MECHANICAL

CHAPTER 7:
.
PROPERTIES

1
 Main issues

 Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
 Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?

 Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent

deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
 Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Mechanical properties 2
 Elastic deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d

Mechanical properties 3
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Machenical properties 4
 Engineering Stress

 Tensile stress, s:  Shear stress, t:

Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area Stress has units:
before loading N/m2
Mechanical properties 5
 Common States of Stress

 Simple tension: cable

F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
 Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft Ski lift (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Mechanical properties 6
 Other common stress state
 Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

Mechanical properties 7
 Other common stress state

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

Mechanical properties 8
 Engineering strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-d
e = d eL = L
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e.

Mechanical properties 9
 Stress- strain testing
 Typical tensile test  Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)

Mechanical properties 10
 Linear Elastic properties
 Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

 Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Mechanical properties 11
 Poisson’s ratio ()

eL
• Poisson's ratio, :

eL
=- e
e

metals:  ~ 0.33 -
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Units:  > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
 < 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

Mechanical properties 12
 Young’s moduli: comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
40
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE

Mechanical properties 14
 Useful linear elastic relationship
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = - Fw o a=
L
EA o EA o p r o4 G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Mechanical properties 15
 Plastic (permanent) deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

Mechanical properties 16
 Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.

Mechanical properties 17
 Yield strength of materials: comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
300 Hard to measure ,
Room T values

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10

Mechanical properties 18
 Tensile strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Mechanical properties 19
 Tensile strength: comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020) Al oxide
300 ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a Si crystal
100 wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 7e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1
Mechanical properties 20
 Ductility

 Plastic tensile strain at failure: Lf - Lo

%EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

 Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Mechanical properties 21
 Toughness
 Energy to break a unit volume of material
 Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Mechanical properties 22
 Elastic strain recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.

Mechanical properties 23
 Hardness

 Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.

 Large hardness means:
- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
-better wear properties.

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

Mechanical Properties 24
 Hardness measurement

Mechanical properties 25
 Variability in materials properties

 Elastic modulus is material property

 Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
 Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n 2
x i - x  
2

– Standard Deviation s= 
 n -1 
 
where n is the number of data points

Mechanical properties 26
 Design of safety factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa

p d2 / 4 
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

Mechanical properties 27
 Summary

 Stress and strain: These are size-independent

measures of load and displacement, respectively.
 Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a
linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a large
elastic modulus (E or G).
 Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
 Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
 Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Mechanical properties 28