22BM402 – BIOSCIENCES IN MEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT 1 & LP3- PHYSICAL PHENOMENONS IN

PHYSIOLOGY
1 INTRODUCTION
The functions and properties of living organisms, including both the physical and chemical
factors and processes, supporting life in single- or multi-cell organisms from their origin
through the progression of life. It encompasses all aspects of life, from how we breathe and
move to how our organs work together to keep us healthy. Understanding physiological
phenomena is crucial in the development of new treatments and therapies for various medical
conditions

1.1 Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily
because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion. Gases also have
viscosity, although it is a little harder to notice it in ordinary circumstances
As the temperature of a substance increases, the viscosity decreases. For example, everyone
has likely already experienced that when honey is heated up it becomes less gooey (less
viscous).

Figure 1 Viscosity Vs Temperature

1.1.1 Kinematic Viscosity
Viscosity expresses how difficult it is for an object to move through a liquid. Conversely,
kinematic viscosity expresses how difficult it is for the liquid itself to move. Viscosity
represents the brakes put on the flow, but the effectiveness of the brake depends on the density
of the fluid. This is the same as how a bicycle and a bus going the same speed and putting on
the same strength of brake would still stop differently because of their difference in weight.
Kinematic viscosity is calculated by dividing a substance's viscosity by its density. The unit for
kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

Figure 2 Viscosity
1.1.2 The Coefficient of Viscosity Formula
The force of friction between two layers of fluid having the area in square centimetre and
separated by distance will have a velocity is given by:

Here, η is coefficient of viscosity and dV/dx is velocity gradient

If a sphere is dropped into a fluid, the viscosity can be determined using the following formula:
η=2ga2 (Δρ)/ 9v
Where, ∆ρ is the density difference between fluid and sphere tested, a is the radius of the sphere,
g is the acceleration due to gravity, v is the velocity of the sphere . Viscosity is measured in
Pascal seconds (Pa s)
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal
friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very
little friction when it is in motion.
Dynamic viscosity (also known as absolute viscosity) is the measurement of the fluid’s internal
resistance to flow while kinematic viscosity refers to the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.

• The viscosity of blood helps in the diagnosis of a number of diseases.

• For example, Stroke or sudden cardiac death, anemia, sickle cell disease,
postmenopausal epidemiology etc.
• Pharmaceuticals
• Prosthetic devices

1.2 Surface tension

Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), to float and slide on a water surface without
becoming even partly submerged. Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink
into the minimum surface area possible.
At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules
to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion)
Surface tension
Intermolecular forces such as Van der Waals force, draw the liquid particles together. Along the
surface, the particles are pulled toward the rest of the liquid
T=F/L
Where, F is the force per unit length, L is the length in which force act and T is the surface
tension of the liquid. The surface tension of water is about 72 mN/m at room temperature which
is one of the highest surface tension for liquid.
1.2.1 Intermolecular forces
Different liquids do not mix together due to their physical properties such as density, surface
tension force, etc. For example, water and kerosene do not mix together. Mercury does not wet
the glass but water sticks to it. Water rises up to the leaves through the stem. They are mostly
related to the free surfaces of liquids. Liquids have no definite shape but have a definite volume.
Hence they acquire a free surface when poured into a container. Therefore, the surfaces have
some additional energy, called as surface energy. The phenomenon behind the above fact is
called surface tension. Laplace and Gauss developed the theory of surface and motion of a
liquid under various situations.
The molecules of a liquid are not rigidly fixed like in a solid. They are free to move about. The
force between the like molecules which holds the liquid together is called ‘cohesive force’.
When the liquid is in contact with a solid, the molecules of the these solid and liquid will
experience an attractive force which is called ‘adhesive force’.
These molecular forces are effective only when the distance between the molecules is very
small about 10-9 m (i.e., 10 Å). The distance through which the influence of these molecular
forces can be felt in all directions constitute a range and is called sphere of influence. The forces
outside this range are rather negligible.
Consider three different molecules A, B, and C in a given liquid as shown below. Let a molecule
‘A’ be considered well inside the liquid within the sphere of influence. Since this molecule
interacts with all other molecules in all directions, the net force experienced by A is zero. Now
consider a molecule ‘B’ in which three-fourth lies below the liquid surface and one–fourth on
the air. Since B has more molecules towards its lower side than the upper side, it experiences
a net force in the downward direction. In a similar way, if another molecule ‘C’ is chosen on
the liquid surface (i.e, upper half in air and lower half in liquid), it experiences a maximum
downward force due to the availability of more number of liquid molecules on the lower part.
Hence it is obvious that all molecules of the liquid that falls within the molecular range inside
the liquid interact with the molecule and hence experience a downward force.

Examples for surface tension.

Water bugs and water striders walk on the surface of water . The water molecules are pulled
inwards and the surface of water acts like a springy or stretched membrane. This balance the
weight of water bugs and enables them to walk on the surface of water. We call this
phenomenon as surface tension.

The hairs of the painting brush cling together when taken out of water. This is because the
water films formed on them tends to contract to a minimum area
 Needle floats on water surface
Take a greased needle of steel on a piece of blotting paper and place it gently over the water
surface. Blotting paper soaks water and soon sinks down but the needle keeps floating. The
floating needle causes a little depression; the forces F, due to the surface tension of the curved
surface are inclined as shown below. The vertical components of these two forces support the
weight of the needle. Now add liquid soap to the water and stir it. We find that the needle sinks.

Take a plastic sheet and cut out a piece in the shape of a boat . A tapering and smooth front
with a notch at the back is suggested. Put a piece of camphor into the notch of the boat. Gently
release the boat on the surface of the water and we find that the boat is propelled forward when
the camphor dissolves. The surface tension is lowered, as the camphor dissolves and produces
a difference in surface tension in the water nearby the notch. This causes the water to flow
away from the back of the boat, which moves the boat forward.

Surface tension in human pathophysiology

• Cell sorting behavior and morphology

• Tissue grafting
• Oncology
• Pulmonary surfactant and breathing cycle
 • Dialysis

1.3 Adsorption
Adsorption is defined as the deposition of molecular species onto the surface. The molecular
species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as adsorbate and the surface on which
adsorption occurs is known as adsorbent. Common examples of adsorbents are clay, silica gel,
colloids, metals etc.

1.4 Diffusion
• Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration.
• Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from
• place to place.
• The particles collide with each other or with their container.
• This makes them change direction.
• Eventually, the particles are spread through the whole container.
1.4.1 Diffusion theory
Fick's 1st law of diffusion

Diffusion occurs in response to a concentration gradient expressed as the change in

concentration due to a change in position, . The local rule for movement or flux J is given
by Fick's 1st law of diffusion:

in which the flux J [cm-2 s-1] is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s] and the negative
gradient of concentration, [cm-3 cm-1] or [cm-4]. The negative sign indicates that J is
positive when movement is down the gradient, i.e., the negative sign cancels the negative
gradient along the direction of positive flux.

The flux J is driven by the negative gradient in the direction of increasing x.For light, the
diffusivity is proportional to the diffusion length D [cm] and the speed of light c:

= cD

where D = 1/(3 µs(1-g)). The units of velocity [cm/s] times the units of length [cm] yield the
units of diffusivity [cm2/s]. The following example describes the local diffusion of red light in
milk.

Fick's 2nd law of diffusion

Consider diffusion at the front and rear surfaces of an incremental planar volume. Fick's 2nd
law of diffusion describes the rate of accumulation (or depletion) of concentration within the
volume as proportional to the local curvature of the concentration gradient. The local rule for
accumulation is given by Fick's 2nd law of diffusion:
in which the accumulation, dC/dt [cm-3 s-1], is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s] and the
2nd derivative (or curvature) of the concentration, [cm-3 cm-2] or [cm-5]. The
accumulation is positive when the curvature is positive, i.e., when the concentration gradient
is more negative on the front end of the planar volume and less negative on the rear end so that
more flux is driven into the volume at the front end than is driven out of the volume at the rear
end.

Diffusion is a process where molecules of a material move from an area of high concentration
(where there are many molecules) to an area of low concentration (where there are fewer
molecules)[1]until it has reached equilibrium (molecules evenly spread).

Diffusion usually happens in a mixture in gas, a liquid and occasionally colloids. It is possible
to see diffusion happening when two liquids are mixed in a transparent container. It describes
the constant movement of particles in all liquids, gases and colloids. These particles move in
all directions bumping into each other.

Incremental planar volume accumulates concentration because the front gradient at x1 drives
more flux J1 into the volume than the flux J2 driven out of the volume by the rear gradient at
x2.

The differential equation for optical diffusion is simply Fick's 2nd law with the substitution of
the product cD for the diffusivity and substitution of F/c for concentration C, although the 1/c
factors introduced on both sides of the equation cancel:
Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from place to
place. Diffusion is an important process for living things; it is how substances move in and out
of cells.Water diffuses into plants through their root hair cells.

1.5 Osmosis
Osmosis, the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents through a
semipermeable membrane (one that blocks the passage of dissolved substances—i.e.,solutes)
Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable.
In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such
as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar
or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as
solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane
(vacuole) or organelle membranes by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer
via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those responsible for
facilitated diffusion and ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is
transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis
across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.