PAHS 318 Compiled by PatrickKyekpa
PAHS 318 Compiled by PatrickKyekpa
PAHS 318 Compiled by PatrickKyekpa
Development
7/6/2023 2
Introduction
• Public Administration as a discipline and practice has evolved over the years to attain
its current “scientific” status.
• Different scholars from various disciplines have contributed, impacted and shaped the
discipline over time.
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Nature & Scope of PA
• Public Administration covers a very wide range of issues which makes it difficult to
find a single worldwide accepted, definition for it.
• The definitions are often skewed depending on who does it – sociologist, economist,
psychologist, and political scientist.
• To properly understand PA therefore implies that one has to view it from different
perspectives.
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What is PA?
• Public Administration is “the art and science of management applied to the affairs of
the state” (Waldo 1967)
• Is PA a science or an art?
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• In his book ‘The Study of Administration’, Woodrow Wilson called Public
Administration a ‘Science of Administration
• Gullick and Urwick -‘Papers on the science of administration’.
• PA as a Science
– Has its own body of knowledge
– Has its own principles and theories for understanding phenomena.
– PA phenomena can be studied with a scientific approach. a science although it does not have the
precision and universality of scientific laws.
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• As an Art
– It requires practice and experience over time to make sound decisions for the state
– Requires a combination of different approaches, methods and techniques to manage the affairs of
the state.
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Public Administration System
• All governments create public administration (PA) systems that are competent and
efficient in delivering public services
• PA systems are the means, processes and institutions and actors by which the vision,
goals and objectives of government are actualized.
• The PA system of a country comprises all the institutions such as the bureaucracy,
ministries, state enterprises; the various employees, for example civil and public
servants; and the modus operandi by which government programs are achieved.
• While some PA systems have been effective in delivering on the goals of government,
others have been ineffective (refer to WGI data)
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The Relationship between Administration and Politics
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Public Administration and Management
• Theoretically, it can be said that both are different terms, but practically, they are
more or less same
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Public Administration and Management
• Management on the other hand is a systematic way of organizing human and material
resources within an organization.
• Public management is a sub-discipline of public administration, and it involves
conducting managerial activities in public organizations.
• Management is an activity of business and exists at the functional level, whereas
administration is a high-level activity.
• In PA, this reflects the blending of traditional/orthodox PA and new public
management approaches in the field
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Similarities between Public Administration and
Management
• Both public administration and public management are concerned with public policy
and how it can be used to improve societal conditions.
• They both use the same essential professional skills, including knowledge of public
finance, leadership abilities, interpersonal communication skills, and strategic
thinking.
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Key Difference(s)
• The underlying difference between both fields lies in the core of administration and
management.
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Public Administration and Development
• Development is conceived in terms of the “capability that a person has to lead the
kind of life that he or she has reason to value”
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Public Administration and Development
• The public administration system is the means through which the goals of
development are realized.
• Public Administration determines and implements the laws that can either promote or
hinder development.
• By its processes and activities, Public Administration serves as the pivot of every
country's development. Compare Japan and Ghana along their PA systems and levels
of development.
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Foundational Theories in PA
1
Scientific Management Theory (Fredric
Winslow Taylor 1856-1915)
Father of the scientific management movement.
Taylor observed that workers purposely operated well below
their capacity; a phenomenon he termed soldering
The causes of soldering include;
Workers believed that if they were productive, only few of them will be
needed; jobs will be eliminated
Non incentive wage systems; workers received the same wage regardless of
their productivity.
Workers wasted their efforts by relying on rule of thumb methods (a general
principle that gives practical instructions for accomplishing tasks) rather than
optimal work methods.
2
Introduction
3
Introduction
4
4 Principles of Scientific Management
Taylor’s theory form the basis of personnel selection as one of the most
important functions of personnel management.
6
Weaknesses
Excessively mechanistic
7
The theory of Bureaucracy
The theory of bureaucracy is credited to German sociologist
(Max Weber) (1864–1920)
8
Bureaucracy made up of two Latin, and Greek words:
bureau meaning “desk in office” and cracy, meaning
“rule”
9
Basis of Weber’s theory of bureaucracy
traditional rule
charismatic rule
rational rule
10
Weber’s concept of domination
11
Types of Authority
Rational authority: rests on the belief of the legality of rules and the
right of those in authority to exercise those rules and commands.
12
Types of Authority
13
Principles of bureaucracy
14
In a bureaucracy, people should occupy positions because of
their performance, not because of their social standing or
personal contacts.
15
The extent of each position, formal authority and task
responsibilities, and its relationship to other positions in an
organization, should be clearly specified.
When the tasks and authority associated with various positions in the
organization are clearly specified, managers and workers know what is
expected of them and what to expect from each other.
16
For authority to be exercised effectively in an organization,
positions should be arranged hierarchically, so employees
know whom to report to and who reports to them.
Managers must create an organizational hierarchy of authority that
makes it clear who reports to whom and to whom managers and
workers should go if conflicts or problems arise.
17
Managers must create a well-defined system of rules, standard
operating procedures, and norms so to effectively control
behavior within an organization.
Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken
under different circumstances to achieve specific goals.
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are specific sets of written
instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task.
For example, a rule might state that at the end of the workday
employees are to leave their machines in good order, and a set of SOPs
then specifies exactly how they should do so, itemizing which machine
parts must be oiled or replaced.
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Core features of Bureaucracy
19
Implications (Benefits of Bureaucracy)
Order:
Bureaucracy ensures that, everyone’s position and task is clearly spelt-
out. there will be no conflicting roles and chaos in organizations.
Predictability:
Given that the way tasks are to be carried out are clearly defined in the
rules and SOP’s, outcomes are predictable because the same method is
employed every day.
Stability:
Bureaucracy leads to order in organizations and this leads to stability in
organizations as everyone goes about their duties as expected of them.
20
Implications (cont’d)
Professionalism:
Specialized skills are required to perform specific duties because task
are divided based on specialization so skilled personnel are required to
carry out tasks.
Standardization:
Because there is a laid down procedure as to how a particular task is to
be performed, the results is the same irrespective of the person carrying
out the task.
21
Weaknesses
22
According to Robert Merton, bureaucracy can have both
functional and dysfunctional effects.
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New Public Management (NPM)
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New Public Management
25
Key objective of NPM
26
New Public Management
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Key Principles of NPM
28
New Public Management
29
Structural changes under NPM
Privatization
Decentralization
30
Process changes under NPM
Liberalization
31
Relevance of NPM to Public
Administration
Accountability of public servants
Control of corruption
32
Weaknesses of NPM
33
Public Administration System in Ghana
(Organizational Framework of Public Administration in Ghana)
• PA systems are the institutions, actors, processes and means by which the vision,
goals and objectives of government are actualized.
• Ghana’s PA system comprises all the institutions such as the bureaucracy, ministries,
state enterprises; the various employees, for example civil and public servants; and
the modus operandi by which government programs are achieved.
• Ghana’s PA system has undergone several changes over the years; from precolonial
times to the current era.
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Historical Context: PA System in pre-colonial era
• Before Britain colonized the Gold Coast, there existed many traditional states (native states)
recognized by European merchants and governments as sovereign states
• The native people of the Gold Coast were governed by their political heads generally called
Chiefs
• The political system of rule by chiefs in the native states is referred to as ‘Chieftaincy
Administration’. Thus, Public Administration in the pre-colonial era was Chieftaincy
Administration.
• Paramount Chiefs of Native States had Executive, Legislative and Judiciary authority of
Public Administration.
• This changed from the 7th of May 1821, when Britain passed a law to create colonial
territories of rule in Ghana (then known as Gold Coast)
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Public Administration in Ghana: 1843-1956
• Under British colonial rule, the Executive, the Legislative, the Judiciary, and the Civil
Service branches of public administration established were dominated by British
Officers.
• It was until the Burns Constitutional reforms of 1946 that Native educated elites were
admitted into the Executive Council of Government.
• However, at the local level of society, the British empowered the Chiefs to rule over
local communities through an accountable system of local government thus indirect
rule through Native Authorities
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Public Administration in Ghana: 1843-1956
• The reluctance of the British to use military force to supersede the chieftaincy
institutions of the existing Native States led to a negotiated political settlement over
the creation of a colonial state in which British officers and chiefs shared sovereign
state authority over territorial administration.
• Chiefs and non-chief native educated elites were gradually incorporated into the
national Executive and Legislative branches of state administration; but the Chiefs
were gradually kicked out after internal self-government
5
Ghana PA system after Independence
• After gaining political independence in 1957, Ghana begun the process of building a
post-colonial Public Administration system.
• The structure of Ghana’s Public Administration system changed after the chiefs and
British colonial officials handed over the executive reigns of Government to non-
chief educated elites
– “This is a critical time for the Gold Coast…the Gold Coast is about to make a great constitutional advance.
The world...is asking whether the people of the Gold Coast have the capacity and the determination to
shoulder their new responsibilities and undertake their complex task of building up and carrying on a good
government under a new constitution.” (Governor Sir Charles Arden Clarke, 1949-1957, Speech in
Legislative Council, 19 January 1950)
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Ghana’s PA system after Independence
• Since 1957, the organizational structure of Public Administration in Ghana has not
changed much.
• However, the Executive branch has taken diverse shapes under eleven (11) Civilian
Governments and six (6) Military Governments
• In the period immediately after independence in 1957 to the mid 1970s, the Civil
Service of Ghana’s Public Administration system was described as “the finest, most
relevant and performance-oriented institution in Africa”, but in the post-1970s it has
been described as “a moribund paper-pushing institution” (Ayee, 2001:2)
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Actors/Institutions of Ghana’s PA system under the 4th
Republic
• Ghana’s current PA system is rooted in the 1992 constitution
• Article 11 of the constitution lists the hierarchy and sources of law that govern
Public Administration in Ghana as follows:
• The 1992 constitution
• Enactments made by or under the authority of Parliament
• Any Orders, Rules and Regulations made by any person or authority under a power
conferred by this constitution
• Subsidiary legislation comprises: Constitutional instruments, Legislative instruments,
Executive instruments, instruments of a judicial character, bye laws, notices, and statutes,
existing law, and common law.
• The Common law: Comprising the rules of law generally known as the common law,
doctrine of equity, and the rules of customary law
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Current structure of Ghana’s PA system
• The Constitution defines the overall structure of Ghana’s PA system as possessing the
ff. features:
– An elected President for a maximum tenure of two terms of four years per term.
– A four-year term national legislature
– An independent judiciary.
– A professional and impartial social services institutions/ SOE’s
– Independent constitutional bodies
– Sixteen Regional Coordinating Councils to represent the interests of the central government in the
regions.
– Two hundred and sixty local government units of elected and appointed members spread across all
the sixteen administrative regions.
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The Public Services of Ghana
• The public service of Ghana refers to the totality of organizational processes and
human resources employed by the state to transact the business of governance
• Article 190 (1) of the of the 1992 Constitution states that the public services of
Ghana shall include:
• The Civil Service The Audit Service
• The Education Service The Health Service
• The Statistical Service The National Fire Service
• Ghana Revenue Authority The Police Service
• The Legal Service
• Public Corporations and Services established by the Constitution and Parliament
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Organizational Structure of Public
Administration in Ghana under the 4th Republic
.
The President
(Executive)
• The fourth republic of Ghana started with 27 Ministries, but many of them have been
re-organized and new ones created (How many now?)
• The political head of a Ministry is the Minister and the bureaucratic head is called the
Chief Director, both appointed by the President
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Public Sector Ministries
• A sector ministry is organized into four main divisions
• General Administration and Finance Division
• Planning, Budgeting, Co-ordination, Monitoring, and Evaluation Division
• Training and Human Resources Development Division
• Research, Statistics, Public Relations and Information Division
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The Regional Coordinating Council
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Functions of the RCC
– Monitor the use of all monies allocated to the DAs by any agency of the Central Government
– Resolve any conflict between a District Assembly and an agency of Central Government, public
corporation, statutory body, Non-governmental Organizations and individuals,
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Metropolitan/Municipal/District Assemblies (MMDAs)
• Below the Regional Coordinating Council, are Metropolitan, Municipal and District
Assemblies (MMDA’s).
• These assemblies are the fulcrum of governance and development at the local level.
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Metropolitan/Municipal/District Assemblies (MMDAs
• Currently there are 260 local authorities, made up of 6 Metropolitan, 109 Municipal,
and 145 District Assemblies.
• Functions of MMDA’s
– They perform deliberative, legislative as well as executive functions.
– They are constituted as the planning authority for the district
– they have the responsibility to bring about integration of political, administrative and development
support to achieve an equitable allocation of power, wealth and geographically-dispersed
development in Ghana.
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• Numerous Commissions and Committees of enquiry have been established at
different times to investigate the problemsaffecting effective and efficient
Public Administration in Ghana.
• It seems that the post-1970s Public Administration system is yet to return to its
best days in the late colonial era and thepost-colonial period prior to the 1970s
• There is the need for more research to understand thereasons for, and solutions
to, the decay of Ghana’s post-colonial Public Administration system
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Trial Questions
Delegation
Under delegation, subnational
governments rather than branches of
central government are responsible
for delivering certain services, subject
to some supervision by the central
government.
Devolution
Also known as political or democratic decentralization
Devolution
devolution is the ultimate/extreme form of political
decentralization.
It refers to a situation in which the central government
transfers authority and responsibilities for decision-making,
finance and management to subnational government.
Devolved assemblies are usually created in response to
increasing centrifugal tensions within a state, and as an
attempt to conciliate growing regional, and sometimes
nationalist pressures.
Decentralization
• It is viewed as a mechanism to enhance democracy
in the form of and good governance. Decentralization enhances local
devolution has transparency and accountability.
been advanced • It gives the masses opportunities to participate in
matters that affect their sociopolitical and economic
on various lives.
grounds, a few of • It brings services closer to the people; it is a means of
delivering better services.
which are stated • It is a means of making better use of scarce resources
here.
Types of Decentralization
• FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION
Transfer of power and responsibility to raise financing locally or transferred from
the central government– as well as the authority to make decisions about
expenditures.
• Legally empowering LG’s to collect and retain some taxes, fees, charges etc;
• Legally empowering LG’s to prepare their own budgets and disburse funds
• Fiscal decentralization can take many forms, including:
• Self-financing or cost recovery through user charges
• Co-financing or co-production arrangements through which the users participate in providing services and
infrastructure through monetary or labor contributions
• Intergovernmental transfers that shift general revenues from taxes collected by the central government to
local governments for general or specific uses;
• Authorization of municipal borrowing and the mobilization of either national or local government resources
through loan guarantees.
• In Ghana, although LG units have the legal authority to impose taxes, the tax base is so
weak that they always depend on central government subsidies.
Political Decentralization
• Transfer of public service delivery functions from central government to local governments, field
offices of MDAs, etc
Overview of Ghana’s Decentralization Policy
(Legal and Policy framework)
• The legal/policy framework of Ghana’s decentralization include PNDC law 207
1992 Constitution, LG Act 462 and the Local Governance Act 936 of 2016.
• Restructuring of resource allocation & resource sharing b/n central & LG’s eg DACF, land rates and minerals royalties, grants,
transfers, and external credits to local governments
• Designating MLGRD as the agency responsible for implementation of the decentralization policy
• Establishment of structures and mechanisms to enhance probity, accountability and transparency in public administration at all
levels of government
Institutional framework
• Population
• Geographical contiguity
• Economic viability
• Despite this, districts have rather been created for political reasons
Benefits of Decentralization
• The reassignment of government officials to local levels, increases their sensitivity to local needs.
• Development of greater administrative capability among local governments officers who have the
opportunity to develop their managerial and technical skills.
• It provides a structure through which the activities of training central government ministries,
departments or agencies involved in development could be co-coordinated more effectively.
• It ensures that flexible and creative administrative innovations can easily be tested and new
policies experienced.
Challenges of Decentralization in Ghana
• Administrative decentralization which involves the inter-service and inter-sectoral
collaboration and cooperation and the integration of some central line ministries,
departments, and agencies has not happened as envisaged because the key
ministries of education and health are yet to be integrated under the
Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies.
Challenges of Decentralization
• Fiscal decentralization has been limited. For instance, the discretion of the
Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies to use proceeds from the
District Assemblies Common Fund is undermined by Section 126(3) of the Local
Governance Act, Act 936 of 2016 which stipulates that “The Minister (responsible
for Local Government and Rural Development) shall, in consultation with the
Minister responsible for Finance, determine the category of expenditure of the
approved development budget of District Assemblies that must in each year be
received by the District Assemblies from the District Assemblies Common Fund”.
Non-functional sub-district structures
• Ayee (2017) observes that their mandates have been taken over by non-
governmental organizations and civil society organizations and therefore they are
irrelevant
Inadequate/low quality of human resources
in the local areas
• The quality of some of the human resources of the Metropolitan, Municipal, and District
Assemblies is weak.
• Poor performance of some MMDCE’s and members of Assemblies, who have exhibited
limited knowledge and information about “local government best practices”.
• The criteria for selecting both MMDCEs and members of Assemblies have been
questioned as a result of the performance of some of them
• There is the need to reduce the effects of extreme partisanship in appointing only party
members to the position of MMDCE’s and 30 percent membership of assemblies by
ensuring that even if that is done, some competence and diligence will be introduced into
the process
Conflicts between MP’s and MMDCE’s
• MMDCE’s lack tenure of office due to the President’s power of dismissal at any
time. Some of them therefore scheme to dislodge MP’s.
• This situation has led to insecurity and conflicts. The constant tension and conflict
between MP’s and MMDCE’s are diversionary and, in some cases, have led to
institutional paralysis and development at the local level.
Centralizing elements
• They are important to address the increasing and complex challenges facing
countries (e.g. poverty, domestic and international security, unemployment,
climate change).
• The SDG’s are a classic example of public policies at the global level
What is Public Policy?
They are deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational
outcome(s).
As opposed to private policies, public policies relate to issues of the general
public or a section of them.
They are choices of government to do something or to do nothing about an issue
(non-decisions of government are also public policy)
They are made or determined by government and politicians.
Decisions and actions of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), pressure
groups, individuals, among others may influence the decision of government, but
do not constitute public policy.
Public policy is influenced by varied stakeholders and interests and they are
characterized by bargaining and negotiation.
Some public policies in Ghana
Several factors determine why governments adopt certain policies or do what they
do.
• The role of political ideology in shaping public policies
Public policies in China and those in the USA
Public policies in Ghana under the CPP and the PP
• Policy contexts both domestic and international
• Available resources
• Political calculus/implications
Questions for discussion
The specific sections or target group of the population that they seek to influence
• These two factors determine the kind of response to policies and the kind of
politics that will surround it.
• The nature or type of policy determines the politics around it; “Polices determine
Politics” (Lowi 1964).
Distributive Policies
• These are the most common forms of governmental actions to solve public problems.
• They are used to provide tangible government benefits in the form of subsidies, cash,
kind, tax advantages, grants, low cost loans, franchises and licenses to persons, groups
and corporate entities.
• They aim at promoting activities that are desirable and beneficial to society as a whole
but would not be undertaken without government intervention or assistance.
• The current fertilizer subsidy of fifty percent given to farmers under the planting
for food program in Ghana is a typical example of distributive policies.
• Direct loans for various aspects of farm improvement such as the purchase of
equipment or soil and water conservation
Redistributive policies
• These are policies and programs intended to readjust the allocation of resources,
wealth, property, rights or some other value among social classes or racial groups
in society.
• The need for redistribution is based on the perception that there are those
already well-endowed and therefore the need to redistribute resources to ensure
social and economic equality
• Thus, such policies and programs transfer the valued items to one group at the
expense of another distinct group.
• Examples of such policies in Ghana are the school feeding program and the
National Health Insurance Scheme.
Protective regulatory policy
• These are policies formulated and enforced to regulate behaviour of individuals, groups
and entities.
• The goal is to help protect society from perceived or potential harm by societal forces or
to correct market failures
• Policy makers use empirical evidence to argue their case out and may use coercion to get
people to comply with protective regulatory policies.
• Typical examples are policies on pollution control and clean air, environmental health and
forests, illegal mining, smoking and food safety.
• Operation Vanguard, a joint military-police task force to ensure maximum compliance.
Competitive regulatory policies
• These are policies which have the intent of limiting the provision of specific goods and
services to only one or a few designated deliverers chosen from a large number of
competitors.
• The regulated goods and services are thought to be important enough to the public good
to require public governmental intervention for one or both of two reasons:
the good or service being allocated is scarce, for example, the finite limit of radio or
television channels;
the public has a stake in the manner in which the good or service is provided. For example
localities needed to be guaranteed they would receive some rail freight service.
• They are competitive because although there are many potential providers, only one can
be chosen at any given time. An example is regulation of the airspace by the NCA.
Material and Symbolic Policies
• Policies can also be categorized according to the effect they have on the
population.
• Examples are policies on minimum wage, and income support like the LEAP
Material and Symbolic Policies
• Symbolic policies tend to have no tangible effect on people and typically involve
little or no money.
• They only reflect social values and are meant to uphold state principles.
• An example is the policy to be on our feet when the national anthem is being
played.
Conclusion
• It is also useful in understanding how public policies turn out particularly during
implementation.
• The policy making process is viewed as sequential, evolving along five delineated
stages.
• It is also seen as a deliberative cycle, with specific activities at each stage of the
process.
• Thus, the process responds to demands made by various forces and stakeholders
Stages of the policy making process
• Howlett and Ramesh identify five main stages of the policy making process. These
are;
agenda setting
policy formulation
implementation
evaluation
Agenda setting
• What is an agenda?
It is a list or outline of things to be considered or done.
• Agenda setting
Agenda setting is the process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose public
and elite attention.
Agenda setting
• Out of the set of all conceivable subjects or problems to which officials could be
paying attention, they do in fact seriously attend to some rather than others.
• So the agenda-setting process narrows this set of conceivable 'subjects to the set
that actually becomes the focus of attention. (Kingdon,1984: 3-4)
Levels of Agenda
• Policy Universe
This is the largest level of the agenda. It comprises the list of all the possible ideas that could
ever be advanced in any society.
• Systemic Agenda
Any issue, problem or idea that could possibly be considered by participants in the policy
process, provided that the idea does not fall outside well-established social, political,
ideological, and legal norms.
all issues that are commonly perceived by members of the political community as meriting
public attention and as involving matters within the legitimate jurisdiction of existing
governmental authority
Levels of Agenda
• Institutional agenda
If a problem or idea is successfully elevated from the systemic agenda, it moves to the
institutional agenda
This is a list of items clearly up for the active and serious consideration of authoritative
decision makers
The list of issues that is being currently considered by a governmental institution, such as an
agency, legislature, or court.
• Decision agenda
The agenda that contains items that are about to be acted upon by a governmental body, such
as bills, court cases, or regulations.
Levels of Agenda
The agenda setting process
• The first step in the agenda setting stage is to structure the problem
This involves not only recognizing that an issue exists, but also studying the problem and its causes
in detail.
It also involves determining how aware the public is of the issue which is mostly a social problem,
deciding who will participate in fixing it, and considering what means are available to accomplish
the solution.
• This helps policy makers to gauge which policy changes, if any, are needed to address the
identified. The agenda, therefore, means “which problems have a better chance of being
addressed”.
• The agenda can be set by the public, interest groups, government officials and the media
• Television and radio networks, play a major role in agenda setting.By deciding what will
be news, the media set the agenda for political discussion
Activities at the agenda-setting stage
• Lobbying
• Groups seeking policy change seek to advance issues closer to the decision agenda
• Groups that oppose change seek to block issues from advancing on the agenda
• Policy Advocacy
• Groups go public with a problem by using symbols and images to induce greater media and
public sympathy for their cause; take advantage of policy windows.
Stages of public policy making
(The Policy Cycle)
Kofi Ayisi (PhD)
Policy Formulation
• At this stage, alternative policy solutions are compared and a decision made about
what sort of solution will be supported.
Policy Formulation
• The resulting policy must be acceptable to both the legislators and the public; the
process of building support for policies is called policy legitimization
• This stage often requires negotiations, bargaining and compromises before the policy can
be developed.
Decision stage
• This is when a policy proposal is chosen out of the many options on the table.
• The process is very much the same as agenda setting and formulation stages.
• Policy makers decide on which policy option will best address the public problem
at last cost and greatest efficiency.
• The main actors here are the president, cabinet and other authoritative actors.
Decision stage
• It is the process of “translating policy decisions into action” (Howlett et al. 2009)
• “It is a process of interaction between the setting of goals and actions geared
towards achieving them” (Pressman & Wildavsky 1984).
• This is the stage where funds (budgets) for executing the policy are provided, the
requisite personnel assigned and rules of procedure developed and followed.
• Key actors at the policy implementation stage include government officials, street-
level bureaucrats, non-governmental actors and the citizenry
Challenges of Policy Implementation
• Gaps in policy goals and objectives and reality on the ground( policy may not be well formulated)
• Lack of support from the legislative, executive and judicial wings of government as well as being
actively supported by organized constituency groups.
• After a policy has been put into effect, three is th need to assesses the extent to which the
policy is working.
• Policy evaluation is the stage at which it is determined how a public policy has actually
fared in action; with judgments made about policy success or failure.
• It assesses the effectiveness of a policy in terms of its perceived intentions and results
(Gerson 1997:120)
• Policy evaluation involves politicians and bureaucrats dealing with a policy in question;
other non state actors like think tanks, and the public when they vote in elections.
Types of policy evaluation
Administrative evaluation
• usually undertaken within the government by specialist agencies to determine whether government services
are being delivered efficiently, while achieving 'value for money’ and within the principles of justice and
democracy.
• Concerned with budgets, priorities, efficiencies, and expenditures.
• It is intended to ensure that policies are accomplishing their expected goals at the least possible cost and
with the least possible burden on individual citizens.
Types of policy evaluation
Judicial evaluation
• This is concerned with the legal issues relating to the manner in which government programs are implemented.
• This type of evaluations are carried out by the judiciary and are concerned with possible conflicts between government
actions and constitutional provisions or established standards of administrative conduct and 'individual rights.
Political evaluation
• Political evaluation is undertaken by just about everyone with any interest in political life .
• They are usually not systematic nor technical; are inherently partisan, one-sided, and biased.
• This is because such actors bring a specific ideological and fixed perspective or 'frame' to the evaluation
process
• Political evaluations simply attempt to label a policy a success or failure, followed by demand for
continuation or change.
The three types of evaluation differ in the way they are conducted, the actors they involve and their effects.
Three main outcomes of policy evaluation
First, a policy can be judged successful and continued in its present form.
Second, a policy can be judged lacking in some areas and efforts are made, for its
reform.
Third, a policy can be judged a complete failure (or success), and it can be
terminated.
• The outcomes of policy evaluation provide feedback to some other stage of the
policy process; in most cases to the agenda-setting stage, making the process
cyclical.
Challenges of Evaluation
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OBJECTIVES
• Definition Of Ethics.
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What are Ethics?
Ethics is an important facet of both business and public administration.
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In public service, ethical behavior is essential to ensure
that decisions are made in the best interest of the public. It
is important for public servant to maintain high ethical
standards in order to build trust with the public and to
ensure that public service is delivered effectively and
efficiently.
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What Is Public Sector Ethics?
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Public sector ethics involves the following key aspects:
Reference.
Inge Amundsen2009
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Roles Of Ethics In Public Sector Management
Ethics are essential in the public sector management because they
guide officials to make decisions that are just and fair to all citizens.
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Limitations of Ethics In Public Sector Management
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3. Complexity of Structure/ System: The intricate and multifaceted nature of
the public sector organizations, their bureaucratic structures and the systems in
which they operate present challenges when it comes to upholding ethics in the
public sector management. This makes the tendency of ignoring some of the
protocols or by pass the system in the process of carrying out their duties very
high.
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5. Lack of Law Enforcement Mechanisms: When there is no clear
system to check unethical behaviour of public sector managers, or the
punishments given to people who engage in unethical practices are not
severe, then there will be an increase in unethical practices in the public
sector.
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