Mechanical Properties: Issues To Address..
Mechanical Properties: Issues To Address..
Mechanical Properties: Issues To Address..
Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
Chapter 6 - 2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
plastic
Chapter 6 - 3
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
F
= s F Ft
Ft lb N
= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 4
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
Ao
M
2R Note: = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).
Chapter 6 - 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
z > 0 h< 0
Chapter 6 - 7
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
L
Lo Lo wo
wo
L /2
• Shear strain:
x = x/y = tan
y 90º -
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 8
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 9
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
• Hooke's Law:
=E F
E
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 10
Poisson's ratio,
• Poisson's ratio, :
L
L
metals: ~ 0.33 -
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40
Chapter 6 - 11
Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Chapter 6 - 12
Other Elastic Properties
M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
torsion
=G test
M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1 ) 3(1 2)
Chapter 6 - 13
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
FL o Fw o 2ML o
L
EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
/2 = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo
2ro
L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 15
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
p engineering strain,
Chapter 6 - 16
Yield Strength, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y = yield strength
y
10 00
Yield strength, y (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Al (6061) ag
Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 18
10
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
TS Callister 7e.
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
Chapter 6 - 21
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)
y
Ur d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur y y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 23
Elastic Strain Recovery
Chapter 6 - 24
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 25
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 26
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 27
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
Chapter 6 - 28
Hardening
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T K T n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 29
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
xn
– Mean x
n
1
n 2
x i x
2
– Standard Deviation s
n 1
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 30
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa
d2 / 4
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 31
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter 6 - 32
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 6 - 33