2009), not only children are considered as essential
through blood or kinship but whose members may – and graces but Grandparents are also worth valued for they
often do – live apart (Swigart, 2001) is less descriptive of are the mentor and tutor of the new generation. History,
Ethiopian kind family. religion and custom of the nation are passed to the next
In Ethiopia, the members of a family usually used to generation orally from their forefathers. The task of
include grandparents, parents and children leaving in the getting Children grown up with this cultural frame was not
same fence sharing resources and demonstrating great left for parents and grandparents alone but the
care for one another. As Reminick (2009) explained, community as a whole used to engage in deeply.
Ethiopian family is characterized by three generation As already noted, the structure of social composition in
living together with care and deep concern for one Ethiopia is a kind of extended in nature. In this extended
another. Mohr (2001) also goes on to explain that family structure, the responsibility of couching children
Ethiopians are pleased to have vast families for they with moral values was the responsibility of everyone. In
believe that children are gifts of God and hence essential early times each member of the society was seriously
assets that one could ever have in his/her entire life. concerned about how individuals behave. Strong
Tatek (2008) also confirm that extended family is the commitment was there to get moral values respected.
dominant form of family in the country and children are Such a social responsibility has now eroded largely. The
considered as social capital and sense of prestige. Even members of the society feeling powerless at home at
30 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

their family level gave up desperately their social got lost in face book think that spending a number of
responsibilities. The helplessness seen among the hours on social media and imitating what is lived
members of the society could be attributed to the belief of everywhere in the world is a sign of modernization. Those
inevitability of the impacts of globalization forces who show serious concern about culture and identity are
pervading the public. considered by most university students of the country as
The extended nature of Ethiopian society is evident on uncivilized and backward.
dining table. Ethiopian people do not like to eat alone. Be all the opportunity as it has been, Global networking,
Each member of the family is demanded to get himself on especially social media is becoming a serious problem
the dining table. Until all members of the family are among Ethiopian youths. An Ethiopian scientist working
collected on the dining table no member of the family in NASA, on a famous technology show known as ―Tech-
eats. It is a praised norm to wait one another for dining. Talk‖ hosted by Solomon, broadcasted on 26th of
The dining table called ―gebeta‖ in Amharic is not only November 2016 through Ethiopian Broadcasting Service
used to serve food but it is a table where people get all (EBS) has witnessed that families are in a challenge due
together with a sense of affiliation. to un-optimized usage of social Medias. He added up
Ethiopian people do not eat from a different plate. They that it has become hard to detach children from their cell
eat all together from one wide plate. Not only each phone even when they are on the dining table. While
member of the family eats by hand from the same plate thousands of miles distance is made irrelevant by the
but also feed one another in turn. To feed one another is availability of internet service, the same distance is
taken as a sign of love and affection. Though it is actually created between children and their parents.
common to feed anyone around the dining table, it is Children are sharing their feelings and thoughts not
more common to feed the beloved ones. As a result of with parents. They have got some other people to share
this value, it is culturally a taboo to eat alone from a with. The distance barrier between them and people
different plate. To eat from a different plate is taken as oversea are shrunk by the global networking. Different
secession from the rest of the family member. It is a internet applications enabled them share their views with
means by which the unity of the family is kept. This other people at lengthy distance. Different social Medias
cultural bond is not confined at family level even when like face book, whatsup, imo, tango, messenger, and
someone arrive a place where others are eating; be it a etcetera besides their positive values made people
friend, a colleague or a stranger it is a norm to invite nearby almost irrelevant.
him/her to take part on the dining. It is a means how they These social Medias and internet applications took
facilitate their interconnections with one another. much of the day‘s hour. The time remained from these
However, such a culture of harmony within a family is medias is spent on watching movies of different country.
now challenged strongly. The shift towards nuclear family Indian movies have captured much of the attention of the
is growing swiftly. Especially among urban dwellers to youth recently. Being aware of Ethiopians openness to
have extended family is hard to imagine. Most children, foreign culture some wise men have opened television
children who used to be obedient to their grandparents, channels through which these movies are broadcasted. It
parents and elders are no more showing respect to their has become a matter of necessity to spend some
family. Families are complaining that their children are significant hours of the day on these movies. Parents are
tied strongly with their cell phones and they are too busy almost ignored. Deep passion and addiction to these
on social Medias to get time to listen to them. Most of movies disintegrated significant number of families. The
their communication is with online friends. Unless long established respect and obedience of children has
children are asleep they are on line on social Medias. now nearly disappeared. Ones they sit to see these
They are online even in their learning rooms chatting with movies they are listening to no one. As a result of
persons far and far away. As a result on could claim that disagreement created families are physically
today family is missing its integration. The mode of dining disintegrating.
is completely changed especially in urban Ethiopia. Apart from being busy and occupied by social media to
Almost all family members eat alone from a separate the extent of ignoring family, one could also witness a
plate. Children are chatting overseas while dining, rapid shift from communal social organization to
ignoring their family who need them to share their value individualism. The other distinctive feature of Ethiopian
at home. They are missing those who are far away while society has been its communal integration. This sort of
disregarding those who are at their affinity. Those who social cohesion largely promoted altruism and collective
attempt to preserve these long lasted customs are life. As a result of global networking such invaluable
considered uncivilized and resistant to modernity. They social values are systematically demeaned and belittled.
are blamed for their poor education and rigidity. Family which used to be the school of culture and
However, this is a proved wrong perception about morality is now stripped of its power of shaping, coaching
modernity. Needless to mention that modernization does and nurturing children. The social Medias, the television
not mean abandoning everything from history. Those who channels, radio stations and local magazines one way or
 Girma 31

the other are all flinging stone at the long-lasted morality political matters, the government abruptly took a
of the country in the name of modernity and urbanization. measure: internet service was interrupted for months.
The communication which used to be held between The measure to regulate internet and telecommunication
family members is now completely replaced by overseas services evidently cost the state a large sum of money
peoples. and no doubt affected its foreign diplomacy significantly.
To try to control the advent of vices to the nation in
varies forms hopefully would not cost the state that much.
Who are at overseas? The implication is very clear; the care given to the
political values is not given to social, cultural and ethical
According to data collected from university students and values. The experience of public revolt and the reaction
social media users, their online friends though are at given to it could be taken as a good illustration of the
overseas they are mostly Ethiopians. Ethiopians possibility to control the incursion of values that are
scattered over the world are sharing what they see in the immoral in the nation.
country they live in. They are shaping, molding and even Due to strong support, the current government has
corrupting the mind of the youth in the country according received in the trouble time of consolidating power in the
to the way of life they claim to have experienced. early 1990‘s from US and the rest of the west world
As a result of increasing human resource mobility, (Sarbo, 2009), it has opened each and every door to their
millions of Ethiopians are now living abroad (National influence and culture. While the openness and loyalty of
Academy of Sciences, 2001). Those who are living the current government to US neoliberal policies,
abroad made those living in the country to aspire for ideology and strategy is theoretically none existent, the
similar migration. Most of Ethiopians are longing the cultural openness is that which the government cared
opportunity to move to abroad. Those who have no nothing about. To the worst the government itself is
access to travel to US and Europe put their target mentioned by other studies as the violator of the culture
towards Arab Countries. Now Ethiopians make significant and the valued norm of the nation.
labor force in numerous Arab countries. Most of them ―The reputation of the civil service is declining.
who travel abroad are youngsters. By the virtue of global Corruption is perceived to be growing and gnawing
networking those who are living abroad keep in touch problem in the Ethiopian civil service. Traditional value of
with the youth in the country. loyalty, honesty, obedience and respect for authority are
Their interaction is mostly with friends gained online. giving way for breach of trust and dishonesty‖
Though the networking has also paved the way for those (Alemayehu, 2001)
who are abroad to easily communicate with their families
in the home country, their communication is largely with
peer found online. The communication among peer are Related studies
supposed to be enjoyable. Those who are physically far
apart from their family influenced significantly those who From the wider perspective research works are abundant
are with their parents. The global networking manifests its on issues of globalization and social media. However,
impact on the youth of the country by its mighty to draw studies that are pertinent to the context and geographical
spiritually far apart those who are geographically closer. scope of this study area are rarely found. There is a need
The government and its Medias were supposed to play for further research on the effect of global networking on
their part in maintaining the value of family and the social Ethiopian values.
cohesion. But today, in Ethiopia not only the family and Discussing some studies which are conducted on other
the society but the government itself has come to be countries would be crucial in shading light to some
powerless. The powerlessness of the government do not degree on the importance of investigating further the
emanate from economically inability and technological exposure of Ethiopia to the global context. Studies on
backwardness but ideological desperateness. The global networking reveal that provided the capability of
technological capability and economic affordability of the developed world to make technology serve their interest it
state to regulate those matters is evidenced in 2016. In doesn‘t appear at their prior concern. It is the less
this year, Ethiopia experienced uprising from almost each developed nations that have to show a serious concern
corner of the country. Being upset by the deep rooted about the impact of technology on their culture (National
corruption and maladministration that pervaded the Academy of Sciences, 2001).
government, millions of Ethiopians went out to streets for The concern is said to emanate from the possibility of
protest. It was a devastating scenario for the government cultural domination through the working of technology.
which claimed to have won an election decidedly in the Internet as an illustration of the boom of networking has
year preceded. paved the way for the people of both developed and
The role of social media in catalyzing the protest was developing world to produce their own identity, express
significant. When the impact of social media was felt in themselves while communicating and sharing with other
32 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

people of different identity (ibid). The networking that bond and harmony for thousands of years, is now losing
extends to every corner of the globe has served as a field its nature and leaning towards nuclear family structure.
of interaction. The holiness of collective and altruistic life is being
Global networking affects local values in several ways. substituted for individualism and unacceptable level of
Among others, the opportunity to exit from the community selfishness, a clear manifestation of disintegration.
for individuals who may need to detach themselves and
the increasing likelihood of threading and questioning
local values because of one‘s exposure to the values of RECOMMENDATION
others is worth mentioning (National Academy of
Sciences, 2001). The family disintegration found out in In order to cope up with this problem of family
this study complements with the effects of global disintegration, the following points are recommended
networking identified by this study. based on the findings of the study. Firstly, the educational
As a number of studies found out, social media is very policy needs to be revised. As a number of studies
likely to result in addiction. The addiction according some revealed, from the time ‗modern‘ education is said to
studies has several levels. While some are mild others have started in the country, Ethiopian educational policy
are very chronic. According to Griffiths (2011) studies has always been outward looking (Messay, 2006; Paulos,
conducted in different countries on university and college 1976).
students reveal that addiction to social networking is From the period marked as the beginning of ‗modern‘
common. Other studies found that Social media addiction education to the present time, there is strong affiliation
has to do with lack of confidence and poorly built self- towards western educational policies. An inward looking
esteem (Ghassemzadeh et al., 2008). education policy that could promote indigenous values
When measured by the tools used in those researches, must be designed. A revival of Ethiopian ancient
some significant number of Ethiopian university students civilization and values should be advocated. Ancient
is chronically addicted to face book. In general terms, the literatures should be deeply scrutinized. The identity and
negative effects of social media as found out by several culture of the country should be inculcated in the new
studies include: confusing the real life with the online one generation. Secondly, the government must take the
(Nyland et al., 2007) loosing courage because of responsibility to establish culture and moral value based
offensive online comments and falling in a state of illusion censorship system on all Medias.
because of exaggerated appreciation, poor time The programs, documentaries, movies dramas and
management and academic performance (Kirschner and advertisings that are transmitted through public and
Karpinski, 2010), divorce and negative romantic private electronic Medias should be regulated. In addition
relationship (Nyland et al., 2007); Severe mental health to the electronic media, there should also be similar
problem and the existence of additional drug addiction control over the print Medias. Anything that is against the
(Echeburua and Corral, 2010). A quick glimpse of my moral and cultural value of the nation should not be
study shows a high exposure to all these negative allowed to get access on the media. Thirdly, the
consequences. government also needs to maintain the culture and the
morality of the public by closing its door to the import of
products that endanger the spiritual and moral value of
Conclusion the public. Religious institutions and civil societies also
need to cooperate in preserving the social cohesion and
It is true that an increased level of integration has been the position of family in the society. Finally, citizens in
experienced as a result of global networking. The harmony should stand together to avoid anything that
integration is manifest in Political, social/cultural, assails the self and the community in general. It is only
economic and technological aspects. This worldwide through a collective effort of all citizens and other stake
interconnection has provided the access to the people of holders that such a hard aim could be meet.
the world to share knowledge, resources, ideas, values,
and cultures. These multifaceted interactions played
undeniable role in an attempt to integrate the globe as ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
one functional body. But its effect of integration is not
without counterpart disintegration. While integration has The author would like to express his heartfelt gratitude to
been catalyzed by the considerable power of global all his interviewees and discussants.
networking in undermining the role of geography, which
limits people‘s interaction, disintegration is witnessed
where family and all that is spatially nearer is forgotten CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
due to an exposure to the wider global community.
Ethiopian extended family, which has entertained strong The author has not declared any conflict of interests.
 Girma 33

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 Vol. 10(2), pp. 34-40, February 2018
DOI: 10.5897/AJHC2017.0367
Article Number: B84241855713
ISSN 2141-6672 African Journal of History and Culture
Copyright © 2018
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJHC

Full Length Research Paper

Women empowerment through ‘Abegar’ in South Wollo:

A critical ethnography
Rukya Hassen
Department of Applied Linguistics, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Ethiopia.
Received 21 March, 2017; Accepted 15 May, 2017

It is the objective of this study to describe, explain and critically analyze the role of the traditional social
practice of ‘Abegar’ to empower women in South Wollo, Ethiopia. Data were collected through
participant observation, record of social events and in-depth interview. The study was conducted from
April to June 2014 E.C. Five social events known as ‘Wodaja’ were recorded. The result of the study
showed that females were empowered through the practice of ‘Abegar’ in Wodaja sessions. During
female group prayer sessions, females assume the position of leadership which empowers them. Being
‘abegar’, they are able to do many things which were impossible otherwise. Through their discourse,
the females express their power as mothers, sprit possessors, and smart personnel who are
empowered to do many things which even men couldn’t. The discourse of ‘Abbəgarness’ (leadership) is
used as an expression of power in the community. Females became leaders or ‘Abbəgars’ and are
empowered through ‘dua’ (prayers).

Key words: Women, „abegar‟, wodaja, empowerment.

INTRODUCTION

South Wollo is the study site. Wollo is bounded by Tigray intermarriage among Muslims and Christians. There is
in the North, Gojjam in the West, Shewa in the South and also cultural diffusion, and a strong sense of togetherness
Afar in the East. The capital city, Dessie, is 400 km away that has been held for generations. Many significant
to the North of Addis Ababa. In Wollo, Muslims and cultural and historical contexts tie the Muslim-Christian
Christians live together peacefully (Amsalu and Community to a great extent.
Habtemariam, 1969). Wollo is one of the sub regions of Amhara Regional
The community has a unique history of tolerance and State which is also known as Region Three. Wollo is
peaceful coexistence. This community consists of a large bounded by Tigray in the North, Gojjam and Gonder in
number of Muslims and Christians. There is a thick the West, Shewa in the South and Afar in the East. The
historical record that this community exhibits a central town, Dessie, is 400 km away from Addis Ababa.
harmonious and peaceful contact and an intense sense Topographically, the region is mountainous and cold in
of belongingness. The Wollo community is far more than the Western and Northern part. In the East, it is very hot.
mixed. There is a strong blood tie as there is In the population senses of 2007, the population of Wollo

E-mail: [email protected].

Author agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
 Hassen 35

is 4, 022, 733 and more than 62% of this live in South According to Getachew (1984), of the four schools of
Wollo Zone. This in figure is 2, 519, 450. In South Wollo, thoughts in Islam (Mezhabs) known throughout the world,
the Muslim-Christian mix is high and there are two are found in Wollo. These are Shafi which was
considerable Muslims in this zone as compared to the established by Abu Abdela Muhamed Ibn Idris (767 to
rest of the Zones of the Amhara Region. From the 20 870 G.C.) and Hanefiya established by Abu Hanifa Al
Weredas of South Wollo, the researcher conducted the Nueman Ibn Sabit (699 to 767 G.C.). The former school
study in Tehuledere (Sulula, Gishen), Dessie Zuria (Bilen, has great followers in Dewoy and Yifat. The second
Kelem, Boru, Gerado), Kutaber (Alasha and Kutaber), school that is Hanefiya is common in Kalu, Borena,
and Dessie. Worehimeno, Worebabo and Yeju. Wollo is also a place
Moreover, the researcher had co-researchers who where great Muslim scholars who have done a lot to
helped collect data from Ambasel, Kelala, Jama, and teach and sustain Islam in Ethiopia originated (Ibid).
Debat. Particularly, the areas where large data were There are many places of pilgrimage among which Jema
collected are Alasha (Kutaber Wereda), Sulula Nigus, Geta, Dana, Deger, and Chale are most known
(Tehuledere Wereda), Boru (Dessie Zuria Wereda), Bilen (Ibid).
(Dessie Zuria Wereda), Gerado (Dessie Zuria Wereda), Wollo is a place where people of different ethnic
Kelem (Dessie Zuria Wereda), and Gishen (around groups, beliefs and cultures are believed to have
Hitecha, Tehuledere Wereda). Wollo is a place with rich coexisted peacefully. The languages spoken in the region
historical and cultural assets. The area is claimed to be are Amharic, Agew, Oromo, Tigray, Afar and Argoba
the origin of the Amhara ethnic group (Getachew, 1984). (G/Kidan, 1981; Getachew, 1984). The people are known
According to Getachew (1984), the first original home of as „Wolloyye‟. The people do not want to identify
the Amhara is Amhara Saynt (Ibid: 12). He claimed that themselves by their ethnic groups but by the place,
Amhara means „agrarian‟ and Saynt „a place where „wolloyye‟ (the Wollo person) (Ibid: 18).
harvest is collected‟ in Arabic. He further states: The four musical melodies of Ethiopia, Anchihoyelene,
Tizita, Bati, and Ambasel, are found in Wollo. Tizita was
Though the Agew people is mixed and so it is named as known as Wollo before it was renamed as such (Ibid).
Agew Midr Begemidir, and though because of Oromo it The melodies are named after the names of places of
was named Wollo later; Bete Amhara includes the areas Wollo. This shows that the people are accustomed to
bounded by Tigray in the North, Begemdir and Gojjam in expressing their culture, history, love, and overall lives
the West, Shewa in the south. In the middle was all the through their music (Getachew, 1984).
area of Bete Amhara (Wollo) (Getachew, 1984). Menzuma is a major artistic work performed by Wollo
„Ulemas‟ (Muslim religious scholars). The people of Wollo
The Amhara ethnic group lives in Lasta, Wadla Delanta, have used Menzuma for many years for different
Woreilu, in large numbers, and in Dessie area, Yeju, purposes. They use it for prayer, and for teaching their
Ambasel, Raya, Kobo, Borena and Worehimeno mixed religion. Among the well-known Menzuma performers are
with other ethnic groups (Kidan, 1981). Ethnic groups that Sheikh Husen Jibril, the Arsi Emebet (Yejuye), the Mersa
reside in Wollo are Amhara, Agaw, Argobba, Oromo, Aba Getye, the Guna Nigus (Yejuye), the Dessie‟s
Warra Sheikh and Mamadoch (Edris, 2007). Wollo was Tengego Sheikh and the recent Sheikh Mohammed
known as “Bete Amhara” (house of Amhara) before it was Awol. These people are known even outside of Wollo by
named Wollo (G/Kidan, 1981; Edris, 2007). their Menzuma chants.
After Gragn, according to Getachew, because of the Wollo is rich in natural resources. There are many
Oromo‟s movement to the area of Bete Amhara, the rivers, lakes and minerals in the region. In Wollo, Awash,
name was changed to Wollo after the name of the Mile, Miowa, Chireti, Ala, Hormat, Tiratina Zamra,
governor of Bete Amhara who came from the south and Tekeze, Borkena, Abay, Becho, Wayeta and Gerado
central part of Ethiopia (Ibid). He was the son of Kereyu rivers flew (Getachew, 1984). These rivers flow all year
and the grandson of Berentuma. Wollo had children by long. The lakes are Loga Hayk, Ardibo, Abi Gurgura,
the names Bukon, Woregura, WoreIlu, Wore Kereyu, Afanbo, Ashenge and Maybar (Ibid; 53).
WoreAlu (Ibid). Because of him, the name of “Bete Among the minerals are iron soil, marble, green soil,
Amhara” „the house or homeland of Amhara‟ was salt, red sand, coal, and others that can be used for
changed to Wollo and the sub regions were also named production of cement, paintings, and jewelries (Ibid; 58-
after his children. 59). There are different archaeological findings in Wollo
Historically, both Christianity and Islam have lived for that provide valuable information for genealogical studies
long in Wollo. Of all the Amhara region, Wollo is where a of human beings (Ibid). There are scriptures of Christian
large number of Muslims live. Islam faced difficulties in and Muslim traditions that reveal the spirituality of the
the reign of Tewodros II (1855 to 1868 E.C.) and people. The one significant history of Wollo that the
Yohannes IV (1872 to 1889 E.C.). Wollo Muslims became people are not proud of but legendarily stereotyped is
victims of power and suppression especially during the drought and famine.
latter‟s reign (Getachew, 1984). The description of Wollo barely completes without the
36 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

description of the effect of famine that has affected the „Abegar‟ to empower female in the target group, CDA and Critical
people. In fact, Ethiopia is known for the same mainly ethnography were employed.
Critical ethnography developed from critical social theory that
because of its impact on the people of Wollo. Wollo is a resists hegemonic ideas that impose suppressive power over the
place where many times famine has had its bad effects world. Critical ethnography studies issues of power, empowerment,
on the people. The drought has had unforgiving effect to inequality, dominance, repression, hegemony, and victimization
the extent that the image of Ethiopia has remained a (Creswell, 2007). Critical discourse analysis and critical ethnography
symbol of famine until now (Getachew, 1984). are both methods of part of critical social theories that employ
Sadly, the damage of the famine had been known first theory at different stages of analysis. Madison, (2005:13) explains
critical ethnography as follows:
to the rest of the world before it was known by
Ethiopians. This is because the ruling elites of the time The purpose of this (Critical Ethnography) is to single out and
wanted to keep it secret to safeguard their interest. Many analyze the hidden forces and ambiguities that are behind the real
blame the government for this and it became a case for practices; to help examination and judgment of discontent; to focus
its downfall. Apart from this, there are many things that our attention to the critical expressions of different communities in
their different systems and languages; to demystify the inequality
place Wollo in historical times among which are its
and magnitude of power; to initiate and inspiring just; to name and
historical places such as Lalibela which is one of the analyze what the people feel about it.
wonders of the world. It is one of the things that identify
Wollo as a unique area (Ibid; 21). In critical analysis, theory funds the foundations of analyses but
Beauty, love, kindness and innocence are traditionally there is no single prescribed theory that fits to all research issues.
associated with Wollo people. The following appreciations Wodak stated that “…there is no one CDA approach. All CDA
approaches have their own theoretical position combined with a
are often heard about Wollo and Wolloyye. specific methodology and methods…” (2007:5). Rogers claims that
„CDA is both a theory and a method.‟ Discourse analysis is both a
battinna komboləčča kämisenna härbu theoretical and empirical endeavor. CDA is used as a method of
yänäšäggyä ʾäggär yännayyt' t'äggäbu investigation in social science research (Fairclough, 2001a,b,c).
Bati Kombolcha Kemisie and Harbu, (names of Wollo Wodak (2005) says,
places)
The country of the beautiful and the ever-wanted, CDA might be defined as fundamentally interested in analyzing
opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance,
discrimination, power and control as manifested in language. In
Also, Wollo is known for love. This is explicated in many other words, CDA aims to investigate critically social inequality as it
traditional Wollo songs. is expressed, constituted, legitimized etc. by language use (or in
discourse).
yäfəqqr ʾəngočča yämiqqwaddäsubš
yähullu ʾäggär ʾəkul yäwbät ʾäddaraš Hence, CDA is a method of describing, interpreting, and explaining
the discursive relationship between language and other social
A place where people share love,
factors. It is different from other discourse analysis methods
A place for all equally, a parlor for beauty, because it provides not only a description and interpretation of
discourse, but also explains the why and how of discourses in
It is generalized that the men and women of Wollo are societies (Rogers, 2004). The major objective of CDA is critique.
love addicts. The Wollo people are also known to be kind “To be a critical social scientific method, CDA needs to reflexively
and innocent. This is also indicated by the popular saying demonstrate the changing relationship between social theory and
linguistic structures and how this fits into evolving social and
„Wollo the barley‟. The Wollo people are also known to be linguistic theories and methodologies” (Rogers, 2004).
not trust worthy as the proverbial saying „an empty Of all the different research approaches of CDA proposed by
neighbor house is better than a Wolloyye neighbor/ different scholars, this study uses a combination of the three
käwälo goräbet yšalal bado bet‟ has it. Wolloyyes, distinguished scholars in CDA: Fairclough and Wodak (1997). The
however, do not accept this stereotype. most widely used analytical framework in CDA is Fairclough‟s
Like any traditional society, in the target community (O‟Halloran, 2011). Fairclough, after Halliday‟s Systemic Functional
Linguistics, established that discourse contributes to the
women are disadvantaged groups. Although it is not construction of social identities, social relations, and systems of
mentioned as such, there are some social practices that knowledge and meaning (Wodak, 2002; Jorgensen and Phillips,
empower women in this particular community. This study 2002; Blommaert, 2005).
focuses on this traditional social practice. Hence, discourse has three functions: an identity function, a
The objective of this study is to critically analyze the „relational‟ function and an „ideational‟ function. This three
dimensional discourse which Fairclough (1995) has constructed is a
role of the traditional practice of „Abegar‟ to empower
useful framework for the analysis of discourse as social practice
female in South Wollo Zone, Tehuledere Woreda, (Jorgensen and Phillips, 2002).
Ethiopia.
“I see discourse as a complex of three elements: social practice,
discursive practice (text production, distribution and consumption),
METHODOLOGY and text, and the analysis of a specific discourse calls for analysis
in each of these three dimensions and their interrelations”
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) and critical ethnography (CE) (Fairclough, 1995).

In order to critically analyse the role of the traditional practice of Van Dijk offers a more thorough-going theoretical base for socio-
 Hassen 37

cognitive analysis (O‟Halloran, 2011). Van Dijk gives special an abbəgar empowers women.
attention to the role of cognition to understand and interpret texts Females enjoy leadership position in Menzuma
and discourse.
Macrostructure and microstructure of Van Dijk is also an
chanting. In the prayers of wodaja (prayer), show their
important framework for discourse analysis. Macrostructure “is used authority. In the group prayers, women show their power
to account for the various notions of global meaning, such as topic, in different ways. The disadvantaged group hold power
theme, or gist. This implies that macrostructures in discourse are by access to domination through genres (Street, 2001).
semantic objects” (Van Dijk and Teun, 1980). Related to Macro and One of the mechanisms the females use to show their
Micro structure of Van Dijk is what Gee calls “discourse” and power is cursing. In the following poem, females express
“Discourse” (1999): the former refers to instances of language in
use, actual speech events; the latter to (far more abstract) ways of
their power to cause harm on anybody they want to. They
using language. show their ability to harm males who are not in order. The
The discourse-historical approach is associated with Ruth Wodak. following extract shows how they show their power.
Wodak emphasises on considering the wider context of discourse
(Wooffitt, 2005). She gives importance on the contextualizing and ʾäläččəñ tənnəš ʾägäləgl I have a small
historicizing of texts (O‟Halloran, 2011).
basket, (50)
An eclectic approach from each of the aforemtioned three CDA
researchers were used to analyze the complex construction of ʾäzayän hullu ʾəmtəgälägl. That helps me avoid
discourse as social practice along with the discursive elements of troubles,
language, ideology, power, identity, solidarity and other elements. bäyw bäwle bäyw bäwle Hit him by „wule‟
„stick‟,
yanən yagär ʾäza yanən käläle. That problem of the
RESULTS world,
bäyw bäšama bäyw bäšama Hit him with candle,
Female empowerment through ‘Dua’ kähägär gara ʾəndaysmama. So, he cannot live
with people,
In this study, the word „dua‟ means prayer and „wodaja‟ bäyw balänga bäyw balänga Hit him with stick,
means a gathering to pray in groups using „chat‟ – a yan yagär ʾäza ʾəndizänaga. So that he will not
substance leaf chewed in Wollo for prayer. Through be strong.
group prayers or „Wodaja dua‟, the females in the target
group exercise power empowering themselves which In extract (50) aformentioned, the females curse those
they wouldn‟t get elsewhere. In such social events as who do not obey them. Such is how they show their
„wodaja‟, the females express their power through power through cursing. People believe that women have
discourse. As Van Dijk stated, through discourses, how power and their curse causes serious harm.
power is reproduced, resisted, legitimized and so on is The other manifestation of power is maleness. The
reveled. belief among females that males have greater power is
We typically study the many forms of (the abuse of) expressed in the phrase „etye wondit‟ in the next poem.
power in relations of gender, ethnicity and class, such as Females believe that their power can actually destroy
sexism and racism. We want to know how discourse males. They say that they can cause harm to men who
enacts, expresses, condones or contributes to the actually doubt what women can do. Females express
reproduction of inequality (Van Dijk and Teun, 2004). their power through their poem when they are in „dua‟
Women in developing countries are still disadvantaged with č‟at as shown in the coming example.
in getting power since secular power is controlled by men
(Zubair, 2001). Women‟s language is believed to be ətyä wändit ʾətyä wändit bäy t'äna t'äna
powerless, indirect and polite (Wodak and Benke, 1998; mən tadärgiyaläš bəlošalləna.
Mills, 2003). This is according to research outcome Madam male madam male be strong be strong,
based on speech acts elsewhere. The women‟s discourse Since he said what can she do? (51)
in the speech event of „Abbəgar‟ (leadership) proves this
otherwise. In the poem, the females are calling themselves male.
Abbəgar is a leader of č‟at session. Both females and They say be strong, be a man since the man said a
males could assume this position. Females could be woman cannot do a thing. By so saying, the females are
leaders for females only. Males could be leaders for both admitting that males are more powerful. When females
males and females. Often times, males and females are powerful too, they could become like men. This,
chew č‟at separately. When they have to chew together, however, does not always hold true. Like in the following
there is a veil that separates the two. The abbəgar is poem (52), the females say being chosen is a source of
responsible for leading the „č‟at dua‟. S/he leads blessing power; Maleness is not power!
and č‟at to everyone. S/he can chant the Menzuma.
Speech or the ability to articulate oneself stands for wändənnät ʾäyt'äqm setənnät ʾäygoda
power (Zubair, 2001). When there is a chorus, the ʾädəlläñ näw nəǧ tarifočču ɡwada.
attendants become choirs. It can be said that becoming täč'atum ʾädällä wäys täbunu
38 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

fit yaläw ʾälänǧ ʾəzaw bäkäwənu. I have submitted a report to the Kutaber Sheikh,
ʾäynnägaggärm säw bäsäwnaw Now I have appealed to the Dawdo female spirit,
tänagär bay mätto kalannaggäräw. (52) I am eager to hear what the result will be. (54)
It will not benefit being male and it will not harm being
female, Intercession is also another source of power. There is an
It is good to ask for luck from the house of the chosen, established belief that great sheikhs intercede. The
It is not from the č'at nor from the coffee, following verse (55) states that the females are dealing
There is what is decided before by God, with bad people by telling to male great sheikhs on
Humans cannot speak by themselves, Fridays and to female great duberties (ladies) on
Unless the spirit comes and makes him speak. Mondays.

The females assert that there is no benefit in being a yämwartäññan nägär ʾəñam ʾäwäqənəbbät
male and there is no harm in being a female. What ǧmät labbabəyä säño lännännäyä ʾəyänägärnəbät
matters most is not the sex but being chosen by the spirit. goǧowm ʾəndaydol gäläba dolnəbbät.
This is expressed in the above poem. Related to this is We have known the evil man‟s intention,
spiritual guidance as a source of power. The following We tell about him to fathers on Fridays and to mothers on
explains this. Mondays,
We have made his home worthless. (55)
yännännäyä färäs səmu näw hämär
ʾähun tänagro ʾähun yämmiyamär. Motherhood is also considered as a source of power. The
härä t'riw ʾəte härä t'riw bät'am mother is considered to be preferred by God as
hid kalalut ʾäyhed talt'ärut ʾäymät'am expressed in the subsequent poem.
The name of the mothers‟ horse is „Hamer‟,
He speaks now and he means it right away, ʾänəčw ʾəmmamma hiǧiw ʾəfitu ʾəfitu
My sister call him, oh call him louder, ʾənnatu natənna yälǧ mädanitu.
He does not leave nor come unless told to. (53) yännännäyän ləǧ ʾäynäkawm mäwǧ
bäyädäräsäbät dərəǧǧət ʾənǧ. (56)
In the aforementioned poems that are recited during You the mother go ahead first and up front,
supplication, women call on spirit because it does not Because mother is the medicine for her child,
come unless it is called and does not go unless told to do Harm cannot touch mothers‟ child,
so. The women say that the spirit support them when Things are rather made ready for him.
called for.
The following (54) is a female Menzuma. In the The power of female is expressed as „a mother being
Menzuma, women state that their prayers through males medicine for her child‟ as shown in (56). This refers to the
have not been heard. Now finally, they have asked a idea that the mother‟s prayer for her child is so powerful
female spirit to help them. They believe that the female that it is answered by God. So, mothers are required to
spirit will respond to their needs. lead the „dua session‟ because her prayer is heard more
than that of fathers. In the next poem, females assume
rabbol duyyallähu positive thinking as source of power. They say „let it be‟
libän labbabbəyä rabbol duyallähu as part of their prayer to express their desire that things
goǧam mar zännäb lay rabbol duyallähu happen in their favor.
nəgus labbabbəyä rabbol duyallähu
ʾädal lababbəyä rabbol duyallähu yəhun bäy yəhun bäy dubəy yəhun bäy
gänät lababbəyä rabol duyallähu yəhun yalš gize yəhon yälläm wäy.
hämza lababbəyä rabol duyallähu Say let it be say let it be mother say let it be,
gärado lababbəyä rabol duyallähu It will be when you say it will be. (57)
läkutabäru šäh rabol duyallähu
lädawdo qut'əbitu yəgbañ bəyäwallähu This is the use of determination as source of power. The
ʾəsəki ʾəmibaläwn qurt'un ʾädämt'allähu. ladies are saying that let us be determined for our
I have submitted a report / an appeal, purpose and we will get our wishes. The next poems also
I have submitted a report to the Liben father, reveal their belief.
I have submitted a report to Gojam where honey rains,
I have submitted a report to the Nigus father, ʾəsəti ʾämin bälu ʾäminəta däg näw
I have submitted a report to the Adal father, ʾäminta näwənna yämmigälägəläw.
I have submitted a report to the Genet father, mərər bəlän gəze mərər yaln ʾənədähon
I have submitted a report to the Hamza father, yarägäw yällämoy ʾənədihon ʾənədihon.
I have submitted a report to the Gerado father, ʾädamt'än getaččən bämməru bämməru
 Hassen 39

baymär ʾäydälämmoy dubba mäqäqälu. days become well. The third verse states that supplication
Please say amen because amen is good, empowers.
It is amen that solve problems,
If we seriously pray with real intention,
He will make it as it should be, Conclusions
Hear us our lord seriously,
Isn‟t it because it is not sour that pumpkin is eaten? (58) Through „wodaja‟ prayers, females who became „abegar‟
reclaim, earn, legitimize and exercise power in the social
As expressed in the poems, the females believe that they structure as shown in their own discourse versed
get what they want with determination. When people beautifully during group prayers. The „č‟at session‟ and
believe, their dreams come true. Real intent brings about „the dua‟ in „wodaja‟ give females power and authority so
determination. In what is to come also, the ladies refer to that they feel empowered to get things done in their favor.
real intent as a source of power. Without assuming such positions as „abagar‟, they
wouldn‟t exercise such power to do, undo, order, permit
bäyäqin näw ʾənǧ ʾäyədälläm bälela or earn the things they wish to have. The women of the
näǧa yäwä t't'ubät ʾärifočču hulla. target group expressed their power as mothers.
It is with real intention not with other thing, Motherhood was expressed as power. They also
That the best people became best. (59) expressed their belief as determined power. Through
their discourse, they defended the belief that female is
Backlash of power or spiritual power reflexiveness is also powerless and male is powerful. They legitimize their
reflected in the discourse of females. The people believe power as an ultimate one which can befall good or bad
that spiritual power affects those who are in power if they on others. They become „abegar‟- leader who is
do not use it properly. empowered to do anything.

ʾənant ʾəhtoččä liqaččəhun ǧäba

länem yəšaläññal badäbe bəgäba. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
härä täw ʾähäle qäs bəläh yazäñ
bämälla ǧəsəme lay ʾätəbbärbəräñ. The author has not declared any conflict of interests.
You my sister, take your prayer back,
It is better for me if I get home with peace,
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