ABSTRACT

Access to good water is one of the critical problems that deserve

most attention The effect of soak-away system on ground water

quality is a problem .with a complex nature, it necessitate a

multidisciplinary research explore sustainable ways of improving

access to potable water in Ugep-urban of Yakurr Local Government

Area Cross River State.

Uv visible spectrophotometer Hach 5000 was used to analyzed

the five samples of water taken from five different clans in Ugep and

were sent to Cross River State water board limited (CRSWB Ltd.) For

the analysis and results were obtained from each cian.

Result obtained in five clans showed that, the volume of the

total coliform, conductivity and pH concentration on ground water

for distances of 3m, 3m, 7m. 9m, 11m 13m, 15m and 17m depends

on the location of soakaway system from a ground water source,

which shows that the closer the soakaway system the higher the

concentration of contamination in ground water quality.

However, more test needs to be carried out on the chemical

biological and physical methods of the water found in the area to

ascertain its safety for consumption

 Recommendations have been made to the community and other

stakeholders to ensure sustainability of potable water in the selected

communities.
LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.1: Variation of total coliform with borehole distance

Fig. 4.2: Variation of conductivity with borehole distance

Fig. 4.3: Variation of pH with borehole distance

Fig. 4.4 Variation of total coliform with borehole distance

Fig. 4.5 Variation of conductivity with borehole distance

Fig. 4.6: Variation of pH with borehole distance

Fig. 4.7: Variation of total coliform with borehole distance

Fig. 4.8: Variation of conductivity with borehole distance

Fig. 4.9: Variation of pH with borehole distance

Fig. 4.10 Variation of total coliform with borehole distance

Fig. 4.11: Variation of conductivity with borehole distance

Fig. 4.12: Variation of pH with borehole distance

Fig. 4.13 Variation of total coliform with borehole distance

Fig. 4.14: Variation of conductivity with borehole distance

Fig. 4.14 Variation of pH with borehole distance

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE: 4.1: Result of water quality test on five used sources

at Njelikoko Ugep Town.

TABLE: 4.2: Result of water quality test on five used sources at

IJiman Ugep Town.

TABLE 4.3: Result of water quality test on five used sources

at Ketabebe Ugep Town.

TABLE 4.4 Result of water quality test on five used sources

at Ntankpo Ugep Town.

TABLE 4.5 Result of water quality test on five used sources at

Biko-Biko Ugep Town.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGES

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - i

DEDICATION: - - - - - - - - - ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT: - - - - - - - iii

ABSTRACT: - - - - - - - - - iv

LIST OF FIGURES: - - - - - - - - v

LIST OF TABLES: - - - - - - - - vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Scope and limitation of study - - - - - 1

1.3 Aims and objective of study - - - - - 2

4 Significance of study - - - - - - - 2

.5 Area of study - - - - - - - - 2-3

.6 Research problem - - - - - - - 3

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Environmental health - - - - - - 4-5

2.2 Environmental hazards - - - - - 5

2.2.1 Objective of environmental health - - - - 5-6

2.3 Water - - - - - - - - - 6

2.3.1 Qualities of water - - - - - - - 6-7

2.3.2 Water and its relation to health - - - - 7

2.3.3 Factors affecting water quality - - - - 8-9

2.4 Ground water Resources - - - - - - 9

2.5 Ground water source and protection - - - 9-10

2.6 Management of water use - - - - - 10

2.7 Soakaway system - - - - - - - 11

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Data collection - - - - - - - 12

3.2 Interview with source owners - - - - - 12

3.3 Water quality test - - - - - - - 12

3.4 Secondary data collection - - - - - 13

3.5 Physical content analysis - - - - - 13

3.5.1 Temperature - - - - - - - - 13

3.5.2 Water ph - - - - - - - - 13

3.5.3 Colour - - - - - - - - - 13

3.5.4 Total hardness - - - - - - - 14

3.5.5 Turbidity - - - - - - - - 14

3.6 Chemical content analysis - - - - - 14

3.6.1 Conductivity - - - - - - - - 15

3.6.1.1 Manganese - - - - - - - 15

3.6.1.2 Calcium - - - - - - - - 15

J.6.1.3 Chloride:....................................................................16

3.6.1.4 Ammonia:..................................................................16

3.6.1.5 Sulphate:..................................................................16

3.6.1.6 Phosphate:...............................................................17

3.6.1.7 Zinc:........................................................................17

3.6.1.8 Copper:.......................................................................17

3.6.1.9 Lead:...........................................................................17

3.6.1.10 Sodium:...................................................................18

3.6.1.11 iron:.........................................................................18

3.6.2 Bioteriological analysis

(total coliform and fecal coliform:……………………….. 18-19

3.6.3 Total dissolved solids (TDS):.........................................19

3.6.4 Total suspended solids (TSS):.......................................19

3.7 Test for chemical content of Ground water quality:........19

3.7.1 Dissolved solids:......................................................19-20

3.7.2 Hardness:……………………………………………………….20

3.8 Test for biological content of Ground water quality:......20

3.8.1 Methods of test20-21

CHAPTER FOUR:

4.1 RESULT AND ANALYSIS:……………...22-42

CHPATER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Summary:.............................................................................43-44

Conclusion:................................................................................45

Recommendation:.......................................................................46

References:………………………………………………………………...47-48
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research work on the EFFECT OF

DISTANCE SOAKAWAY AND BOREHOLES ON GROUNDWATER

QUALITY carried out by IBIANG IBIANG ONEN with Registration

No.: has satisfied the regulations governing the award of the degree

in Civil engineering of Cross River University of Technology,

……………………… Date:…………………….

Student

Ibiang Ibiang onen

……………………….. Date:……………………….
Project Supervisor
Engr. Ansa Anchibong

………………………… Date:……………….
Project Supervisor
Mr. Ebri Ibiang
………………………. Date:………………….
Head of department
Engr. Ekpe Ita

……………………………… Date:…………………..
Engr. (Prof) I. L. Nwagozie
External supervisor
 DEDICATION

This research is dedicated to the Almighty God and to my beloved

parents, Ekpo and Sgt. Okoi Ibiang Onen for their wonderful love

towards my education.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to the creator of the whole

universe, the Almighty God, for His incomparable love, wisdom,

protection, and guidance.

My sincere gratitude also goes to my dearest parents Mrs. Veronica

Edet, and Sgt. Okoi Ibiang and my Supervisors Mr. Ibiang Ebri Ibiang

and Engr. Ansa Archibong for their advice towards the achievement

of this report.

I am also thankful to my head of department Engr. Ekpe Ita, my

lecturers and my colleagues in the University.

 CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

In Nigeria, it is the duty of the government to provide portable

water. Most often, this responsibility is not adequately discharge

causing the inhabitants of those cities to look elsewhere to meet their

water needs. The alternative may be unwholesome.

In Ugep, Cross River State, the inability of the government to

provide sufficient portable water has led private entrepreneurs to

sink boreholes. Water from these boreholes is pumped out "raw" to

the public without any form of treatment and is used for drinking

and other household activities.

1.2 Scope and limitation of study

The scope of work covers the following:

(a)ground water analysis

(b) water analysis

(c) effect of distances of soakaway to groundwater sources

 The entire research was conducted in the rainy season and

therefore information on access to portable water and uses in dry

season was based on interview with inhabitants of tire town.

The accuracy of this research is based on data obtained from

five (5) times sampling during the wet season.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of Study

The objectives of this research are to:

 Determine the portability of water consumed in the area.

 Make recommendations on boreholes drilling

 Control groundwater abstraction

1.4 Significance of Study

The significance of this research are:

a) To review the importance of soakaway location from groundwater.

b) To review the risks to health caused by groundwater

contamination from on-site sanitation

1.5 Area of Study

The study area in this research work was restricted to Ugep

town in Yakurr Local Government Area, Cross River State. Ugep is a

densely populated town with a population of 140,000 persons in the

latest 2006 census with a proportionate increase in the erection of

toilet facilities. With the ban of pail toilet system by the Cross River

State Government in the late: -U 50s, Ugep witnessed a massive

increase in the number of soakaway pits and septic tanks.

The efficiency in public water distribution by the Cross River

Style Water Board Limited (CRSWB ltd) also saw the emergence of

borehole water sour -e in virtually every yard or house. These houses

are closely located to each other, some are less than three metres

(3m) apart, Therefore, the boreholes compete for space with the

soakaway pits and septic tanks with total disregard to acceptable

standards of minimum distance of 30 metres (30m) as recommended

by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) between a

portable water source borehole and a toilet facility (septic tank and

soakaway pits). The magnitude of groundwater pollution in Ugep is

very high. This accounted for the up surge of reported cases of water
borne diseases like typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery, (Public

Health, Journal 1994)

1.6 Research Problem

One of the problems, of Ugep community is water crisis, where

the available water does not meet the inhabitants water demand.

Water scarcity in Ugep arises due to the numbers of factors such as

wastage of water, deforestation and urbanization. Water-borne

diseases are the leading cause of death (Augustine, 2001).

Boreholes are designed and located without proper site investigation

on possible pollution sources. The consumers are not even aware of

basic water treatment methods that should be applied before

drinking due to ignorance.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Envi ronmental Health

World Agency of Health Biology (WAHEB 1991) defined an

environment as, all the conditions, circumstances and influences

surrounding and affecting the development of organism or group of

organisms.

Health as defined by World Health deals with the prevention

and control of all the factors in man's physical environment which

exercise or may exercise a deleterious effect on the physical

development of health and survival of an individual. Some of these

factors are natural while some are man-made.

Sanitation is an act of removing all unwanted/harmful

substances from man's surrounding including the modification of

some harsh environmental elements for healthy living and survival

(Bassey, 2004).

Philosophically, sanitation can be seen as a way of life, the

quality of living that is expressed in clean homes, businesses,

workplace, farms, and neighbourhood, and must be constantly

nourished by knowledge and effective legislation.

 The activities that are performed under the auspices of

environmental health programme are:

 Solid waste management

 Liquid waste management

 Wholesome and adequate water supply

 Provision of good housing

 Food hygiene and sanitation

 Vectors and pests control

 Noise and radiation control

 Air pollution control

2.2 Environmental Hazards

These are those elements, substances or factors found within

man's surrounding which has harmful or delirious effects to man's

health and survival. They are those elements in the physical

environment which, though caused by forces extraneous to man, are

harmful to him. (Maurice, 2004). They are categorized under:

physical, chemical, biological, mechanics:, psycho-social and

ergonomic hazards.
2.2.1 Environmental Health

The objectives of environmental health are:

 To enhance environmental beauty

 To enhance resource uses by way of solving environmental

problems and preserving natural resources

 To enhance health and comfortable living as well as enhance

longevity.

 To assist the ecosystem 10 regenerate

 The prevent spread of disease

 To prevent pollution of environment.

 To prevent accident and injury.

2.3 Water

Water is a natural occurring substance. Water is essential to

man, animals and plants and without water life on earth would not

exist. Man needs about 1.5-3 liters of water daily for body metabolism

(Philip 1990). Apart from this basic requirement, man needs water

for domestic, recreation, farming and transportation activities.

Water in it's pure state is a compound made up of two elements,

hydrogen and oxygen chemically combined together in the ratio of

2:1 (H2O) which exist in three stages: solid, liquid and gaseous. It

boils at 100°c, freezes at 0°C and reaches maximum density at 4°C.

On the other hand, water if polluted predisposes users to a

number of diseases. Also water in excess could cause flood hazard,

dampness in building as such and detrimental to man.

2.3.1 Qualities of Water

Water qualities are those suspended particles in dissolved form

found in water. There is no single measure that constitutes good

water quality. It depends on its use. Also, water quality problem can

be treated because it is defined by analyzing it in terms of its chemical

content, physical content and biological content.

Good quality (potable) drinking water is free from diseases-

causing organisms, harmful chemical substances and radioactive

matter. R tastes good, is aesthetically appealing and is free from

objectionable colour or odour.

It should be emphasized that there is a difference between

"PURE WATER" and "SAFE DRINKING WATER". Pure water, often

defined as water containing no materials or chemicals, does not exist

naturally in the environment. Safe drinking water, on the other hand,

may retain naturally occurring minerals and chemicals such as

calcium, potassium, sodium or fluoride which are actually beneficial

to human health. These chemicals impart some taste to the water

that meant drinking. Water meant for human consumption should

have the following characteristics:

 It should be colorless, odorless and tasteless

 it should be free from suspended matters.

 It should be soft and not hard

 It should be free from pathogenic organisms

2.3.2 Water and its relation to health

Water as a compound is innocuous (harmless) but the presence

of some suspended substances in it (organic or inorganic) may be

capable of causing diseases to man.

2.3.3 Factors Affecting Water Quality

Water-x (H2O) is used for three main purposes; domestic uses,

agricultural uses, and industrial uses. Each country uses different

amount of its a available water for these three main purposes. In

percentages, the global use for the three main purposes is divided up

as follows:

Agriculture (mainly irrigation) - 69%: industrial -23% and domestic

drinking; and sanitation) - 8% (Lenntech, 2007). This case study only

focuses on access to potable water for domestic activities. Domestic

activities are divided into drinking water, bathing, food preparation,

hygiene and sanitation (Billig, et al, 1999).

Groundwater in rocks such as limestone and dolomite, which

contains significant amounts of highly soluble minerals, has a higher

dissolved-solids content than groundwater in rocks such as granite

and basalt, which contain relatively few soluble minerals. Because of

its long contact time with minerals surface and relatively low

dissolved-oxygen contents, groundwater in an area usually has a

higher dissolved-solids content than surface water.

The quality of groundwater is of vital importance, whether the

water is to be used for industrial or domestic purposes. In general,

groundwater is free from bacteria, because, the passage of water

through the ground strata constitutes a natural filtering process.

This does not remove the vital necessity for routine

bacteriological examination of all groundwater to be used for

domestic purpose especially, when site geology would permit

contamination of the groundwater from surface sources.

2.4 Groundwater Source

 When a hole is drilled into the ground to the aquifer layer, the

area is filled with water within a few minutes of the surface area. The

water would appear even if no rain fell and no streams flow nearby.

The water that seeps into the ground is part of the vast reservoir of

subterranean groundwater that saturates the earth's crust in a zone

between a few metres above and a few metres below the surface.

We can extract the water by digging wells and pumping it to the

surface. Before the invention of advanced drilling and pumping

technologies, human impact on groundwater resource was minimal.

Deep wells and high-speed pumps can extract groundwater more

rapidly than natural processes can replace it.

2.5 Groundwater Source and Protection

This water is obtained from the ground through wells,

boreholes, springs these water sources are relatively safe

(wholesome) depending on the level of external pollution and the level

in the earth crust where the water is obtained. The groundwater

(borehole or wells) can be protected by the following ways:

 Making sure the water is obtained from deep well.

 Maintaining a safe distance of 50m and above before locating a

 borehole away from a soakaway.

  Providing water lightning to the borehole at least 60cm above

 ground level to prevent entry of rain water runoff into the well.

 Providing cover for the boreholes.

 Cover should be made to slope to a drain leading to a soakaway

to

 ease waste discharge from the mouth.

 A newly constructed borehole should be disinfected before use.

2.6 Management of water use

When dealing with groundwater that is naturally replenished in

wet season, we should develop plans to use surface water when

available and not be afraid to use groundwater in dry season the

groundwater might be pumped out at a rate exceeding the

replenishment in dry seasons. During wet seasons, natural recharge

and artificial recharge (Pumping) take place as excess surface water

gets into the ground to replenish the groundwater resources.

This management plan recognizes that excesses and

deficiencies in water are natural and can be planned for.

Odendall (1999) Argued that the management of water

resources cannot be successful so long as it is naively perceived,

primarily from an economic and political standpoint. A new

philosophy of water management is needed based on geological,

geographic and climatic "actors as well as the traditional, economic,

social, and political factors.

2.7 Soakaway Systems

Soakaway system have been the traditional way to dispose of

storm water from buildings and paved areas remote in Nigeria. In

recent years, soakaway system have been used within urban, latrine

pits are to limit the impact on discharge of new upstream building

works and to avoid costs of latrine up-o ading outside a development

(soakaway design, Digest 365).

Soakaways are seen increasingly as a more widely applicable

option alongside ether means of groundwater control and disposal.

Soakaways must store the immediate storm water run-off and allow

for its efficient infiltration into the adjacent soil.

They must discharge their stored water sufficiently quickly to

provide the necessary capacity to receive run-off from a subsequent

storm. The time taken for discharge dispends upon the soakaway

shape and size, and the surrounding soil's infiltration

characteristics.
 CHAPTER THREE:

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Data Collection

For the purpose of this research, five (5) samples from five (5)

different wards in Ugep (Njelekoko, Ijiman, Ketabebe, Ntakpo, Ijom

and Biko-Biko), were taken and analyzed. Also interviews were

conducted with borehole owners and consumers by application of

questionnaires.

Field observations were made during the survey work to make

valid some of the information obtained from the survey. These

observations include, water colour, distance to water source and

location of public and private water sources.

3.2 Interview with Source Owners

Different owners of water sources in their houses and water

sales attendants were interviewed for more information on the

treatment of water as well as the procedures of water treatment.

3.3 Water Quality Test

The quality of drinking water were analyzed in three groups

using physical, chemical and biological methods. The samples were

analyzed for temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, manganese,

magnesium, calcium chloride, ammonia, sulphate, phosphate, zinc,

copper, lead, sodium, and iron, Total suspended solids (TSS) Total

coliform fecal coliform, total dissolved solids (TDS), at Cross River

State water board limited Calabar.

3.4 Secondary Data Collection

Materials were collected through a review of existing literature

by the use of internet, textbooks, Journals, policy documents, and

interview with experts in the field.

3.5 Test for Physical Content on Groundwater

The physical analysis base on this research is to determine

substances affecting the physical quality of ground water.

3.5.1 Temperature Test (°C)

The water sample was put into a 250ml beaker and a

thermometer was inserted into the water and readings were taken

and recorded for each water sample.

3.5.2 Water pH

The water was put in a beaker of 250ml, an a pH meter probe

was rinsed with distilled water and inserted into the water sample in

the beaker Tin. READ key was pressed and the pH value was
recorded for each sample. The pH meter that was used was model.

(Mettler Toledo Mp 220).

3.5.3 Colour

The water sample was filled into a tube and placed in the right

hand corner of the comparator, the disc was placed on comparator

and rotated. The nearest colour match was taken and noted, the

colour value. The colour was determined using LOVIBONG

COMPARATOR.

3.5.4 Total Hardness

1mm (one millimeter) of the sample was placed in a reaction fill

and 1ml of total hardness reagent H-K was added with pipette and 3

minutes reaction tine was allowed before the total hardness was read

out in the spectrophotometer, and the values were recorded to a wave

length of 450mm

3.5.5 Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which water loses its

transparency due to the presence of suspended solids or particulates.

3.5.6 Water pH
 pH is a measurement of how acidic or how alkaline something

or water is. pi- is the amount of acid and base present in groundwater

quality.

3.6 Chemical Content Analysis

The chemical parameter was tested which include the following

and the concentration of each element was determined using a

spectrophotometer.

3.6.1 Conductivity

The conductivity meter probe was rinsed with distilled water

and inserted into the sample and the conductivity meter (model

Hanna instrument H, 8733) was used and the values was recorded.

3.6.1.1 Manganese (Mg)

The manganese was tested using spectrophotometry. 5ml of the

water sample was placed in a test tube and 4 drops of manganese

reagent Mn –1 was added and shaken. This was allowed to stand for

two (2) minutes. Thereafter, 2 drops of manganese reagent Mn –2 were

added, shaken and allowed to stand for another 2 minutes before

reading the manganese concentration from the spectrophotometer at

a wave length of 520nm or 520mg/LMn1.

3.6.1.2 Calcium (Ca):

 Calcium was tested with the use of spectrophotometry. 5ml of

the water sample was placed in a test tube and 4 drops of calcium

reagent Mn –1 was added and shaken. This was allowed to stand for

2 minutes thereafter, 2 drops of calcium reagents Mn"2 and Mn –3

were added, and shaken and allowed to stand for another 2 minutes

before reading the calcium concentration from the spectrophotometer

at a wavelength of 520mg/LMn-1.

3.6.1.3 Chloride (CL1):

5ml of the water sample each was placed in a test tube and

2.5ml of chloride reagent CL-1 was added and mixed. CL-2 reagent

was added and snaked and was allowed to stand for one minute

before reading out the chloride concentration from the

spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 460 Mn-1.

3.6.1.4 Ammonia (N03)

10ml of the water sample was placed in a calibrated plastic cup

and 2 drops of ammonia reagents as well as 8 drops of ammonia

reagent 2 (Nessler solution) were each added to the water, sample

and mixed. After 5 minutes the solution was poured into the

colorimetry tube and the nearest co :>ur match was used to

determine the ammonia concentration.

3.6.1.5 Sulphate (S04)

2.5ml of the water sample was placed in a test tube and 2 drops

of sulphate reagent (S04 -1A) was added and mixed. 1 (one) level spoon

of reagent Sol -2A was added and mixed. The solution was then

tempered in a water bath at 40°C for 5 minutes. This was transferred

into a round cell and placed in the water sample of a wavelength of

520Mn-1 was used and the values were recorded.

3.6.1.6 Phosphate (P)

5ml of water was put in a test tube and 5 drops of phosphorus

reagent P 1A was added to it and mixed. This was followed by the

addition of one level spoon of phosphate reagent P-2A. 5 minute time

for colour development was allowed before phosphorus concentration

was read in the spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 420 Mn-1.

3.6.1.7 Zinc(Zn)

3 drops (0.3ml) of zinc Zn-3k was added to a reaction cell and

shaken this was allowed to stand for 1 minute and the zinc

concentration was taken from the spectrophotometer and recorded.

3.6.1.8 Copper (Cu)

5ml of water sample was placed in a reaction cell and 5 drops

of copper reagent Cu-1k was added into it and shaken. A reaction

time of 5 minutes was allowed before reading was taken in the

spectrophotometer at 420Mn-1 wavelength.

3.6.1.9 Lead(Pb)

5ml c the water sample was placed in a reaction cell and 5 drops of

lead reagent Pb-1k was added and mixed. The concentration of lead

was determined in the spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 620Mn-

1.

3.6.1.10 Sodium (Na)

5ml of the water sample was placed in a reaction cell and 5

drops of sodium reagent Na-1k was added and mixed the

concentration of sodium was determined in the spectrophotometer.

3.6.1.11 Iron

10ml of the water sample was placed in a reaction cell and one

ferroves iron reagent powder was, added and allowed to mixed on a

concentration of iron was determined.

3.6.2 Bioteriological analysis: (total coliform and fecal coliform)

The method employed for the bacteriological test is the

membrane filtration method.

 All the glass, waves and the media used were sterilized in an

autoclave at 121°C for 15 minutes. The media used (Endo agar and

MF-c agar base) were prepared according to manufacturers

instruction before sterilization The media were poured into sterile

glass Petri dishes and allowed to cool and solidity.

The filtration unit was mounted on the Erlenmeyer flask and

fastened with a clamp. A membrane filter was carefully picked with

a force and placed on the filtration unit and 100ml of the water

sample was measured i sing the measuring cylinder and poured into

the filtration unit. The vacuum pump was then turned on and the

water was filtered out into the Erlenmoyer flask. The membrane filter

was carefully removed with a sterile forcep (dipped in alcohol) and

placed on the molten medium incubation /as done at coliforms in an

incubator for 24 hours. After the 24 hours period, the cultures were

harvested and colonies counted with a colony counter. The colony

counts were appropriately noted for all the samples.

3.6.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)

This was determined by multiplying the conductivity value by a

constant 0.6, (i.e. TDS = conductivity x 0.6)

3.6.4 Total Suspended Solid (TSS)

 A whatman No.1 filter paper was weighed and the initial weight

noted. 100ml of the water sample was them filtered through the

whatman filter paper. The filter paper was then dried in an oven at

50°C and cooled in a desiccators. The filter paper was then reweighed

in an the finally reading noted. The difference between the final

reading and the initial reading gives the value for TSS and was

recorded.

3.7 Test for chemical content of groundwater quality

The chemical content of groundwater in this research include: 3.7.1

3.7.1 Dissolved Solid

 Total solids

 Suspended solids

 Dissolved solids

 Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N).

3.7.2 Hardness

Hardness is caused by different metallic ion or the ++ charges

of ca and are capable of reactinf with soap to form precipitate and

with certain anions (-) to cause scale. If water concentration is 0-75

milligram/litre, the water is said to be soft, then 75 – 150mg/L

moderately hard; and 150 – 300mg/L-very hard

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hard-water).

3.8 Test for biological content of groundwater quality

3.9 This is a process of testing the bacteriology (bacteria’s and

viruses) of groundwater, which include:

a. Fecal coliform

b. Total coliform

c. Viruses

Methods of test

Five water samples were taken in the following manner:

(a) Water has pumped from the well for about three minutes. While

the water was still following, distilled water bottle was immersed

for two seconds and withdrawn, the colour was allowed to

develop for 60 seconds and was compared against the enclose

colour strip and result was recorded.

(b) Sample in a clean water bottle was collected:

(a) Making visual observations concerning the turbidity.

(b) Statements about the adour observed in water was made.

 (c) With the sample in the clear glass, the TB's with a total oxygen

(To’s) pocket meter was recorded in ppm (parts per million) the

appr private multiplier.

(d) Bacteriological test was conducted to obtain meaningful

results. The pipe from the pump was briefly scorched with a

match to ensure that any detected bacteria were from the water

itself and not the pump surfaces. The water flows for 2-3

minutes before a sample were obtained. The sterile plastic

sample bag was filled, taken care that the inner surface of the

bag does not touched by anything including hands.

For total coliform, water was carefully poured into the sample vial

until the liquid level reach the fill-line (The La Monte test requires 5

vials). Ensuring that the lip of anything, cap was placed back on.

Vials were placed upright, the colour change was recorded and the

gas formation and politic of the thimble in the vials. After the test,

the lids was removed, vial were rinsed with bleach and crushed and

buried in the ground where children would be able to find them and

play with, because they contain potentially Dangerous bacterial.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

For the ease of this project analysis, the parameters obtained were

split into five (5) tables and in each table three graphs (Total coliform

against distance, conductivity against distance, and Ph against

distance) were plotted for each ward.

The distance used for the plotting of each graph was the average of

each distance, which is illustrated as follows:

0+2 =1m
2

2+4 =3m
2

4+6 =5m
2

6+6 =7m
2

8+10 =9m
2
 TABLE 4.1

[PARAMETER NJELEKOKO
SPECIMEN A B C D E WHO'S
[Distance (M) 0.2m 2-4m 4-6m 6-8m 8-10m Standard
Ammonia (No) 2.80 2.40 2.00 1.80 1.50 1.0
Temperature (°C) 25.1 25.0 25.2 24.8 25.0 Ambient
pH 5.18 5.14 5.06 5.02 5.00 6.5-8.5
[Turbidity (NTU) 7.17 0.48 0.33 0.00 0.00 5.0
Conductivity (US/CM) 38.5 37.1 35.5 36.1 34.8 500
Manganese (Mg/L) 0.52 0.44 0.26 0.13 0.10 0.05
I Magnesium (Mg) 11.52 11.10 10.3 9.30 9.12 100
Calcium (Ca) 8.20 8.00 7.80 6.17 6.00 50
Chloride (CM 4.30 3.13 2.14 1.04 1.12 250
Sulphate (So-0 3.14 3.05 3.00 2.65 2.60 200
Phosphate (P) 2.67 1.01 2.05 0.87 0.89 200
Zinc (Zns 0.92 0.86 0.70 0.30 0.25 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.33 0.23 0.11 0.09 0.9 1.0
Lead (Pb) 0.33 ID ND ND ND NOT
DETECTED
Sodium (Na) 2.15 1.34 1.08 1.00 1.00 ND
Iron (Mg/L) 0.37 0.25 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.30
Total Coiifor (100M/L) 89 42 30 25 26 0
Fecal Coliform (100M/L) 60 29 18 14 18 0
IDS (Mg/L) 23.1 22.32 21.3 21.66 20.88 300
TSS(Mg/L) 0.1140 0.081 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.1
TABLE 4.2

PARAMETER IJIMAN
SPECIMEN A B C D E WHO'S
Distance (M) 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 Standard
Temperature (°C) 26.6 26.3 26.8 26.1 26.0 Ambient
pH 5.99 5.91 5.90 5.01 5.00 6.5-8.5
Turbidity 1.15 1.02 0.96 0.84 0.77 5.0
Conductivity (NTU) 56.0 54.1 53.2 50.9 50.0 500
Manganese (Mg/L) 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.60 20.8 0.05
Magnesium (Mg) 26.0 26.0 24.3 22.0 11.85 100
Calcium (Ca) 19 11.0 14.0 10.9 3.00 50
Chloride (CM) 3.18 3.14 3.11 3.02 0.66 250
Ammonia(NO3) 1.02 0.80 0.75 0.70 3.22 1.0
Sulphate (Sew) 4.11 4.10 3.87 3.87 2.07 200
Phosphate (P) 3.30 3.00 2.50 2.23 0.60 200
Zinc (Zn) 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.77 0.40 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.70 0.70 0.50 0.44 ND 1.0
Lead (Pb) ND ND ND ND ND ND
Sodium (Na) 2.50 2.31 2.05 2.88 2.01 ND
Iron () 0.44 0.36 0.36 0.21 0.18 0.30
Total Coliform (100M/L) 72 58 42 36 28 0
Fecal Coliform (100M/L) 44 30 18 11 15 0
TDS (Mg/L) 33.6 32.5 31.9 30.5 30.0 308
TSS(Mg/L) 0.513 0.89 0.05 0.00 0.00 0-1
TABLE 4.3

PARAMETER KE TABEBE
SPECIMEN A B C D E WHO'S
Distance (M) 0-2m 2-4m 4-6 m 6-8 m 8-1 Om Standard
Temperature (°C) 25.8 25.3 25.0 24.8 24.2 Ambient
pH 6.06 5.90 5.90 5.88 5.70 5.0
Turbidity 2.55 2.06 1.27 1.05 1.00 5.0
Conductivity (NTU) 40.1 38.2 38.6 38.0 38.3 500
Manganese (Mg/L) 0.54 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.05
Magnesium (Mg) 13.2 13.0 12.1 11.9 10.0 100
Calcium (Ca) 8.6 8.1 7.0 6.8 4.3 2.50
Chloride (CM) 2.15 2.10 2.08 2.00 2.10 1.0
AmmonifHNoa) 1.2 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.80 200
Sulphate -804) 3.80 3.12 3.00 2.56 2.44 200
Phosphate (P) 2.08 2.00 1.86 1.50 1.40 200
Zinc (Zn) 0.20 0.08 0.80 0.60 0.04 5.0
Copper (Ou) 1.00 0.85 0.60 0.65 0.50 1.0
Lead (Pb; ND ND ND ND ND ND
Sodium (Na) 1.50 1.05 ND ND ND ND
Iron ') 15.30 15.14 0.10 0.09 0.90 0.30
Total Cohform(100M/L) 108 87 74 45 33 0
Fecal Conform (100M/L) 76 51 43 28 21 0
IDS (Mg/L) 24.1 22.9 23.3 22.8 22.9 300
TSS/Mg/L) 0.114 0.006 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0
TABLE 4.4.

PARAMETER BIKO-BIKO
SPECIMEN A B C D E WHO'S
Distance (M) 0-2m 2-4m 4-6 m 6-8 m 8-1 Om Standard
Temperature (°C) 30.2 6.5 25.8 25.7 24.2 Ambient
pH 5.89 .62 5.31 4.25 4.25 65-8.5
Turbidity 38.09 6.50 8.70 5.13 5.02 5.0
Conductivity (NTU) 44.6 40.4 38.6 38.2 38.1 500
Manganese (Mg/L) 2.05 2.00 1.53 1.44 0.05
Magnesium (Mg) 18.3 17.5 17.4 17.0 17.0 100
Calcium (Ca) 11.4 10.8 10.5 10.2 10.8 50
Ammonia(No3) 2.80 2.40 2.00 1.80 1.50 " 1.0
Sulphate ;'So4) 23.8 25.1 24.0 26.1 24.0 200
Phosphatr (P) 17.4 18.9 18.8 19.2 19.0 200
Zinc (Zn) 2.05 2.61 2.12 1.91 0.93 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.87 0.88 0.80 0.79 0.71 1.0
Lead Pb) 0.005 0.004 ' 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003
Sodium (Na) 13.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 200
Iron (Mg/L; 1.53 1.63 1.01 0.83 0.68 0.3
Chloride (CM) 8.70 8.50 8.21 8.08 7.70 2.50
Total Coliform(100M/L) 214 205 191 186 177 0
Fecal Colitorm(100M/L) 192 187 166 152 141 0
TDS (Mg/L 26.8 24.2 23.1 1 22.9 22.86 300
TSS(Mg/L, 2.84 1.552 1.171 0.132 0.105 0-1
TABLE 4.5.

PARAMETER BIKO-BIKO
SPECIMEN A B C D |E WHO'S
Distance (M) 0-2m 2-4m 4-6m 6-8m 8-10m Standard
Temperature (°C) 28.1 28.1 27.5 27.0 27.0 Ambient
pH 5.71 5.66 5.68 5.66 5.56 65-8.5
Turbidity 45.0 44.0 40.6 40.2 39.6 5.0
Conductivity (NTU) 43.2 42.0 41.0 40.5 40.2 500
Manganese (Mg/L) 3.86 3.53 2.94 2.67 2.55 0.05
Magnesium (Mg) 25.4 25.2 24.0 2.40 24.0 100
Calcium (Ca) 15.0 15.0 16.8 15.1 14.8 50
Chloride (Cl1) 11-3 11-0 10.7 10.5 10.2 250
Ammonia(No3) 2.05 1.87 1.52 1.44 1.40 1.0
Sulphate (804) 33.6 32.0 31.1 30.5 30.0 200
Phosphate (P) 26.1 24.1 25.6 23.6 20.8 200
!inc (Zn) 1.04 2-50 1.42 23.6 1-22 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.98 1.18 1.04 1.30 0.99 1.0
Lead (Pb) 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.01 0.005 0.003
Sodium (Na) 16.2 15.4 14.5 0.005 14.0 200
Iron (Mg/L) 2.50 I 2.17 2.18 14.0 1.76 0.3
Total Coliform(100M/L) 286 211 190 1.88 180 0
Fecal Coliform (100M/L) 240 205 182 170 166 0

TDS (Mg/L) 25.9 26.4 24.4 24.1 24.2 300

TSS (Mg/L) 5.381 2.184 1.209 1.124 0.976 0-1
 CHAPTER FIVE:

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

The results obtained from this research work show that the

degree of nearness of any groundwater source, to pollution source

(Soakaway and septic tank) determines, to a large extent, the degree

of pollution of that groundwater source. Tables 4.1 to 4.5 show that

the nearer the soakaway the higher the level of contamination.

However, there were few exceptions where locations at short

distances away from soakaways recorded contamination levels

higher than those at the nearest locations as seen in table 4.1

Further research on the hydro geological nature of such location,

revealed that the topograph and direction of groundwater flow play

very important role in groundwater pollution. Such other parameters

like porosity, soil profile and permeability also influence groundwater

pollution. But for the purpose of this research, these factors

(porosity, soil profile and permeability) were not taken into

consideration, and thus were assumed to be constant.

Borne boreholes are wrongly located downstream while nearby

soakaways are located upstream. The result of this arrangement was

more pronounced in Table 4.1. In this case, sewage effluents flow

from the toilets into the boreholes, thereby causing heavy pollution

of that groundwater source. This situation was more pronounced in

the research on the effects of pit latrines. This is because of the wrong

location of the 44 soakaway without due consideration of hydro-

geology of the area; such as determining the direction of groundwater

flow, soil nature, groundwater table and so on. Some pit latrines were

so deep that they are very close to the groundwater table. Thus

contamination from such pit latrines easily percolates into

groundwater.

This was illustrated in all the figures by the irregular (up and down)

distributions of contaminants concentration.

This research has confirmed the minimum allowable distance

between a soakaway system and ground water source (Borehole),

From the results obtained in chapter 4 of this work, the minimum

allowable distance between soakaway pit and borehole (in Ugep area

of Cross River State) is 30 metres (30m), which is in conformity with

NAFDAC's (National Agency for Food Drug Administration and

Control) recommendation.
5.2 Conclusion

The problem of groundwater pollution is caused by improper

location of soakaway system which disposes micro organisms to the

ground water. coliform pollution of groundwater has resulted in

several known cases of water borne disease epidemics in Ugep. This

problem itself is as old as man. Groundwater quality will be

completely spread if this hygiene's are not checked. This research has

proved that improper location/sitting of boreholes and soakaway has

greatly endangered the live of the inhabitants of Ugep area. Most

families in these areas depend on the heavily polluted water for their

daily consumption and other domestic needs. Therefore, there is an

urgent need for appropriate government agencies arid other,

stakeholders to adopt measures that will check this trend. This

problem is not restricted to the area of this study only. It gives an

insight to the problem of coliform groundwater pollution suffered by

most city dwellers in most of the undeveloped countries.

5.3 Recommendations:

Based on this research, the following recommendation are

made:
(a) Education and proper enlightenment of consumers on boreholes

management strategies is very necessary and hereby recommended.

(b) Government should improve public water supply in order to avoid

over dependence of boreholes as sources of water supply.

c) Boreholes should be very deep, to avoid easy infiltration of

effluents into the water sources.

(d) Boreholes should not be located downstream of a soakaway but

on the upstream side.

(e) A central sewage system should be constructed for more effective

waste water treatment and disposal and land use.

Ah boreholes water in polluted equifers should be treated before

consumption.

(g) Where the water table is high, deep soakaway pits should be

avoided or shutdown if already in existence.

(h) Borehole drillers and intending owners should carry out site

investigations. With a view to identifying possible sources of

pollution. Where there is any identified with the minimum

distance of 50m to a soakaway between the boreholes and the

identified toilet facility should be maintained.

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