Research Aptitude Paper 1

Unit-II Research Aptitude
As per Updated Syllabus
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S. N. TOPIC PAGE
Public Administration NO.
1. Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics, Positivism

and Postpositivistic approach to research. 2-16
2. Methods of Research: Experimental, Descriptive, 17-61

Historical, Qualitative and Quantitative methods
3. Steps of Research.
62-84
4. Thesis and Article writing: Format and styles of
referencing. 85-93
5. Application of ICT in research.

94-104
6. Research ethics.
105-118
Research
Meaning and Definition:
Research is a scientific and systematic search for various information

about a specific topic. It is just like a search for truth and knowledge.
The English Dictionary meaning of Research is “a careful investigation
or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.” information about a subject can be collected by deliberate
effort and it is presented in a new form after analyzing thoroughly in
research work.
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Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to

the unknown, which may be called a discovery. Different definitions of
research are given by the experts.
According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to

gain new knowledge.”
D. Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of

things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend
correct or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art ”
According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent

searching for facts and their meanings or implications with reference to
a given problem.”
.J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavour to discover,

develop and verify knowledge.”
Clifford Woody, defines “Research is a careful enquiry or examination in

seeking facts or principles a diligent investigation to ascertain
something.”
Objectives:
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful

questions through scientific procedures and systematic attempt. The
hidden truths which are not discovered yet, can easily come to light by
research.
The main objectives of Research are:

1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon.

This is known as Exploratory or Formulative Research studies.
2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group. This is known as Descriptive Research studies.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with other things. This is known as Diagnostic
Research studies.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such

studies are known as Hypothesis-testing Research studies.
Characteristics of Research:
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process
must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.
Controlled– in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to
two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes
the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as
most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social
sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is
carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where
such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as
you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their
impact.
Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures

followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and
justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the
physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps
cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow
others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on

the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and
others.
Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real-life
experiences or observations.
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation
must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and
the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above

characteristics.
1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or experimental
evidence.
4. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to
verify the data collected and the procedures employed.
5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.

6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research requires patience and courage. The researcher should
courageously face the unpleasant consequences of his finding if
any.
8. Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem
which must be solved.
9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Everything must be
carefully defined and described in detail.
10. Research activity is characterized by carefully designed
procedures which are to be analysed thoroughly.
Research Methods:
All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course
of studying his research problems are called as Research Methods.
Methods of research may be classified from different points of view.
These are:
1. The fields to which applied-Education, Philosophy, Psychology.

2. Purpose-Description, Prediction. Determination of status and
causes.
3. Place where it is to be conducted-in the field or in the laboratory.
4. Application-Pure research or applied research
5. Data gathering devices employed-Testing, rating scales,
questionnaires etc.
6. Character of the data collected-Objective, Subjective,
Quantitative, and Qualitative.
7. Forms of thinking-Deductive and Inductive.
8. Control of factors-Controlled and Uncontrolled.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. Application of research study

2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry Mode employed
Based on Application:
From the point of view of the application, there are two broad
categories of research:
1. Pure Research
2. Applied Research,
Pure research (Fundamental) involves developing and testing theories

and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but
may or may not have a practical application at the present time or in
the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought
in order to add to the existing body of research methods.
Applied research (Action Research) is done to solve specific, practical

questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of
a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive. It is
almost always done on the basis of basic research.
Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial

institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will
have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial
partner interested in that program.

Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.

This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using
scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues that
impact the overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a specific
cure for a disease.
Based on Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Exploratory
Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,

problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information
about, say, the living condition of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue.
Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence

of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a
situation.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is

known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study (feasibility study pilot study).
In practice, most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Based on Inquiry Mode:
From the process adopted to find the answer to research questions; the
two approaches are:
1. Structured approach
2. Unstructured approach
Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually

classified as quantitative research. Everything that forms the research
process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to
ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to
determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation.
e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people
hold a particular attitude?
Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is

usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility
in all aspects of the research process.
It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or

phenomenon without quantifying it. The main objective is to describe
the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.
e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of

events, an account of different opinions different people have about an
issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.
Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths
and weaknesses.

In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and

quantitative approaches.
For example, suppose you have to find the types of

cuisine/accommodation available in a city and the extent of their
popularity.
Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out
about them entails a description of the culture and cuisine
The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves

estimating the number of people who visit a restaurant serving such
cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of
popularity.
Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance

knowledge. The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-
commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing
anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact.
Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented

research is conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to
find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to multiple
choices or issues when analyzing a situation.
For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the

last year. The following could be the probable causes: there is no
optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, or
economic conditions.
Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by

companies to understand and resolve their own problems. The

problem-solving method uses applied research to find solutions to the

existing problems.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about

inquiry. It helps create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in
their natural settings. This is a non-statistical method.
Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the

researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The sample
size is usually restricted to 6-10 people. Open-ended questions are
asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to another
question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended
questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.
The following are the methods used for qualitative research:
1. One-to-one interview
2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/Text Analysis
5. Case study research
Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of

collecting data and analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative
methods, this method uses a computational and statistical process to
collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people

means more data. With more data to analyze, we can obtain more
accurate results. This method uses close-ended questions because the
researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.

Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection

tools used in quantitative research. There are various methods of
deploying surveys or questionnaires.
Online surveys allow survey creators to reach large amounts of people

or smaller focus groups for different types of research that meet
different goals. Survey respondents can receive surveys on mobile
phones, in emails, or can simply use the internet to access surveys.
Purpose of Research
There are three purposes of research:
1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is

conducted to explore a group of questions. The answers and
analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the perceived
problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which
haven’t been explored before. This exploratory process lays the
foundation for more conclusive research and data collection.
2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding

knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection.
Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample
population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to
conduct the study. The three main purposes of descriptive
research are describing, explaining, and validating the findings.
For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management
leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a
huge sum of money from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is

conducted to understand the impact of certain changes in existing
standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular

form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to
understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
To understand the characteristic of research design using research

purpose here is a comparative analysis:
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory

Research Research Research
Research
Unstructured Structured Highly structured
approach used
Research
Asking research Asking research By using research
conducted
questions questions hypotheses.
through
When is it Early stages of Later stages of Later stages of

conducted? decision making decision making decision making
Research method is defined as the tools or instruments used to

accomplish the goals and attributes of a study. Think of the
methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments
will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used
efficiently.
Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an

appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting
answers to our questions, we can analyze the findings or observations
to draw appropriate conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough

our questions, the better. By thoroughly collecting data from customers
through surveys and questionnaires, we get important insights into
brand perception and product needs. We can use this data to make
smart decisions about our marketing strategies to position our business
effectively.
Types of research methods and research example
Research methods are broadly classified

as Qualitative and Quantitative.
Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.
Positivism and Post-Positivism Approach
Positivism
Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that
can be studied by applying the methods and principles of natural
sciences and scientific inquiry. It maintains that “the object of study is

independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified

through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are
established by taking apart a phenomenon to examine its component
parts.” According to this paradigm, the role of the researcher is to
provide material for the development of laws by testing theories.
Positivists believe in five principles which include
 Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be

regarded as knowledge),
 Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses
that can be tested to make laws),
 Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws
and knowledge),
 Objectivism (science should be value-free) and
 Scientific statements
Post positivism
Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed

as a result of the criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists
also believe in the existence of a single reality, however, they
acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to
understand reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and
intellectual limitations.
The aim of post positivist research is also a prediction and explanation.

Like positivists, post positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and
ensure that the findings fit with the existing knowledge base. However,
unlike positivists, they acknowledge and spell out any predispositions
that may affect the objectivity

Positivism and post positivism was precluded from use in this study for
several reasons. Firstly, research conducted under both of these
paradigms is usually quantitative where a hypothesis is tested while the
researcher remains objective and separate from the area of
investigation.
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Experimental research
Definition:
Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach

using two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which we
use to measure the differences of the second set. Quantitative research
methods, for example, are experimental.
If we don’t have enough data to support our decisions, we must first

determine the facts. Experimental research gathers the data necessary
to help us make better decisions.
Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses

experimental methods. The success of experimental studies hinges on
researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely on the
manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a
notable cause and effect.
The term experiment may seem to be associated with the image of a

chemist surrounded by bubbling tubes and other related items.
Traditionally, experiments have been used by physical and behavioural
researchers to a greater extent compared to business scientists.
Nevertheless, experiments research can be effectively used in
businesses in order to analyse cause and affect relationships. Deductive
approach is mainly used for experiments research in order to test
hypotheses.
Experiments are usually used in causal studies. Specifically, experiment

researches involve manipulation with an independent variable in order
to assess its impacts on dependent variables. Changes in price levels on
volume of sales can be mentioned as a basic example for experiment. In
this specific example, price can be specified as independent variable,
whereas sales would be dependent variable.
We can conduct experimental research in the following situations:
 Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between

cause and effect.
 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 We wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.
Types of experimental research design
The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to

collect data in experimental studies.”
There are three primary types of experimental design:
 Pre-experimental research design

 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The way we classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups,

determines the type of design.
1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are

kept under observation after implementing factors of cause and effect.
We’ll conduct this research to understand whether further
investigation is necessary for these particular groups.

We can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:
 One-shot Case Study Research Design

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research

relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it
the most accurate form of research. Of the types of experimental
design, only true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within
a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:
 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes,

and an Experimental Group, which will experience the changed
variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution
This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical

sciences.
3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates

similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to experimental, but it
is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment of a
control group. In this research, an independent variable is manipulated,
but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-
research is used in field settings where random assignment is either
irrelevant or not required.
The nature of relationships between two variables in causal

experimental researches may be divided into three categories:
symmetrical, reciprocal and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical relationship can be observed when two variables

fluctuate at the same time. However, in symmetrical relationship
change in one variable is not caused by change in another variable. In
other words, symmetrical relationships of two individual variables
usually would be the cause of another factor.
For example, decrease in the levels of consumption of luxury products

and decrease on the levels of consumer trust on financial institutions
may occur at the same time as a result of a third factor – increasing
level of uncertainty of perspectives of national economy.
Reciprocal relationship between two variables occurs when there is a

mutual influence and reinforcement between two variables. For
example, impacted by a marketing message a consumer purchases a
car from a particular brand for the first time. Consequently, the
consumer becomes loyal to the brand considering more purchases from
the same brand in the future. Hence, the mutual influence between the
consumer and company.
Asymmetrical relationship relates to change in one variable

(independent variable) causing changes in another variable (dependent
variable). There are four major forms of asymmetric relationships:
1. Stimulus response relationship marks occurrence of an event as a

response to certain changes. For example, effective re-branding
initiatives may have positive implications on the volume of sales.
2. Property-disposition relationship. Property is associated with

enduring nature of a subject, whereas disposition can be explained as
tendency to respond in certain ways in certain circumstances. For

example, personal properties include gender, religion, heritage etc,

while personal disposition opinions, values, attitudes etc.
3. Disposition-behaviour relationship relates to a specific type of

relationship where human behaviour is impacted in certain ways. For
example, impact of management style on the levels of employee
motivation and consumer perception about the brand after the
purchase relate to disposition-behaviour relationship.
4. Property-behaviour relationship. This type of relationship relates

to the impact of property to human behaviour. For example, effects of
cultural background on consumer behaviour, implications of family life-
cycle on human tendency to shop online etc.
Experiments aim to answer ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions and they tend to
be used in exploratory and explanatory studies. Experiments can be
divided into two categories: field and laboratory. The following table
illustrates the main differences between these alternative types of
experiments:
Laboratory experiments Field experiments
Artificial – low realism Natural – high realism
Few extraneous variables Many extraneous variables
High control Low control
Low cost High cost
Short duration Long duration

Subjects aware of participation Subjects unaware of participation
Advantages of experimental research
It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding
into something that may not work?
Experimental research allows we to test our idea in a controlled

environment before taking it to market. It also provides the best
method to test our theory, thanks to the following advantages:
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain

desired results.
 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of
experimental research. Any industry can implement it for
research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, we can apply our findings to similar
ideas or situations.
 We can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis.
Researchers can further analyze this relationship to determine
more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data
we collect is a foundation on which to build more ideas and
conduct more research.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research definition: Descriptive research is defined as a

research method that describes the characteristics of the population or

phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of

the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the

nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a
particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the
subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion

purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic
survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then
uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York
buyers,” but not cover any investigative information about “why” the
patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this
market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s
objective.
Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they

are at present with the researcher having no control over variable.
Moreover, “descriptive studies may be characterised as simply the
attempt to determine, describe or identify what is, while analytical
research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be”.
Descriptive research is “aimed at casting light on current issues or

problems through a process of data collection that enables them to
describe the situation more completely than was possible without
employing this method.”

In its essence, descriptive studies are used to describe various aspects

of the phenomenon. In its popular format, descriptive research is used
to describe characteristics and/or behaviour of sample population.
An important characteristic of descriptive research relates to the fact

that while descriptive research can employ a number of variables, only
one variable is required to conduct a descriptive study. Three main
purposes of descriptive studies can be explained as describing,
explaining and validating research findings.
Descriptive studies are closely associated with observational studies,

but they are not limited with observation data collection method. Case
studies and surveys can also be specified as popular data collection
methods used with descriptive studies.
Examples of Descriptive Research
Research questions in descriptive studies typically start with ‘What

is…”. Examples of research questions in descriptive studies may include
the following:
 What are the most effective intangible employee motivation

tools in hospitality industry in the 21stcentury?
 What is the impact of viral marketing on consumer behaviour
in consumer amongst university students in Canada?
 Do corporate leaders of multinational companies in the
21stcentury possess moral rights to receive multi-million
bonuses?
 What are the main distinctive traits of organisational culture of
McDonald’s USA?

 What is the impact of the global financial crisis of 2007 – 2009

on fitness industry in the UK?
Characteristics of descriptive research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design

of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an
observational research method because none of the research study
variables are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative

research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information
for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular
market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the
demographic segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the

variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational
methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-

sectional study where different sections belonging to the same
group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the

data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using
different research techniques. The data can also help point
towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent
research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples
A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for

various reasons. Before getting into any survey, though, the survey
goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there
is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use
descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research
goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive
research today:
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended

questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents.
This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of
the respondents. It could also be to understand from a
respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For
example, understanding from millenials the hours per week they
spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps the
organization researching to make informed business decisions.
 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time

with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities.
Consider if an apparel company researches different
demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new
range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take
too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes
are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel
that customers don’t like.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive

research design to understand how different groups respond to a
specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates
a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s

image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age,
income, gender, geographical location, etc. This consumer
research helps the organization understand what aspects of the
brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also
helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new
product line to cater to high growth potential groups.
 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive

research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing
conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive
research method and the use of quantitative observation and
some aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each
variable and conduct an in-depth analysis. Researchers also use it
to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a
population.
 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be

conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or
differences. This also allows any number of variables to be
evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can
also be repeated to draw trends.
Descriptive research methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research.

They are:
 Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this

research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and
qualitative observations.
A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is

primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with,
of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative
observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis
methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric
value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the
researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a
simple Net Promoter Score question.
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but

instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher
observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in
a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural
and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can
choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a
participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a
supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the
customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth
insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.
 Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or

groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of
studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to
determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions
because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other
reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting

descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the
survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving
away from external validity.
 Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or

questionnaires or polls. They are a popular market research tool to
collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data
should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of
open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method
can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for
descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.
Examples of descriptive research
Some examples of descriptive research are:
1. A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs

would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by
different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette,
they conduct this type of research study using various methods
like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying
while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers
insights about the preference of different markets. This can
also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred
meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research
helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify
marketing in core markets.

2. Another example of where this research can be used is if a

school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about
using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using technology through
observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they
can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face
an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are
impacted in any way with this change.
Some other problems and research questions that can lead to

descriptive research are:
 Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

 A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district wants to understand if students will access
online lessons rather than textbooks.
 To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall
health of the employees.
Advantages of descriptive research
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:
 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research

using specific methods like observational method, case study
method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary
data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of
information. This can be used for future research or even
developing a hypothesis of your research object.

 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative,

it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The
information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the
research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural
environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data
is collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally
large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to
conduct and is inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
1. Descriptive studies cannot test or verify the research problem

statistically
2. Research results may reflect certain level of bias due to the
absence of statistical tests
3. The majority of descriptive studies are not ‘repeatable’ due to
their observational nature
4. Descriptive studies are not helpful in identifying cause behind
described phenomenon
Historical Approach
Historical research or historiography, "attempts to systematically

recapture the complex nuances, the people,meanings,events,and even
ideas of the past that have influenced and shaped the present". (Berg &
Lure, 2012, p. 305 )
Historical research involves studying, understanding and interpreting

past events. The purpose of historical research is to reach insights or

conclusions about past persons or occurrences. Historical research

entails more than simply compiling and presenting factual information;
it also requires interpretation of the information.
Typically, histories focuses on particular individuals, social issues and

links between the old and the new. Some historical research is aimed
at reinterpreting prior historical works by revising existing
understandings and replacing them with new, often politically charged
ones.
The main emphasis in historical research is on interpretation of

documents, diaries and the like. Historical data are categorized into
primary or secondary sources. Primary sources include first hand
information, such as eyewitness reposts and original
documents. Secondary sources include secondhand information, such
as a description of an event by someone other than an eyewitness, or a
textbook author’s explanation of an event or theory. Primary sources
may be harder to find but are generally more accurate and preferred by
historical researchers. A major problem with much historical research
is excessive reliance on secondary sources.
Researches cannot accept historical data at face value, since many

diaries memoirs, reposts and testimonies are written to enhance the
writer’s position, stature, or importance. Because of this possibility,
historical data has to be examined for its authenticity and
truthfulness. Such examination is done through criticism; by asking and
researching to help determine truthfulness, bias, omissions and
consistency in data.
Theorists who developed this political approach focused on the

historical factors like the age, place and the situation in which it is
evolved are taken into consideration. This approach is related to history

and it emphasizes on the study of history of every political reality to
analyse any situation. Political thinkers such as Machiavelli, Sabine and
Dunning considered that politics and history are closely related and the
study of politics always should have a historical standpoint. Sabine
stated that Political Science should include all those subjects which
have been discussed in the writings of different political thinkers from
the time of Plato. This approach strongly maintains the belief that the
thinking or the dogma of every political thinker is formed by the
surrounding environment. Furthermore, history provide details of the
past as well as it also links it with the present events. History gives the
chronological order of every political event and thereby helps in future
estimation of events also. Therefore, without studying the past political
events, institutions and political environment it would be erroneous to
analyse the present political events. But critics of historical approach
designated that it is not possible to understand the idea of the past
ages in terms of contemporary ideas and concepts.
Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary &

secondary including unpublished material.
Primary Sources
 Eyewitness accounts of events

 Can be oral or written testimony
 Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of
meetings, corporate records, recordings, letters, diaries,
journals, drawings.
 Located in university archives, libraries or privately run
collections such as local historical society.

Secondary Sources
 Can be oral or written

 Secondhand accounts of events
 Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles,
newspapers, biographies and other media such as films or tape
recordings.
Steps in Historical Research
Historical research involves the following steps:
1. Identify an idea, topic or research question

2. Conduct a background literature review
3. Refine the research idea and questions
4. Determine that historical methods will be the method used
5. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
6. Evaluate the authenticity and accuarcy of source materials
7. Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the
findings.
Quantitative research
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses

a systematic way of investigating events or data. It is used to answer
questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable variables
to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of

phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques. Quantitative research
collects information from existing and potential customers using

sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls,

questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of
numerical. After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the
future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to

understand the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient
when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction survey
template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did
a doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a
hospital, and other such questions.
Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social

sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect
quantitative data from the research study. In this research method,
researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and
theories that pertain to the quantity under question.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many

times, even investigational. The results achieved from this research
method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data collection happened
using a structured method and conducted on larger samples that
represent the entire population.
As mentioned above, quantitative research is data-oriented. There are

two methods to conduct quantitative research. They are:
 Primary quantitative research methods

 Secondary quantitative research methods
Primary quantitative research methods

There are four different types of quantitative research methods:
Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of

conducting market research. The distinct feature of primary research is
that the researcher focuses on collecting data directly rather than
depending on data collected from previously done research. Primary
quantitative research design can be broken down into three further
distinctive tracks, as well as the process flow. They are:
A. Techniques and Types of Studies
There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be

distinguished into the four following distinctive methods, which are:
1. Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative

outcome research methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask
questions to a sample of respondents, using various types such as
online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept
surveys, etc. Every small and big organization intends to understand
what their customers think about their products and services, how well
are new features faring in the market and other such details.
By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey

questions, collect data from a pool of customers, and analyze this
collected data to produce numerical results. It is the first step towards
collecting data for any research.
This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience

group and also can be conducted across multiple groups along with
comparative analysis. A prerequisite for this type of research is that the

sample of respondents must have randomly selected members. This

way, a researcher can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained
results as a huge variety of respondents will be addressed using random
selection. Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or
via phone calls but with the progress made by online mediums such as
email or social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as
well.
Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone

calls but with the progress made by online mediums such as email or
social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as well.
There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on
the time in-hand and the kind of data required:
Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational

surveys conducted in situations where the researcher intends to collect
data from a sample of the target population at a given point in time.
Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data
gathered using this type of survey is from people who depict similarity
in all variables except the variables which are considered for research.
Throughout the survey, this one variable will stay constant.
 Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs,

healthcare industries. Information is garnered without
modifying any parameters in the variable ecosystem.
 Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple
samples can be analyzed and compared.
 Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey
research.

 The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the

cause-effect relationship of variables cannot be established as
it usually evaluates variables at a particular time and not across
a continuous time frame.
Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational

surveys but, unlike cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are
conducted across various time durations to observe a change in
respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time can be days,
months, years, or even decades. For instance, a researcher planning to
analyze the change in buying habits of teenagers over 5 years will
conduct longitudinal surveys.
 In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated

at a given point in time, and in longitudinal surveys, different
variables can be analyzed at different intervals of time.
 Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of
medicine and applied sciences. Apart from these two fields,
they are also used to observe a change in the market trend,
analyze customer satisfaction, or gain feedback on
products/services.
 In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential,
longitudinal surveys are used.
 Researchers say that when there are research subjects that
need to be thoroughly inspected before concluding, they rely
on longitudinal surveys.
2. Correlational research:

A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is

conducted to establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities
and how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are
eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give value
to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different
groups are required to conduct this quantitative research method
successfully. Without assuming various aspects, a relationship between
two groups or entities must be established.
Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or

more variables using mathematical analysis methods. Patterns,
relationships, and trends between variables are concluded as they exist
in their original set up. The impact of one of these variables on the
other is observed along with how it changes the relationship between
the two variables. Researchers tend to manipulate one of the variables
to attain the desired results.
Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on

correlational research. This is because it is not mandatory that if two
variables are in sync that they are interrelated.
Example of Correlational Research Questions:
 The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its
students.
3. Causal-comparative research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also

called quasi-experimental research, this quantitative research method
is used by researchers to conclude the cause-effect equation between

two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on the other
independent variable. The independent variable is established but not
manipulated, and its impact on the dependent variable is observed.
These variables or groups must be formed as they exist in the natural
set up. As the dependent and independent variables will always exist in
a group, it is advised that the conclusions are carefully established by
keeping all the factors in mind.
Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis

of two variables but extends to analyzing how various variables or
groups change under the influence of the same changes. This research
is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that exists between
two or more variables. Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present
the outcome obtained using this quantitative research method.
Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:
 The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.
4. Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on

a theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based
on one or more theories. This theory has not been proven in the past
and is merely a supposition. In experimental research, an analysis is
done around proving or disproving the statement. This research
method is used in natural sciences.Traditional research methods are
more effective than modern techniques.

There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a

statement that can be verified or refuted.
After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand

whether it is valid or invalid. This type of quantitative research method
is mainly used in natural or social sciences as there are various
statements which need to be proved right or wrong.
 Traditional research methods are more effective than modern

techniques.
 Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to
cope up with the course.
 It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.
B. Data collection methodologies
The second major step in primary quantitative research is data

collection. Data collection can be divided into sampling methods and
data collection with the use of surveys and polls.
Data collection methodologies: Sampling methods
There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research:

Probability and Non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals

from a population and create samples in probability sampling.
Participants of a sample are chosen random selection processes. Each
member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be selected
in the sample.
There are four main types of probability sampling:

 Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random

sampling is nothing but a random selection of elements for a
sample. This sampling technique is implemented where the target
population is considerably large.
 Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling

method, a large population is divided into groups (strata), and
members of a sample are chosen randomly from these strata. The
various segregated strata should ideally not overlap one another.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling

method using which the main segment is divided into clusters,
usually using geographic and demographic segmentation
parameters.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where

the starting point of the sample is chosen randomly, and all the
other elements are chosen using a fixed interval. This interval is
calculated by dividing the population size by the target sample
size.
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the

researcher’s knowledge and experience are used to create samples.
Because of the involvement of the researcher, not all the members of a
target population have an equal probability of being selected to be a
part of a sample.
There are five non-probability sampling models:
 Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a

sample are chosen only due to one prime reason: their proximity

to the researcher. These samples are quick and easy to implement

as there is no other parameter of selection involved.
 Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to

convenience sampling, except for the fact that researchers can
choose a single element or a group of samples and conduct
research consecutively over a significant period and then perform
the same process with other samples.
 Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select

elements using their knowledge of target traits and personalities
to form strata. Members of various strata can then be chosen to
be a part of the sample as per the researcher’s understanding.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target

audiences, which are difficult to contact and get information. It is
popular in cases where the target audience for research is rare to
put together.
 Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability

sampling method where samples are created only based on the
researcher’s experience and skill.
Data collection methodologies: Using surveys & polls
Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be

distributed to collect the data for quantitative research.
 Using surveys for primary quantitative research
A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from

a pre-defined group of respondents to gain information and insights on
various topics of interest. The ease of survey distribution and the wide

number of people it can be reached depending on the research time

and research objective make it one of the most important aspects of
conducting quantitative outcome research.
Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and

ratio scales
There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a

multiple-choice question in a survey. They are nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio measurement scales without the fundamentals of
which, no multiple-choice questions can be created. Hence, it is crucial
to understand these levels of measurement to be able to develop a
robust survey.
Use of different question types
To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be

used in a survey. They can be a mix of multiple question types including
multiple-choice questions like semantic differential scale questions,
rating scale questions, etc.
Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection
In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with
the survey design to conduct primary quantitative research. Survey
distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the survey
process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the
most commonly used methods are:
 Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and
most effective method of survey distribution. The response rate is
high in this method because the respondents are aware of your

brand. You can use the QuestionPro email management feature

to send out and collect survey responses.
 Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey

and conduct primary quantitative research is to use a sample.
Since the respondents are knowledgeable and are on the panel by
their own will, responses are much higher.
 Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website

increases a high number of responses as the respondent is already
in close proximity to the brand when the survey pops up.
 Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey

aids in collecting a higher number of responses from the people
that are aware of the brand.
 QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You
can print/publish this code in magazines, on signs, business cards,
or on just about any object/medium.
 SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a

survey to collect a high number of responses is the SMS survey.
 QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows users to circulate

surveys quickly, and the responses can be collected both online
and offline.
Survey example
An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey

template that can quickly be built and deployed to collect feedback
about what the customer thinks about a brand and how satisfied and
referenceable the brand is.

 Using polls for primary quantitative research
Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended

questions from a sample. The most commonly used types of polls are
election polls and exit polls. Both of these are used to collect data from
a large sample size but using basic question types like a multiple-choice
question.
C. Data analysis techniques
The third aspect of primary quantitative research design is data

analysis. After the collection of raw data, there has to be an analysis of
this data to derive statistical inferences from this research. It is
important to relate the results to the objective of research and
establish the statistical relevance of results.
It is important to consider aspects of research which were not

considered for the data collection process and report the difference
between what was planned vs. what was actually executed.
It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods such as

SWOT, Conjoint, Cross-tabulation, etc. to analyze the quantitative data.
 SWOT analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of

Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threat analysis.
Organizations use this statistical analysis technique to evaluate
their performance internally and externally to develop effective
strategies for improvement.
 Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method

to learn how individuals make complicated purchasing decisions.
Trade-offs are involved in the daily activities of an individual, and

these reflect their ability to decide from a complex list of

product/service options.
 Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary

statistical market analysis methods which establishes
relationships, patterns, and trends within the various parameters
of the research study.
 TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally

Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis, is executed in
situations where the reach of a favorable communication source
is to be analyzed along with the frequency of this communication.
It is used for understanding the potential of a target market.
Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, margin of

error, etc. can then be used to provide results.
Secondary quantitative research methods
Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method

that involves using already existing data or secondary data. Existing
data is summarized and collated to increase the overall effectiveness of
research.
This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from

existing data sources like the internet, government resources, libraries,
research reports, etc. Secondary quantitative research helps to validate
the data that is collected from primary quantitative research as well as
aid in strengthening or proving or disproving previously collected data.
Following are five popularly used secondary quantitative research

methods:

1. Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of

internet and mobile devices, it has become increasingly easy to
conduct quantitative research using the internet. Information
about most research topics is available online, and this aids in
boosting the validity of primary quantitative data as well as
proving the relevance of previously collected data.
2. Government and non-government sources: Secondary

quantitative research can also be conducted with the help of
government and non-government sources that deal with market
research reports. This data is highly reliable and in-depth and
hence, can be used to increase the validity of quantitative
research design.
3. Public libraries: Now a sparingly used method of conducting

quantitative research, it is still a reliable source of information
though. Public libraries have copies of important research that
were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of valuable
information and documents from which information can be
extracted.
4. Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-

depth research on multiple topics, and hence, the reports that
they publish are an important source of validation in quantitative
research.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals,

magazines, radio, and TV stations are a great source to obtain
data for secondary quantitative research. These commercial
information sources have in-depth, first-hand information on

economic developments, political agenda, market research,

demographic segmentation, and similar subjects.
Quantitative research characteristics
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:
 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or

questionnaires are used to gather quantitative data. Using such
structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and actionable
data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant

sample size that represents the target market. Appropriate
sampling methods have to be used when deriving the sample to
fortify the research objective
 Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per

the objective of the research. These questions help collect
quantitative data and hence, are extensively used in quantitative
research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are

studied before collecting feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by

tables, charts, graphs, or any other non-numerical form. This
makes it easy to understand the data that has been collected as
well as prove the validity of the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be

generalized to an entire population to take appropriate actions
for improvement.

Quantitative research examples
Some examples of quantitative research are:
1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction

(CSAT) survey, a customer satisfaction survey template can be
used. Through this survey, an organization can collect quantitative
data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in
the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as
product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This data can
be collected by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question,
matrix table questions, etc. that provide data in the form of
numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.
2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that

conducts an event, collecting feedback from the event attendees
about the value that they see from the event. By using an event
survey template, the organization can collect actionable feedback
about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of
the event such as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of
recommending the organization to their friends and colleagues,
hotel preferences for the future events and other such questions.
Advantages of quantitative research
There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major

advantages of why researchers use this method in market research are:
 Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected,

analyzed, and presented in numbers, the results obtained will
be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They offer an honest
picture of the conducted research without discrepancies and is
also extremely accurate. In situations where a researcher

predicts conflict, quantitative research is conducted.
 Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out
with a group of respondents who represent a population. A
survey or any other quantitative research method applied to
these respondents and the involvement of statistics,
conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and
less time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this
research method provides a wide scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for
personal comments or biasing of results. The results achieved
are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational

methods. Participants are asked open-ended questions. The responses
collected are essentially non-numerical. This method not only helps a
researcher understand what participants think but also why they think
in a particular way.
Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that

focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational
communication.
This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they
think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve
its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that the number of
men visiting this store are more. One good method to determine why

women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview

of potential customers in the category.
For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting

the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them through random
sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have enough items for
women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was
understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding
why they didn’t visit the store, because there were more male products
than female ones.
Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like

psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative
research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and
questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the
interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and
feelings. Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help
derive conclusions in market research.
Types of qualitative research methods with examples
Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal

the behavior and perception of a target audience with reference to a
particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research
methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic
research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the

inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.
Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral

sciences. Today our world is more complicated and it is difficult to
understand what people think and perceive. Online qualitative research

methods make it easier to understand that as it is more communicative
and descriptive.
The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently
used. Also, read about qualitative research examples:
1. One-on-one interview:
Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative

research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one
respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and
invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.
One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to

gather precise data about what people believe and what their
motivations are. If the researcher is well experienced asking the right
questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need
more information the researchers should ask such follow up questions
that will help them collect more information.
These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and

usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When
the in-depth interview is conducted face to face it gives a better
opportunity to read the body language of the respondents and match
the responses.
This interview is conducted with one participant at a given point in

time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in
advance. The researcher asks only the most important questions to the
participant. This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes
to half an hour. During this time the researcher collects as many
meaningful answers as possible from the participants to draw

inferences.
2. Focus groups: A focus group is also one of the commonly used

qualitative research methods, used in data collection. A focus group
usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within
your target market.
The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why” “what”
and “how” questions. One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t
necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus
groups can be sent an online survey on various devices and responses
can be collected at the click of a button.
Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online

qualitative research methods. Typically they are used to explain
complex processes. This method is very useful when it comes to market
research on new products and testing new concepts.
Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants

who are usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned
to a focus group who facilitates the discussion amongst the group
members. A moderator’s experience in conducting the focus group
plays an important role. An experienced moderator can probe the
participants by asking the correct questions that will help them collect a
sizable amount of information related to the research.
3. Ethnographic research: Ethnographic research is the most in-depth

observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring
environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’

environments which could be anywhere from an organization to a city
or any remote location. Here geographical constraints can be an issue
while collecting data.
This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges,

motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews
and discussions, you experience the natural settings first hand.
This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as
it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds.
It’s a challenging and a time-consuming method and solely depends on
the expertise of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe and infer
the data.
Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people

are observed in their natural environment without This method is
demanding due to the necessity of a researcher entering a natural
environment of other people. Geographic locations can be a constraint
as well. Instead of conducting interviews, a researcher experiences the
normal setting and daily life of a group of people.
Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative

methods as it is used to analyze social constructs by decoding words
through any available form of documentation. The researcher studies
and understands the context in which the documents are written and
then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. Researchers today
follow activities on a social media platform to try and understand
patterns of thoughts.

4. Case study research: The case study method has evolved over the
past few years and developed into a valuable qua. research method. As
the name suggests it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.
This type of research method is used within a number of areas like

education, social sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to
operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research
as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data
collection methods and inferring the data.
Case study research is used to study an organization or an entity. This

method is one of the most valuable options for modern This type of
research is used in fields like the education sector, philosophical
studies, and psychological studies. This method involves a deep dive
into ongoing research and collecting data.
5. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing

reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data
source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to going to
a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to
collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.
6. Process of observation:
Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective

methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since, the
focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using
subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative
observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their
functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t
involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.
Qualitative research: data collection and analysis
A. Qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric

and helps us to explore how decisions are made and provide us with
detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected
should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to emerge through
careful analysis.
1. Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative

data, one aspect is very clear the process will generate a large
amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available,
there are also different methods of collecting and recording the
data.
For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group

or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video
recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and
before the process of data analysis can begin.
2. As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to

transcribe the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly
20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain
separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the different
focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.

3. In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as
field notes, they are helpful in maintaining comments,
environmental contexts, nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are
helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded
data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a
similar manner as the video recordings or the audio tapes.
B. Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings

images, and text documents. One of the most used methods for
qualitative data analysis is text analysis.
Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from

all other qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the
social life of the participants in the research study and decode the
words, actions, etc.
There are images also that are used in this research study and the
researchers analyze the context in which the images are used and draw
inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is
shared on social media platforms has gained supreme popularity.
Characteristics of qualitative research methods
1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight,

where the participants are experiencing issues or problems. These
are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the
geographic locations to collect information.
2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data,
such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely
on a single data source.
3. This type of research method works towards solving complex

issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily
readable and understood by all.
4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their
trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw
and unadulterated.
Qualitative research method case study
The example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve

their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members
who were the loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and
related questions were asked and the questions were answered by
them.
At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in
the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options
for children or teenagers.
By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized

what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers.
Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books
for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer
outreach.
Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to

indulge in further quantitative research, which provides remedies.
When to use qualitative research
Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they

need to capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture

“factual data”. Here are some examples of when to use qualitative

research.
 Developing a new product or generating an idea.

 Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your
marketing strategy.
 To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
 Understanding purchase behavior.
 To study the reactions of your audience to marketing
campaigns and other communications.
 Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer
groups.
 Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.
Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods
The basic differences between qualitative research methods and

quantitative research methods are simple and straightforward. They
differ in:
 Their analytical objectives

 Types of questions asked
 Types of data collection instruments
 Forms of data they produce
 Degree of flexibility
Qualitative research
Attributes Quantitative research methods
methods

This research method

Quantitative research method
Analytical focuses on describing
focuses on describing the
objectives individual experiences
characteristics of a population.
and beliefs.
Types of
questions Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions
asked
Use semi-structured
Data methods such as in-depth Use highly structured methods
collection interviews, focus groups, such as structured observation
Instrument and participant using questionnaires and surveys
observation
Form of data
Descriptive data Numerical data
produced
Participant responses Participant responses do not

Degree of affect how and which influence or determine how and
flexibility questions researchers ask which questions researchers ask
next next
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STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of

investigation, irrespective of whether it is applied research or basic
research. Each particular research study will be unique in some ways
because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which
it is being undertaken.
Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of

furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all traverse
through certain basic stages, forming a process called the research
process.

An understanding of the research process is necessary to effectively

carry out research and sequencing of the stages inherent in the
process.
Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being

objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that
the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all
research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method
(scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research).
The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and
recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the
study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct
the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any
research done without documenting the study so that others can
review the process and results is not an investigation using the
scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-
step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the
process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher
must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected
throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often
involved in conducting research or evaluation projects within the
agency. These professionals need to understand the eight steps of the
research process as they apply to conducting a study.
The research process outlined above is, in essence, part and parcel of a
research proposal. It is an outline of your commitment that you intend
to follow in executing a research study.
A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these

stages, by and large, is dependent upon the others.

One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6).
It is also true that one cannot write a report (step 8) unless he has
collected and analyzed data (step 7).
Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of

this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.
It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher

during each of the stages stated above. A research process can be
compared with a route map.
The map analogy is useful for the researcher because at each stage of
the research process, and there are several alternatives to follow.
Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and

human resources in our research decision is our primary goal.
Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the

term ‘iterative’ appearing within the oval-shaped diagram at the center
of the schematic diagram. The key to a successful research project
ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and again to
the identification of the research problems, methodology, data
collection, etc. which lead to new ideas, revisions and improvements.
Often, by discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one
will find that new research questions need to be added, variables to be
omitted, added or redefined, and other changes to be made. As a
proposed study is examined and reexamined from different
perspectives, it may begin to transform and take a different shape.
This is to be expected and is an essential component of a good research

study.

Besides, it is important to examine study methods and data to be

collected from different viewpoints to ensure a comprehensive
approach to the research question.
In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or formula for

developing a successful research study, but it is important to realize
that the research process is cyclical and iterative.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a

research question. The research problem may be something the agency
identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed
by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In
the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is
childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the
community. This serves as the focus of the study.
The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is
to identify a research problem.
A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-

important phases of the research process, starting from setting
objectives to the selection of the research methodology.
But the core question is: whether all problems require research.
We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do

not qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be
researched.
Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research

problem and a non-research problem.

Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a possibility of

thorough verification investigation, which can be effected through the
analysis and collection of data, while the non-research problems do not
need to go through these processes.
Researcher need to identify both;
1. Non-research Problem, and

2. Research Problem.
Non-Research Problem
A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to

arrive at a solution. Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of
vague details and cannot be resolved through research.
It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the

administrative or management level. The answer to any question raised
in a non- research setting is almost always obvious.
The outbreak of cholera, for example, following a severe flood, is a

common phenomenon in many communities. The reason for this is
known. It is thus not a research problem.
Similarly, reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential

commodities following the announcement of the budget by the Finance
Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a problem that needs
research.
Example #1
A recent survey in District A found that 1000 women were continuous

users of contraceptive pills.

But last month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women
were using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4).
The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill,
but in fact, none is doing so. The question is: why the discrepancy
exists?
Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills
reaching District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus,
although the problem situation exists, the reason for the problem is
already known.
Therefore, assuming that all the facts are correct, there is no reason to
research the factors associated with pill discontinuation among women.
This is thus a non-research problem.
Example #2
A pilot survey by Dhaka University revealed that in Raipura Upazila, the

goiter prevalence among the school children is as high as 80%, while in
the neighboring Upazila, it is only to the extent of 30%. Why is this
discrepancy?
Upon inquiry, it was seen that some three years back, UNICEF launched
a lipiodol injection program in the neighboring Upazila.
This attempt acted as a preventive measure against goiter. The reason

for the discrepancy is known, and hence we do not consider the
problem as a research problem.
Example #3

A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but

the treatment with penicillin was not found to be effective. Do we need
research to know the reason?
Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not
sensitive to penicillin, and therefore, this is not the drug of choice for
this disease.
In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake

any study to find out why penicillin does not improve the condition of
cholera patients. This is also a non-research problem.
Example #4
In the tea marketing system, buying and selling tea starts from bidders.
Blenders purchase open tea from the bidders. It is observed over the
years that marketing cost is the highest for bidders, while it is the
lowest for the blenders. What makes this difference?
The fact is that the bidders pay exorbitantly higher transport costs,
which constitutes about 30% of their total cost.
Blenders have significantly fewer marketing functions involving

transportation, and hence their marketing cost remains at a minimum.
Hence no research is needed to identify the factors that make this

difference.
Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may

well be considered as non-research problems:
 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;

 Preferring admission in public universities over private

universities;
 Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
 Traffic jam in the city street after office hours;
 High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.
Research Problem
In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of

primary concern to a researcher.
A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a

discrepancy between the common belief and reality.
As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential

research problem when the following three conditions exist:
1. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and

“what it should have been.” This implies that there should be a
difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or planned
situation”;
2. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that
the reason(s) for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so
that it makes sense to develop a research question); and
3. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the
questions or problems.
The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible
answer to the question about the discrepancy, then a research
situation does not exist.

It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or

administrative level.
Example #1
While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some
villages have female school attendance rates as high as 75%, while
some have as low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly
equal rate of attendance. What factors are associated with this
discrepancy?
We may enumerate several reasons for this:
1. Villages differ in their socio-economic background.

2. In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large
proportion of the total population. Religion might play a vital role.
3. Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may
make this difference.
Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered

a research problem, and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.
Example#2
The Government of Bangladesh has been making all-out efforts to

ensure regular flow of credit in rural areas at a concession rate through
liberal lending policy and establishing a large number of bank branches
in rural areas.
Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural

areas has not yet been achieved mainly because of improper utilization
of the credit.

More than one reason is suspected of such misuse or misdirection.
These include, among others:
 Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors

 Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders,
who exploit the rural people with this money
 Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.
Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus
consider this problem as a researchable problem.
Example #3
On the 20th day of December 2010, almost all the locals came up with a
news headline of the form:
Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) observes the steepest ever fall in stock
prices: several injured as retail investors clash with police, vehicles
ransacked’.
Investors’ demonstration, protest and clash with police pause a

problem, but it is certainly not a research problem since there is only
one known reason for the problem: DSE experiences the steepest fall in
stock prices. But what causes this unprecedented fall in the share
market?
Experts felt that no single reason could be attributed to the problem. It

is a mix of several factors, and hence it is a research problem. The
following were assumed to be some of the possible reasons:
 The merchant banking system;

 Liquidity shortage because of the hike in the rate of cash

reserve requirement (CRR);
 IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’
exposure to the stock market;
 Increase in supply of new shares;
 Manipulation of share prices;
 Lack of knowledge of the investors on the company’s
fundamentals.
The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. It is

generally guided by the researchers;
1. own intellectual orientation,

2. level of training,
3. experience,
4. knowledge on the subject matter, and
5. intellectual curiosity.
Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in

choosing a research problem. Societal needs also guide to choose a
research problem.
Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related steps are
required to be followed before a decision is taken to undertake a
research study.
These include, among others, the following:
 Statement of the problem.

 Justifying the problem.
 Analyzing the problem.

A detailed exposition of these issues is undertaken in chapter ten while

discussing the proposal development.
Statement of the Problem
A clear and well-defined statement of the problem is considered as the

foundation for the development of the research proposal.
It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed

research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to
achieve with the findings of the study.
A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to

formulate the research objectives, to understand the background of the
study, and to choose a proper research methodology.
Justifying the Problem
Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is
important to justify the importance of the problem.
In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as to why the problem

of the study is important, how large and widespread is the problem,
can others be convinced about the importance of the problem and the
like.
Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in

one or two paragraphs that justify the importance of the problem.
Analyzing the Problem
As a first step of analyzing the problem, critical attention should be

given to accommodate the viewpoints of the managers, users, and the
researchers to the problem through threadbare discussions.

The next step is to identify the factors that may have contributed to the
perceived problems.
Other Issues of Problem Identification
To identifying, defining, and analyzing a problem, there are several

ways of obtaining insights and getting a clearer idea about these issues.
Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this. The

purpose of the exploratory research process is to progressively narrow
the scope of the topic and to transform the undefined problems into
defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.
The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies in gaining insights

into the problem. It is accomplished through such efforts as:
 Pilot survey
 Case studies
 Focus group interview and
 Experience survey
Pilot Survey
A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the
study to serve as a guide for the large study. A pilot study generates
primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.
This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data

analysis, which gathers background information.
Case Studies
Case studies are quite helpful in the diagnosis of a problem and paving
the way to defining the problem.
Case studies intensively investigate one or a few situations identical to

the researcher’s problem situation.
Focus Group Interviews
Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a

small group of people, may also be conducted to understand and define
a research problem.
Experience Survey
Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of

identifying and defining the research problem. It is an exploratory
research endeavor, in which individuals who are knowledgeable and
experienced about a particular research problem are intimately
consulted in an attempt to understand the problem.
These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an

interview with them is popularly known as the Key Informant Interview
(KII).
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn
more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher
must review the literature related to the research problem. This step
provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review
of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have
been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and
the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of
literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics
related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health

issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the

programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking
10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps
the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem,
recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to
combat obesity (i.e., walking).
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research

process. It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of
the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been
so far researched.
Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of

knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently
follow the research process.
Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop

the coherence between the results of his study and those of the others.
A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is

essential even for the beginning researchers.
To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part
of the researchers.
Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have

already done?
If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related

topics, he will be in a much better position to assess the significance of
his work and to convince others that it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of

the others’ methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the
inferences drawn from the study results.
In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing

the literature:
 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the

recent past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned
and reported on the problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of
methodology followed by others.
 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and
theories are relevant to his area of investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any
significant controversies, contradictions, and inconsistencies in
findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any
unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical
framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables
in his research that he might not otherwise have thought
about.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process
is too large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher

clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only
be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and
narrowing the research project. In the example, the programmer has
identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the
study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics,
family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or
health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study;
therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly
defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is
to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will
improve the individual's health. This purpose is more narrowly focused
and researchable than the original problem.
After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers

should make a formal statement of the problem leading to research
objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate

the type of information that should be collected, and provide a
framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research
objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be

refuted or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert
a possible answer to a research question.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose

statement of the study or the description of the study. These items

need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or

concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading
the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases
mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the
obesity study, the concept of “individual's health” can be defined in
hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual
health. For this study, the individual's health is defined as physical
health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and
measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more
narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or
concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable
for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for
the study. This also makes the concepts more understandable to the
reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities,

park development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status,
marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations.
For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of
people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group,
males or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a
specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the
researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research
problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in
identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the
group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining
the population assists the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows
the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is
manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the
researcher's efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps
ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study.
Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group
that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the
example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of
the study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population
makes the study more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study,
specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data
will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is
composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are
addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher
has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for
six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a
smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The
study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The
researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what
data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who
will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The
instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for
the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought
through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to
be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins

with the collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in
providing the information needed to answer the research question.
Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is
from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question.
Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the
obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined
variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the
number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the
class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last
session of the program. These two sets of data are necessary to
determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and
cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the
researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is
the data analysis.
The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-

scale survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect
data.
The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the

research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel.
With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be

collected, the method of data collection also varies.

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is

the structured interview.
Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called

surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered
questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data
may be collected.
Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources,

such as the census, vital registration records, official documents,
previous surveys, etc.
Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews,

focus group discussions, KII, and observational studies.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the
research process culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has
data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the
instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be
analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan.
The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a
manner directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study,
the researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage of
body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the
subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final
program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine
if there was a difference between the first measurement and the
second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data
will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically

significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study

validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the
study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat
childhood obesity in the community.
As we have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight

steps of the scientific research process requires we to dedicate time
and effort to the planning process. We cannot conduct a study using
the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done
at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result
in either false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to
the organization.
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data.
Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions, if any.
In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves

legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition
to editing, the data also need coding.
Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric

codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for
storage and future processing.
This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal

computer offers an excellent opportunity in data editing and coding
processes.
Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a

manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and

applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the

findings in the light of the research questions.
Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings

are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.
The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple

graphical technique to very complex multivariate analysis depending on
the objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature
of data collected.
As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique

appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate for another.

7310762592.

Thesis and Article Writing: Format and Styles of Referencing
Thesis and Article writing: The thesis is a treatise that represents the
fulfillment of the scholarly aspiration of the student. A good thesis
should be clear and unambiguous and have a logical structure that
should assist the reader’s understanding of the argument being
presented and not obscure it. In order to achieve this objective, the
layout and physical appearance of the thesis should conform to a set
pattern.
Note: The following format of thesis writing is the general standard and
accepted format. But, universities and institutions have their own
prescribed formats with this core structure of thesis writing. Please
consider the specific format suggested by your institutions,
organisations, and universities.
Thesis and Article Writing
The generally accepted format of thesis or report writing tend to be

produced in the following way:
Title Page
 Title of the Research Project,

 Name of the researcher,
 Purpose of the research project, e.g., “A research project
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of National
Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology, New
Delhi for the degree of PhD in Hospitality and Hotel
Administration”
 Date of Publication

Table of Contents
This section consists of the contents of the report, either in chapters or

in subheadings.
List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables
List of Figures
This section contains the title and page number of all graphs, pie charts,
etc.
Acknowledgements
Here, the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty

Guide, both research guide and technical guide, research participants,
friends etc.
Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It
includes a rationale for the research.
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
This section is included all your background research, which may be

obtained from the literature review. You must indicate where all the
information has come, so remember to keep a complete record of
everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of
plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring
to a particular book or journal article, use the Harvard system.
Research design

This section includes all practical details followed for research. After
reading this, any interested party should be able to replicate the
research study. The methods used for data collection, how many
people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data
collection, how the data was analysed etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may

contain tables, graphs, pie charts, and associated statistics. If you have
conducted a qualitative piece of research, this section may be
descriptive prose.
Summary and Conclusion
In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from
them, perhaps in relation to other research or literature.
Recommendation
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client
organization, this section could be the most important part of the
report. A list of clear recommendations that have been developed from
the research is included. Sometimes, this section is included at the
beginning of the report.
Suggestion for Further Research
It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to

include a section that shows how the research can be continued.
Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the research has
thrown up many more research questions that need to be addressed. It
is useful to include this section because it shows that you are aware of

the wider picture and that you are not trying to cover up something
which you feel may be lacking in your own work.
List of References/Bibliography
 List of references contains details only of those works cited in

the text.
 A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text, but which
are relevant to the subject. (larger dissertations or thesis)
 Small research projects will need only a reference section. It
includes all the literature to which you have referred in your
report.
Annexures
List of publications: List of publications obtained by the student from

the PhD work should be included in the Thesis. Students are strongly
encouraged to place the accepted versions of the manuscripts
(maximum two), which were an integral part of thesis work.
Curriculum vitae (optional): Provide one-page giving academic

qualifications, academic achievements and list of publications.
Appendices (optional): Appendices may include the formulas,

diagrams, protocols, or any similar data that are not contained in the
body of the thesis. The number can be given as A-1, A-2 and listed as
such in the table of contents.
FORMAT OF CITATIONS/REFERENCES
Citations or in-text citations are similar to references but occur in the

body of the text with direct quotes and paraphrases to identify the
author/publication for the material you have used. Citations are used:
 to show which reference supports a particular statement

 for direct quotes – when you repeat a passage from a text (or
speech, video, etc.) in your assignment without changing any
words
 when you paraphrase – this is when you use your own words to
restate the meaning of a text in your assignment.
One of the most important things to remember is that every citation

should also have a corresponding entry in your reference list.
A reference list is a list of the resources that you used when writing
your assignment or doing your research.
These resources may include:
 books, including electronic books, journals (online and paper-

based)
 online sources including websites, blogs, and forums
 speeches
 conference papers, proceedings, and theses
 other sources of information such as film, television, video, etc.
Reference lists come at the end of an assignment and are arranged in

alphabetical order, usually by author or editor. If there is not an author
or an editor, the title is used.
Comparison Between Citation and Reference
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON CITATION REFERENCE

BASIS FOR
COMPARISON CITATION REFERENCE
Citation is a way of
disclosing within the main Reference is a list that
body, that the quote, contains all the sources
image, chart, statistics, etc. which have been sought or
are taken from an outside cited while writing the
Meaning source. article or assignment.
It informs the reader, the

It informs the readers, the complete source of
Use basic source of information. information.
To indicate the source of To support or criticize an

Purpose the material taken. argument or point.
Presented as endnote or
Placement Presented in the bracket. end of the document.
It contains information like

It contains information like publication date, title of
publication year and last book/journal, author’s
Information name of the author. name, page number.
Types of Citation/ References Styles (Thesis Article Writing)

The followings are a few important styles of citation or referencing

during thesis and article writing:
MLA (Modern Language Association) style:
It is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the
liberal arts and humanities.
Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology:

Methods and techniques. New Age International, 2004.
Journal – Ghosh, Madhusudan. “Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in

India SHG-Bank Linkage Programme.” Journal of Rural Development
31.3 (2012): 347-363.
APA (American Psychological Association):
It is most commonly used to cite sources within the health sciences and
social sciences fields.
Book – Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and

techniques. New Age International.
Journal – Ghosh, M. (2012). Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India

SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3),
347-363.
Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both

parenthetical and note citation systems.
Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology:

Methods and techniques. New Age International, 2004.

Journal – Ghosh, Madhusudan. “Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in

India SHG-Bank Linkage Programme.” Journal of Rural Development 31,
no. 3 (2012): 347-363.
Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing:
It is a citation style in which partial citations—for example, “(Smith

2010, p. 1)”—are enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the
text, either within or after a sentence.
Book – Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research methodology: Methods and

techniques. New Age International.
Journal – Ghosh, M., 2012. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India

SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3),
pp.347-363.
The Vancouver system:
It is also known as Vancouver reference style or the author–number

system, is a citation style that uses numbers within the text that refer
to numbered entries in the reference list.
Book – Kothari CR. Research methodology: Methods and techniques.

New Age International; 2004.
Journal – Ghosh M. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank

Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development. 2012 Sep
1;31(3):347-63.
Standard Format for Printing a report:

Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)
Size: 8.5inches X 11inches
Left – 1.5inch
Top – 1inch
Bottom – 1inch
Margin: Right – 1inch
Font: Times New Roman

Font Size: 12
Spacing: Double
Binding: BlackRexin
Research Title
Student Name
Gold Embossing on Name of Institute
Cover: Year of Submission
Note: The format of Thesis and Article writing, mentioned above, is a

general and standard format. Please follow your universities or
institutions guidelines for writing a thesis and articles.

7310762592.
Application of ICT in Research
Application of ICT in Research: Information and Communication

Technologies (ICT) refers to technologies that provide access to
information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information
Technology (IT) but focuses primarily on communication technologies.
This includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other
communication mediums.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have provided

society with a vast array of new communication capabilities. For
example, people can communicate in real-time with others in different
countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice over IP
(VoIP), and video-conferencing. Social networking websites
like Facebook allow users from all over the world to remain in contact
and communicate on a regular basis.
ICT, or information and communications technology (or

technologies), is the infrastructure and components that
enable modern computing.
Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is

generally accepted to mean all devices, networking components,
applications and systems that combined allow people and organizations
(i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal
enterprises) to interact in the digital world.
Components of an ICT system
ICT encompasses both the internet-enabled sphere as well as the

mobile one powered by wireless networks. It also includes antiquated
technologies, such as landline telephones, radio and television
broadcast – all of which are still widely used today alongside cutting-
edge ICT pieces such as artificial intelligence and robotics.
The list of ICT components is exhaustive, and it continues to grow.

Some components, such as computers and telephones, have existed for
decades. Others, such as smartphones, digital TVs and robots, are more
recent entries.
Application of ICT in Research

Applications of ICT are mainly used by researchers for its ability to ease
the knowledge-gathering process and to enhance resource
development. Researcher in general value creativity and originality,
thus the ICT tools which provide with the most open situations with
great autonomy to the researcher can really help in identifying and
solving research problems in the most creative ways. The use of ICT is
based on the individual’s logical assessment of how various applications
increase his/her effectiveness and efficiency in work and provide ease
in communication with peers.
Use of ICT tools or application for making research data and

information available are plenty in numbers today, but the best use of
ICT tools would be to improve cognitive skills and thus help
discriminate, analyse and create information rather than simply
accumulate. As usually research process deals with a large amount of
complex information and requires a lot of skills to analyse and organize
these well, any ICT tool which helps the researcher give meaning and
precision along with adding value to the information generated would
be rated above the ones which help in just gathering information.
Generally, Applications of ICT help the researcher in the following

research-related tasks:
 identify appropriate information sources

 critically analyse information
 research effectively
 manage information
 use the information to extend and communicate knowledge
across subject fields

 search up to ten databases and electronic resources

simultaneously
 receive results in a common format
 link to individual databases for more specialised searching
 select favourite resources and e-journals, save searches and
records, and set up email alerts.
Applications of ICT have many effects on research. They can be

classified into three categories which include:
1. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis

2. Applications of ICT in data analysis, and
3. Applications of ICT in post-data analysis
A. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis
Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis refers to the activities how ICTs

are applied on activities of social science research before reaching the
stage of data analysis.
ICT application in pre-data analysis includes:
1. Literature Search, Article Availability, Thesis and Dissertation

Availability
2. Content Search
3. Literature Tracking
4. Data Collection
1. Literature Search: Last time researchers need to perform a manual

search on hard copies of literature in libraries whereby this is a tedious
effort and the search results were limited. On the contrary, a lot of

research materials, literature and artefacts today can be searched using

Internet search engines and databases.
 ShodhGanga: Indian theses repository where you can search

and download the theses.
 Google Scholar: Provides a way to broadly search for scholarly
literature across disciplines and sources.
 Microsoft Academic Search: Find information about academic
papers, authors, conferences, journals, and organizations from
multiple sources.
 Mendeley: A unique platform comprising a social network,
reference manager, article visualization tools.
 SSRN: Multi-disciplinary online repository of scholarly research
and related materials in social sciences.
Some other Famous Database for Research Articles and literature:
 AMS
 Annual Reviews
 ASME Digital Collection
 Cambridge Core
 Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
 Cochrane Library
 eBook Academic collection
 EBSCO Databases, Discovery Service, eBooks, Point of Care
Products, DynaMed and Journal Collections
 EBSCO Information Services
 Economic & Political Weekly
 Elsevier

 Emerald eJournals
 Encyclopedia Britannica
 IEEE Xplore
 Indian Citation Index.
 Indian Journals
 IOPscience
 JSTOR
 Portland Press
 Project Euclid
 Project MUSE
 ProQuest databases
 Royal Society of Chemistry Journals
 Royal Society of Chemistry Publications Online
 Sage Online Journals
 Science Mag
 Scitation
 SIAM Journals Online
 Springer Link
 Supreme Court Cases Online
 Taylor & Francis Online
 Web of Knowledge
 Wiley Online Library
2. Content Search – in today’s world of research, researchers can

utilize the softcopy literature’s search or find function (also called
content search) to search for specific keywords or phrases in which this
is more effective and productive. This observation is also supported
what Sekaran (2003) had stated that online search using technology is

inexpensive and can improve the identification of relevant sources of

literature. Such content search also enables a researcher to evaluate
quickly whether a particular article or thesis et al. is worthy for his or
her deeper review. Moreover, the content search also helps a
qualitative researcher to count the frequency of certain keywords
appears in an interviewed transcript more effectively.
3. Literature Tracking – In the past, researchers have to sort, classify

and store all their literature or artefacts that they had reviewed into
computer folders or physical folders/place holders. Researchers also
need to create their own tracking mechanism e.g. in a word document
or spreadsheet format to track and manage their reviewed literature so
that they can re-use or refer to in future. Doing these manually can be
daunting tasks.
With the advancement of ICT, researchers can still use the old
approaches but more and more researchers now are using software
like Mendeley which can help manage, share and discover the literature
contents and contacts that they had reviewed. Using software like
Mendeley to track a researcher’s literature is saving time and effort as
well as capable to manage lots of literature that the researcher was not
possible in the past.
4. Data Collection – with the help of application of ICT, Data collection

can be collected via online, web-based or Internet survey. Using this
purpose-built software and Internet technology which are greener
technology in data collection can reduce the time and cost to collect
surveyed responses from the respondents. Not only an online survey
can be administered more effectively, but the data collected in its
original format can also be input directly into the statistical software.

Important Data Collection Application of ICT:
1. Google Forms
2. SurveyMonkey
B. Applications of ICT in data analysis
Application of ICT in data analysis includes the ICTs are applied on

activities during the stage of data analysis and can be divided into:
1. Quantitative Data Analysis

2. Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Quantitative Data Analysis:
The exploratory factor analysis, multiple regression, t-test and Analysis

of Variance (ANOVA) are some common data analysis techniques used
among researchers conducting quantitative research. There are also
some advanced and popular data analysis techniques like path analysis,
covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), variance-based
SEM (partial least squares), hierarchical regression analysis, hierarchical
linear modelling et al.
 Statistical Package for Social Science / SPSS are more

advanced and rich with a lot of features and functionalities
 R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)
 MATLAB (The Mathworks)
 Microsoft Excel
 SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)
 GraphPad Prism
 Minitab
2. Qualitative Data Analysis:

The following statistical software packages are for qualitative data

analysis:
 NVivo
 ATLAS.ti
 MAXQDA
 SPSS Text Analytics
 Transana can be used for video transcribing in certain
qualitative research
C. Application of ICT in post-data analysis
Application of ICT in post-data analysis refers to the ICTs are applied on

activities of research after completing the stage of data analysis which
covers:
1. References and Bibliography Compilation

2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion among Researchers,
Supervisors, Supervisees etc.
3. Plagiarism Detection
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission
1. References and Bibliography Compilation:
A few years back, researchers tend to compile references and

bibliography manually. They literally typing in to build the entire section
of the references or bibliography then followed by sorting them in
ascending order. Recently, while researchers are writing, they can use
citation or reference management software to help select citations and
populate the references or bibliography automatically. This type of
software can improve researchers’ efficiency and accuracy while
preparing their articles or theses.
The following software is used for referencing and bibliography

compilation:
 EndNote
 Zotero
 Mendeley
2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion:
In the course of producing an article, thesis or dissertation, there are

needs for discussions or communications among researchers,
supervisors, supervisees or during the viva voce. Now, we have the
advanced application of ICT to facilitate sharing of research materials,
seeking comments from subject matter experts, enable analytics to
monitor papers published, as well as following some scholarly works.
There are online platforms or websites which can be used for such
discussion:
 Academia.edu
 ResearchGate
3. Plagiarism Detection:
In the past, plagiarism acts were slow and hard to detect as the
authority of universities or journals dependent on readers to identify
them manually while they were reading through the submitted articles
or theses/dissertations. With the advancement of ICT, readers or
researchers can use plagiarism checker software available in the market
like:
 Grammarly
 Article Checker
 Turnitin
 DupliChecker etc.
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission:
In the past, journal manuscript submission used to be via email

communications between researchers/authors and journal’s
editors/coordinators. Now web-based journal manuscript management
and peer-review software, electronic manuscript submission or
management systems are commonly used among the community of
researchers and journals/publishers. Using such systems can reduce
their time of submission and checking the status of publishing.
Moreover, using such systems can greatly improve the productivity and
quality of work to administer the submission as well as the peer-review
management in which miscommunication, lost or delay of
communication can be minimized.
The following are the Application of ICT for Manuscripts Submission

and publicising:
 Elsevier
 Wiley
 Sage Publications etc.
Apart from the above-mentioned ICT tools for research, there is a long
list of ICT applications which can be used for quality research papers
and theses.

7310762592.
Research Ethics
Research ethics is a set of conduct norms applied in science. These

principles cover the full scope of research, starting from experiments
with humans and animals through to misconduct, fraud and plagiarism.
The general principles of contemporary research ethics involve
objectivity, integrity, respect for intellectual property, confidentiality,
responsible monitoring, social responsibility, non-discrimination,
competence, legality, animal care and human subjects protection.
The field of biomedical research is a major concern for research ethics.

Contemporary research ethics strives for ethical treatment of human
subjects of biomedical and social science research as well as ethical
standards in the research into human reproduction, which includes
stem cells. Ethical rules protect laboratory, livestock and wild animals
involved in research. International concerns extend to environmental
risks caused by research and safety of shipping of hazardous research
materials.
The Hippocratic Oath, which dates back to 5th century BCE, is an early
example of ethics in the medical profession. Through the oath, medical
professionals pledge not to do harm. Research ethics went a long way
until it acquired its contemporary shape. Until the 20th century, ethical
norms of conduct in science were rather fragmented and without a
clear focus.
Research ethics became an important issue in the 20th century when

science had already developed significantly, but some considered that
the harm which research was causing was threatening to outweigh its
benefits. The Pure Food and Drug Act passed in 1906 in the United
States was the first law in the country to regulate human subject
research. The adoption of the act was necessitated by a number of

abusive human subject experiments. The law did not put an end to
scandals, including syphilis experiments and radiation experiments.
One of the notorious cases of abusive research in the United States was
the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972). The project was implemented
by the U.S. Public Health Service. Researchers carried out a study of 600
African-American men, infecting 400 of them and testing them for a
period of 40 years. The participants in the project were refused
treatment. The project was terminated only after it acquired a high
profile and provoked strong criticisms. In response to the Tuskegee
case, the United States passed the National Research Act in 1974, which
set up the National Research Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects in Biomedical Research. The Commission's task was to define
the major underlying ethical principles in research.
The information on radiation experiments in the United States also

provoked a strong response. During World War II and in the 1950s, the
U.S. authorities conducted research on the effects of radiation on
hospital patients, pregnant women and mentally disabled children. The
experiments were meant to enable the authorities to introduce safety
standards for work at atomic bomb facilities. It was only in the late 20th
century that the government provided financial compensation to the
victims of human radiation experiments.
The international efforts to introduce research ethics standards on a

global level became more focused after World War II. Research ethics
drew the attention of the international community with the disclosure
of the atrocities of German doctors conducted in concentration camps
during the war. In 1946, a U.S. military tribunal charged 23 German

physicians and administrators with war crimes and crimes against

humanity. These doctors had conducted medical experiments which
claimed numerous lives and caused permanent disabilities to many. The
trial inspired the adoption of the Nuremberg Code in 1948, which was
the first official international document to promote ethics in research
and lay a strong emphasis on the informed consent of participants in
experiments. The Code reads: "The voluntary consent of the human
participant is absolutely essential."
In 1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of

Helsinki, which introduced ethical guidelines for biomedical research. It
focused on the transparency of results from laboratory and animal
experiments, the mandatory informed consent of research participants,
the qualification of researchers and the ratio of risks and benefits in
research. Another international player in the field of research ethics is
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Research Organization
(UNESCO), whose efforts to promote international reflection on ethics
in life sciences dates back to the 1970s. UNESCO works in two main
areas — bioethics and ethics of science and technology.
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of

research. In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting
research to ensure a high ethical standard. The following is a general
summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication

status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data

interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine

your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and

new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do

not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give
credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants

submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets,
and patient records.
Responsible Publication:

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance

just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare

and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms

through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,

race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific
competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and

expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to
promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental

policies.
Animal Care:

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.
Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and

risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and
autonomy.
Principles of research ethics
There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into

account when performing undergraduate and master's level
dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles stress the
need to (a) do good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known
as non-malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a
researcher, you need to: (a) obtain informed consent from potential
research participants; (b) minimise the risk of harm to
participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid
using deceptive practices; and (e) give participants the right to
withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five ethical
principles and their practical implications when carrying out
dissertation research.
When we look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear

obvious that your dissertation should include these. However, there are
many instances where it is not possible or desirable to obtain informed
consent from research participants. Similarly, there may be instances
where we seek permission from
participants not to protect their anonymity. More often than not, such

choices should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide
your dissertation.
Broadly speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do

good (i.e., beneficence), but also avoid doing any harm (i.e., non-
malfeasance). Whilst ethical requirements in research can vary across
countries, these are the basic principles of research ethics. This is
important not only for ethical reasons, but also practical ones, since a
failure to meet such basic principles may lead to your research
being (a) criticised, potentially leading to a lower mark,
and/or (b) rejected by your supervisor or Ethics Committee, costing you
valuable time. In the sections that follow, we discuss the five of the
main practical ethical principles that stem from these basic principles.
Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in turn:
PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimising the risk of harm
Dissertation research should not harm participants. Where there is the

possibility that participants could be harmed or put in a position of
discomfort, there must be strong justifications for this. Such scenarios
will also require (a) additional planning to illustrate how participant
harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent,
and (c) detailed debriefing.
There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected

to. These include:
 Physical harm to participants.

 Psychological distress and discomfort.
 Social disadvantage.

 Harm to participants? financial status.

 An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity.
Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher

does not intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of
harm that you should try to minimise. In order to minimising the risk of
harm you should think about:
 Obtaining informed consent from participants.

 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
 Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
 Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your
research at any time.
We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow,

explaining (a) what they mean and (b) instances where they should
(and should not) be followed.
PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining informed consent
One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed

consent. Simply put, informed consent means that participants should
understand that (a) they are taking part in research and (b) what the
research requires of them. Such information may include the purpose
of the research, the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the
research, as well as associated demands, discomforts, inconveniences
and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it not possible to
know exactly what information a potential participant would (or would
not) want to know, you should aim not to leave out any material

information; that is, information that you feel would influence whether
consent would (or would not) be granted.
Another component of informed consent is the principle that

participants should be volunteers, taking part without having
been coerced and deceived. Where informed consent cannot be
obtained from participants, you must explain why this is the case. You
should also be aware that there are instances informed consent is not
necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed. These include
certain educational, organisational and naturalistic research settings.
PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is

another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants
will typically only be willing to volunteer information, especially
information of a private or sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to
hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research
participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods
used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that
harm can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when
data is not treated confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of
data, its analysis, or during the publication process (i.e., when
submitting your dissertation to be marked). However, this does not
mean that all data collected from research participants needs to be
kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the
identity and views of individuals at various stages of the research
process (from data collection through to publication of your

dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before such

confidential information is disclosed.
An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names,

geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However,
such a stripping of identifiable information may not always be possible
to anticipate at the outset of your dissertation when thinking about
issues of research ethics. This is not only a consideration for
dissertations following a qualitative research design, but also
a quantitative research design.
For example:
Imagine that your dissertation used a quantitative research design and

a survey as your main research method. In the process of analysing
your data, it is possible that when examining relationships between
variables (i.e., questions in your survey), a person's identity and
responses could be inferred. For instance, imagine that you were
comparing responses amongst employees within an organisation based
on specific age groups. There may only be a small group (or just one
employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old), which
could enable others to identify the responses of this individual (or small
group of employees).
Therefore, you need to consider ways of overcoming such problems,

such as: (a) aggregating data in tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a
minimum number of units are present before data/information can be
presented.
A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and

analysis to be restricted to the published material, perhaps only

allowing it to be viewed by those individuals marking your work. If the

work is later published, adjustments would then need to be made to
protect the confidentiality of participants.
There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may
affect what research you can and cannot perform, how you must
treated the data of research participants, and so forth. In other words,
we don’t simply have a duty to protect the data you collect from
participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal responsibility to
do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask your
dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal
professional).
PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding deceptive practices
At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent.

After all, how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in
research and (b) what the research requires of them if they are
being deceived? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive
practices controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances,
dissertation research should avoid any kinds of deceptive practices.
However, this is not always the case.
Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research,

which can be justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research
where (a) the identity of the observer and/or (b) the purpose of the
research is not known to participants. Cases where you may choose to
engage in covert research may include instances where:

 It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting

know what you are doing.
 Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research
may alter the particular phenomenon that is being studied.
each of these in turn:
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know

what you are doing
By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research.

Instead, we mean that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a
particular research setting know what you are doing. This is most likely
to be the case where research involves observation, rather than direct
contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting. There
are a number of obvious instances where this may be the case:
 Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

 Observing individuals going about their business (e.g.,
shopping, going to work, etc.
Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may
simply be impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You
may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but
clearly participants are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research

may alter the particular phenomenon that is being studied
Where observations or a participants? knowledge of the true

purpose of the research have the potential to alter the particular

phenomenon that you are interested in, this is a major concern in terms
of the quality of your findings.
Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert

research and possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the
extent to which this could be beneficial in your dissertation, not
research in general; that is, everything from the research paradigm that
guides your dissertation through to the data analysis techniques you
choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation.
Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be

considered justifiable:
 Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst

participants are given a questionnaire to complete that measures their
prejudice, it is not obvious from the questions that this is the case.
Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses.
After all, few people would be happy if other people thought they were
prejudice. As a result, if participants knew that this is the purpose of the
study, they may well provide responses that they think will make them
appear less prejudice.
 Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organisational culture in a

single firm. You feel that observation would be an appropriate research
method in such a naturalistic setting. However, you feel that if
employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may behave in a
different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go
undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there, which is

not the truth.
Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where

used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that
they have a place in research.
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the right to withdraw
With the exception of those instances of covert observation where

is not feasible to let everyone that is being observed know what you are
doing, research participants should always have the right to
withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants should
have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a
participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should
not be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from
withdrawing.

Research Aptitude MCQs
DIWAKAR
EDUCATION
HU B
1- Hypothesis refers to B. Good & clear writing

A. The outcome of an C. Lot of rewriting
experiment D. All of the above
B. A conclusion drawn from an
experiment Answer: D
C. A form of bias in which the
subject tries to outguess the 4- A literature review is based
experimenter on the assumption that
D. A tentative statement about A. Copy from the work of others
the relationship B. Knowledge accumulates and
learns from the work of others
Answer: D C. Knowledge disaccumulates
D. None of the above option
2- Statistics is used by
researchers to Answer: B
A. Analyze the empirical data
collected in a study 5- A theoretical framework
B. Make their findings sound A. Elaborates the r/s among the
better variables
C. Operationally define their B. Explains the logic underlying
variables these r/s
D. Ensure the study comes out C. Describes the nature and
the way it was intended direction of the r/s
D. All of the above
Answer: A
Answer: D
3- A literature review requires
A. Planning
Please Be Careful from Fake Person buy our Notes From Our (DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB) Official
Website only OR Call 7310762592 Page 2
6- Which of the following

statement is not true? Answer: B
A. A research proposal is a
document that presents a plan 8- Conducting surveys is the
for a project most common method of
B. A research proposal shows generating
that the researcher is capable of A. Primary data
successfully conducting B. Secondary data
the proposed research project C. Qualitative data
C. A research proposal is an D. None of the above
unorganized and unplanned
project Answer: A
D. A research proposal is just
like a research report and 9- After identifying the
written before the research important variables and
project establishing the logical
reasoning in
Answer: C theoretical framework, the next
step in the research process is
7- Preliminary data collection is A. To conduct surveys
a part of the B. To generate the hypothesis
Research Method (STA 630) C. To focus group discussions
Success Objectives D. To use experiments in an
A. Descriptive research investigation
B. Exploratory research
C. Applied research Answer: B
D. Explanatory research
10- The appropriate analytical C. Wide Area

technique is determined by Telecommunications Service
A. The research design D. World Air Transport Statistics
B. Nature of the data collected
C. Nature of the hypothesis Answer: C
D. Both A & B
13-A list of questions which is
Answer: D handed over to the respondent,
who reads the questions
11- Personal interviews and records the answers himself
conducted in shopping malls are is known as the:
known as: A. Interview schedule
a. Mall interviews B. Questionnaire
b. Mall intercept interviews C. Interview guide
c. Brief interviews D. All of the given options
d. None of the given options
Answer: B
Answer: B
14-One of the most critical
12-WATS lines provided by long stages in the survey research
distance telephone service at process is:
fixed rates. In this regard, A. Research design
WATS is the abbreviation of: B. Questionnaire design
A. West Africa Theological C. Interview design
Seminary D. Survey design
B. Washtenaw Area
Transportation Study Answer: B
15-Question that consists of specific question then this

two or more questions joined procedure is called as the:
together is called a: A. Research technique
A. Double barreled question B. Qualitative technique
B. General question C. Funnel technique
C. Accurate question D. Quantitative technique
D. Confusing question
Answer: C
Answer: A
18-A small scale trial run of a
16-The number of particular component is known
questionnaires returned or as:
completed divided by the total A. Pilot testing
number of B. Pre-testing
eligible people who were C. Lab experiments
contacted or asked to D. Both A & B
participate in the survey is
called the: Answer: D
A. Response rate
B. Participation rate 18-Field testing of the
C. Inflation rate questionnaire shows that:
D. None of the given options A. Respondents are willing to
co-operate
Answer: A B. Respondents are not willing
to co-operate
17-To obtain the freest opinion C. Respondents do not like any
of the respondent, when we ask participation
general question before a D. All of the given options
B. Discontinuous variable
Answer: A C. Both A & B
D. None of the above
19- Service evaluation of hotels
and restaurants can be done by Answer: C
the:
A. Self-administered 22-“Officers in my organization
questionnaires have higher than average level
B Office assistant of commitment” Such a
C. Manager hypothesis is an example
D. None of the given options of……….
A. Descriptive Hypothesis
Answer: A B. Directional Hypothesis
C. Relational Hypothesis
20- Service evaluation of hotels D. All of the above
and restaurants can be done by
the: Answer: A
A. Self-administered
questionnaires 23-‘Science’ refers to……….
B. Office assistant A. A system for producing
C. Manager knowledge
D. None of the given options B. The knowledge produced by
a system
Answer: A C. Both A & B
21-Discrete variable is also
called………. Answer: C
A. Categorical variable
24-Which one of the following is

not a characteristic of scientific Answer: A
method?
A. Deterministic 27-Personal interviews
Research Method (STA 630) conducted in shopping malls are
Success Objectives known as………
B. Rationalism A. Mall interviews
C. Empirical B. Mall intercept interviews
D. Abstraction C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
Answer: D
Answer: B
25-The theoretical framework
discusses the interrelationships 28- ……… is used to obtain the
among the………. freest opinion of the
A. Variables respondent, by asking general
B. Hypothesis question before a specific
C. Concept question.
D. Theory A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
Answer: A C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
26-………research is based on
naturalism. Answer: C
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research 29-In, ___________the
C. Basic research interviewer and members
D. Applied research
jointly control the pace and

direction of 32- On which of the following,
the interview. scientific knowledge mostly
A. Field interview relies?
B. Telephonic interview A. Logical understanding
C. Both A and B B. Identification of events
D. None of the given options C. Prior knowledge
D. All of the given options
Answer: A
Answer: A
30-Randomization of test units
is a part of ……… 33- Which of the following
A. Pretest refers to research supported by
B. Posttest measurable
C. Matching evidence?
D. Experiment A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
Answer: D C. Speculation
D. Rational
31- Rationalism is the
application of which of the Answer: B
following?
A. Logic and arguments 34-Research method is
B. Research solution applicable in all of the following
C. Reasoning fields, EXCEPT;
D. Previous findings A. Health care
B. Religion
Answer: A C. Business
D. Government offices
37-If a researcher is studying
Answer: B the effect of using laptops in his
classroom to ascertain their
35- All of the following are true merit and worth; he is likely
statements about action conducting which of the
research, EXCEPT; following types of research?
A. Data are systematically A. Experimental
analyzed B. Applied
B. Data are collected C. Basic
systematically D. Evaluation
C. Results are generalizable
D. Results are used to improve Answer: D
practice
38- Exploratory research
Answer: C addresses which of the
following types of question?
36-Which of the following is A. If
characteristic of action B. How
research? C. Why
A. Variables are tightly D. What
controlled
B. Results are generalizable Answer: D
C. Data are usually qualitative
D. Results demonstrate cause- 39- Which of the following is
and-effect relationships not the source for getting
information for exploratory
Answer: C research?
A. Content analysis Answer: C

B. Survey
C. Case study 42- Which of the following is the
D. Pilot study opposite of a variable?
A. An extraneous variable
Answer: A B. A dependent variable
C. A data set
40- Which of the following is the D. A constant
main quality of a good theory?
A. A theory that has survived Answer: D
attempts at falsification
B. A theory that is proven to be 43- Which of the following is
right not a concept?
C. A theory that has been A. Leadership
disproved B. Total Quality Management
D. A theory that has been C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
falsified D. Human Resource
Management
Answer: A
Answer: C
41- A variable that is presumed
to cause a change in another 44- Which of the following can
variable is known as: best be described as a
A. Discontinuous variable categorical variable?
B. Dependent variable A. Age
C. Independent variable B. Annual income
D. Intervening variable C. Grade point average
D. Religion
Research Method (STA 630)

Success Objectives 47- Which of the following is
not a role of hypothesis?
Answer: D A. Guides the direction of the
study
45-“Income distribution of B. Determine feasibility of
employees” in a specific conducting the study
organization is an example of C. Identifies relevant and
which of irrelevant facts
following type of variable? D. Provides framework for
A. Discontinuous variable organizing the conclusions
B. Continuous variable
C. Dependent variable Answer: B
D. Independent variable
48-Hypothesis test may also be
Answer: B called as:
A. Informal test
46-“There is no relationship B. Significance test
between higher motivation C. Moderating test
level and higher efficiency” is an D. T-test
example of which type of
hypothesis? Answer: B
A. Alternative
B. Null 49-Which type of review
C. Co relational compares how different
D. Research theories address an issue?
A. Context review
Answer: B B. Integrated review
C. Theoretical review A. Mall interviews

D. Methodological review B. Mall intercepts interviews
C. Brief interviews
Answer: C D. None of the given options
50-After you locate a source, Answer: B

you should write down all
details of the reference, 53- ____________is used to
EXCEPT; obtain the freest opinion of the
A. Volumes respondent, by asking
B. Titles general question before a
C. Price specific question.
D. Full names of the authors A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
Answer: C C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
51- ___________research is
based on naturalism. Answer: C
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research 54- In, ____________the
C. Basic research interviewer and members
D. Applied research jointly control the pace and
direction of the interview.
Answer: A A. Field interview
B. Telephonic interview
52- Personal interviews C. Both A and B
conducted in shopping malls are D. None of the given options
known as_________
Research Method (STA 630) 57- Internal validity refers to.

Success Objectives a. Researcher’s degree of
confidence.
Answer: A b. Generalisability
c. Operationalization
55- Randomization of test units d. All of the above
is a part of ______________
A. Pretest Answer: A
B. Posttest
C. Matching 58- How many times the
D. Experiment students appear in the research
class is the example of
Answer: D _________.
a. Intensity
56- Which one of the following b. Space
sets is the measure of central c. Frequency
tendency? d. Direction
a. Mean, standard deviation,
mode Answer: C
b. Mean, median, standard
deviation 59- Time consumed in mall
c. Arithmetic mean, median, intercept interview is .
mode a. High
d. Standard deviation, internal b. Moderate
validity, mode c. Low
d. Nil
Answer: C
Answer: B
1. Dependent variable
60- Departmental stores 2. Extraneous variable
selected to test a new 3. Independent variable
merchandising display system is 4. Confounding variable
the example of .
a. Quota sampling Answer: 3
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling 63- A measure is reliable if it
d. Purposive sampling provides consistent
___________.
Answer: C 1. Hypothesis
2. Results
61- In ___________, the 3. Procedure
researcher attempts to control 4. Sensitivity
and/ or manipulate the
variables in Answer: 2
the study.
1. Experiment 64- The interview in which
2. Hypothesis questions are already prepared
3. Theoretical framework is called ________.
4. Research design 1. Telephonic interview
2. Personal interview
Answer: 1 Research Method (STA 630)
Success Objectives
62- In an experimental research 3. Unstructured interview
study, the primary goal is to 4. Structured interview
isolate and identify the effect
produced by the ____. Answer: 4
concept does indeed measure

65-The numerical description the intended concepts.
that describe sample may be 1. Reliability
expected to differ from those 2. Replicability
that describe population 3. Scaling
because of random fluctuations 4. Validity
inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design Answer: 4
2. Non-probability sampling
3. Sampling error 68- A researcher is interested in
4. Probability sampling studying why the “new math”
of the 1960s failed. She
Answer: 3 interviews several teachers who
used the new math during the
66- In ______________ , each 1960s. These teachers are
population element has a considered as:
known and equal chance of 1. Primary sources
selection. 2. Secondary Sources
1. Purposive sampling 3. External critics
2. Quota sampling 4. Internal critics
3. Stratified sampling
4. Simple random sampling Answer: 1
Answer: 4 69- Which of the following is

NOT true about stratified
67- ______ is the evidence that random sampling?
the instrument, techniques, or
process used to measure
1. It involves a random selection

process from identified Answer: 4
subgroups
2. Proportions of groups in the 71. Discrete variable is also
sample must always match their called……….
population A. Categorical variable
proportions B. Discontinuous variable
3. Disproportional stratified C. Both A & B
random sampling is especially D. None of the above
helpful for getting large
enough subgroup samples when Answer: C
subgroup comparisons are to be
done 72.“Officers in my organization
4. Proportional stratified have higher than average level
random sampling yields a of commitment”
representative sample Such a hypothesis is an example
of……….
Answer: 2 a. Descriptive Hypothesis
b. Directional Hypothesis
70- Experimental design is the c. Relational Hypothesis
only appropriate design d. All of the above
where_________ relationship
can Answer: A
be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear 73. The theoretical framework
3. Weak discusses the interrelationships
4. Cause and Effect among the……….
a. Variables 76.……… is used to obtain the

b. Hypothesis freest opinion of the
c. Concept respondent, by asking general
d. Theory question before a specific
question.
Answer: B a. Research technique
b. Qualitative technique
74.………research is based on c. Funnel technique
naturalism. d. Quantitative technique
a. Field research
b. Descriptive research Answer: A
c. Basic research
d. Applied research 77.In, ……… the interviewer and
members jointly control the
Answer: C pace and direction of the
interview.
75.Personal interviews a. Field interview
conducted in shopping malls are b. Telephonic interview
known as……… c. Both A and B
a. Mall interviews d. None of the given options
b Mall intercept interviews
c. Brief interviews Answer: A
78.Randomization of test units
Answer: A is a part of ………
a. Pretest
b. Posttest
c. Matching
d. Experiment 81. A measure is reliable if it

provides consistent
Answer: A ___________.
79. In ___________, the Success Objectives
researcher attempts to control 1. Hypothesis
and/ or manipulate the 2. Results
variables in 3. Procedure
the study. 4. Sensitivity
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis Answer: 2
3. Theoretical framework
4. Research design 82. The interview in which
questions are already prepared
Answer: A is called ________.
1. Telephonic interview
80. In an experimental research 2. Personal interview
study, the primary goal is to 3. Unstructured interview
isolate and identify the effect 4. Structured interview
produced by the ____.
1. Dependent variable Answer: 4
2. Extraneous variable
3. Independent variable 83. The numerical description
4. Confounding variable that describe sample may be
expected to differ from those
Answer: A that describe population
because of random fluctuations
inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design Answer: 4

2. Non-probability sampling
3. Sampling error 86. A researcher is interested in
4. Probability sampling studying why the “new math”
of the 1960s failed. She
Answer: 3 interviews several teachers who
used the new math during the
84. In ______________ , each 1960s. These teachers are
population element has a considered as:
known and equal chance of 1. Primary sources
selection. 2. Secondary Sources
1. Purposive sampling 3. External critics
2. Quota sampling 4. Internal critics
3. Stratified sampling
4. Simple random sampling Answer: 1
Answer: 4 87. Which of the following is

NOT true about stratified
85. ______ is the evidence that random sampling?
the instrument, techniques, or 1. It involves a random selection
process used to measure process from identified
concept does indeed measure subgroups
the intended concepts. 2. Proportions of groups in the
1. Reliability sample must always match their
2. Replicability population
3. Scaling proportions
4. Validity
3. Disproportional stratified B. Research solution

random sampling is especially C. Reasoning
helpful for getting large D. Previous findings
enough subgroup samples when
subgroup comparisons are to be Answer: A
done
4. Proportional stratified 90. On which of the following,
random sampling yields a scientific knowledge mostly
representative sample relies?
A. Logical understanding
Answer: 2 B. Identification of events
88. Experimental design is the Success Objectives
only appropriate design C. Prior knowledge
where_________ relationship D. All of the given options
can VUSTUDENTS.NING
be established.
1. Strong Answer: A
2. Linear
3. Weak 91. Which of the following
4. Cause and Effect refers to research supported by
measurable
Answer: 4 evidence?
A. Opinion
89. Rationalism is the B. Empiricism
application of which of the C. Speculation
following? D. Rationalism
A. Logic and arguments
Answer: V A. Variables are tightly

controlled
92. Research method is B. Results are generalizable
applicable in all of the following C. Data are usually qualitative
fields, EXCEPT; D. Results demonstrate cause-
A. Health care and-effect relationship
B. Religion
C. Business Answer: C
D. Government offices
95. If a researcher is studying
Answer: B the effect of using laptops in his
classroom to
93. All of the following are true ascertain their merit and worth,
statements about action he is likely conducting which of
research, EXCEPT; the
A. Data are systematically following types of research?
analyzed A. Experimental
B. Data are collected B. Applied
systematically C. Basic
C. Results are generalizable D. Evaluation
D. Results are used to improve
practice Answer: D
Answer: C 96. Exploratory research

addresses which of the
94. Which of the following is following types of
characteristic of action question?
research? A. If
B. How Answer: A
C. Why
D. What 100. Which of the following is
not a concept?
Answer: D A. Leadership
B. Total Quality Management
97. Which of the following is not C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
the source for getting D. Human Resource
information for Management
exploratory research?
A. Content analysis Answer: C
B. Survey
C. Case study 101. A variable that is presumed
D. Pilot study to cause a change in another
variable is
Answer: A known as:
98. Which of the following is the Success Objectives
main quality of a good theory? A. Discontinuous variable
A. A theory that has survived B. Dependent variable
attempts at falsification C. Independent variable
B. A theory that is proven to be D. Intervening variable
right
C. A theory that has been Answer: C
disproved
D. A theory that has been 102. Which of the following is
falsified the opposite of a variable?
A. An extraneous variable
B. A dependent variable
C. A data set 105. “There is no relationship
D. A constant between higher motivation
level and higher
Answer: D efficiency” is an example of
which type of hypothesis?
103. Which of the following can A. Alternative
best be described as a B. Null
categorical C. Correlational
variable? D. Research
A. Age
B. Annual income Answer: B
C. Grade point average
D. Religion 106. Which of the following is
not a role of hypothesis?
Answer: D A. Guides the direction of the
study
104. “Income distribution of B. Determine feasibility of
employees” in a specific conducting the study
organization is an C. Identifies relevant and
example of which of following irrelevant facts
type of variable? D. Provides framework for
A. Discontinuous variable organizing the conclusions
B. Continuous variable
C. Dependent variable Answer: B
D. Independent variable
Answer: B
107. Which type of review C. Using of quantitative

compares how different techniques
theories address an issue? D. Data collection through mail
A. Context review and Interview
B. Integrated review
C. Theoretical review Answer: D
D. Methodological review
110. Which one of following is
Answer: C generally common in
establishment survey and
108. After you locate a source, household
you should write down all survey?
details of the A. Cognitive recall
reference, EXCEPT; B. Homogenous respondents
A. Volumes C. Error free
B. Titles D. Response burden
C. Price Research Method (STA 630)
D. Full names of the authors Success Objectives
Answer: C Answer: A
109. What is the primary focus 111. Which one of the following
of establishment surveys in this is not of important
case study? consideration in establishment
A. Collect the data through past survey
studies while designing questionnaires?
B. Analyze the literature review A. Response burden
B. Professional terminology
C. Cognitive recall establishment survey in this

D. Use of Records case
study?
Answer: C A. Cost
B. Limited data
112. Which of the following C. Unskilled interviewer
method of data collection is not D. Small sample size
discussed in the case study?
A. Questionnaires Answer: A
B. Interviews
C. Mail survey 115. Which of the following is
D. Observations not the part of specific protocol
of focus groups in ETJO?
Answer: D A. Concept and indicators
B. Definition
113. Which of the following C. Availability of records
sampling technique is used for D. Cognitive recall
Employee Turnover and Job
Openings survey? Answer: D
A. Simple random sampling
B. Cluster sampling 116. Which of the following is
C. Stratified sampling the draw back of pretest
D. Convenience sampling interview in ETJO survey?
A. Small simple size
Answer: C B. Non cooperative response
C. Probing
114. Which one of the following D. Questionnaire format
is the limitation of
Answer: A 119. Which of the following is

the basic purpose of pretest
117. Which of the following interview in this case study?
method of data collection is not A. To identified the potential
used in the case study? problem
A. Questionnaires B. To know the sample size
B. Focus groups C. To develop the questionnaire
C. Correlational method D. To use agency representative
D. Secondary data 120. Which one of the following
sampling type is used in
Answer: C operations test to select the
units?
118. What is the basic purpose A. Simple random sampling
of ETJO survey? Research Method (STA 630)
A. To assess the feasibility of Success Objectives
collecting job-vacancy and B. Cluster sampling
turnover data by C. Quota sampling
occupation D. Judgment sampling
B. To analyze the problem of
labor shortage
C. To assess the motivation level Answer: A
of employees
D. To analyze the factor 121. Which of the following is
contributing towards employee the basic purpose of Response
turnover analysis survey in the case
study?
Answer: A A. To assess the quality of ETJO
survey data
B. To know the sample size of B. Response analysis survey

ETJO survey data C. Document design analysis
C. To develop the questionnaire D. Pretest interviews
for ETJO
D. To use agency representative Answer: C
for ETJO
124. Which one of the following
Answer: A sampling type is used in
Response analysis survey
122. After Operation test, which (RAS)?
of the following test findings A. Simple random sampling
were suggested by the B. Cluster sampling
researcher? C. Quota sampling
A. Need of highly skilled and D. Stratified sampling
well trained interviewer
B. Sample size should be Answer: D
increased
C. A decent increase in survey 125. Which one of the following
budget could be helpful for minimizing
D. Focus group should be the bias in this case
included study?
A. Cognitive research
Answer: A B. Focus group
C. Pretest Interview
123. In which one of the D. Response analysis survey
following stage researcher
consult the literature? Answer: C
A. Operation test
126. Which one of the following b. Rationalism

is useful in assessing and c. Empirical
clarifying concepts and d. Abstraction
definitions at the beginning
stages of questionnaire? Answer: D
A. Operation test
B. Document design analysis 129. In a study of concept
C. Focus group learning in first-graders, all of
D. Response analysis survey the following should happen,
except;
Answer: C ► To help make the experience
enjoyable, children should be
127.‘Science’ refers to………. given substantial
A. A system for producing incentives to participate.
knowledge ► The children should be asked
Research Method (STA 630) if they want to participate.
Success Objectives ► Teachers of the children in
B. The knowledge produced by their classes should give
a system informed consent.
C. Both A & B ► Parents must give consent.
Answer: A
Answer: D
130. According to the Harvard
128.Which one of the following referencing convention, which is
is not a characteristic of the correct reference?
scientific method?
a. Deterministic
a) Bryman, A. (2008, 3e) Social 132Quantitative research has

Research Methods, Oxford; been criticised because:
Oxford University Press ► The reliance on instruments
b) Bryman (2008, second and procedures makes it high in
edition), Oxford University ecological validity.
Press ► The measurement process
c) Bryman, Alan, Social Research suggests a spurious and artificial
Methods (2008: OUP) sense of accuracy.
d) Bryman, A. Social Research ► It underestimates the
Methods (2008) similarities between objects in
the natural and social worlds.
Answer: A ► It has no validity.
131,Which of the following is Answer: B

least likely to occur as an ethical
problem with electronic 133. Which of the following is a
research? characteristic of a standardized
► Privacy could be invaded. test?
► People are not likely to be ► The administration of the
able to stop once they have test is controlled carefully to
begun participating. ensure that all examinees
► Debriefing could be avoided. experience the same conditions.
► Informed consent cannot be ► The test is developed by
completely monitored. experts to ensure it is
technically sound.
Answer: B ► The scores are interpreted in
standard ways.
► All of the given options
Answer: D 136. Which Following are the

properties of nominal scale,
134. Mr. Latif is measuring except;
students' attitudes on a ► Least powerful
controversial topic. Which of ► Suggest no order
the following ► Provide categorical
would you recommend he use information
to control for the potential ► Provide magnitude of object
problem of students feeling the
need to respond with socially Answer: B
acceptable responses?
► Ensure construct validity 137. Which of the following is
► Allow anonymous responses NOT the implication of Ordinal
► Ensure reliability scale?
► Ensure confidentiality ► Characteristics of nominal
scale
Answer: B ► Rank the object
► Does not provide magnitude
135. Which of the following of object
scales can measure the ► Provide rate
Temperature?
► Nominal scale Answer: B
► Ordinal scale
► Interval scale 138. Which of the following
► All of the given options statements is correct about
validity and reliability?
Answer: D
► When internal validity is 140. Which of the following is a

high, external validity is low legitimate purpose of a research
► When internal validity is plan?
high, there is no change in ► It forces you to think through
external validity every aspect of a study.
► When internal validity is ► It provides detailed
high, external validity is also procedures to guide the conduct
high of the study.
► All of the given options ► It provides clear roadmap of
the study.
Answer: D ► Writing a plan facilitates the
evaluation of it.
139. When you are confident
that the experimental Answer: D
manipulation produced the
changes you 141. In the statement ‘Smoke
measured in the dependent badly destroys health of people’
variable, your study probably what is the unit of analysis?
has good ________ validity. ► Transportation
► Internal ► Individuals
► External ► Pollutants
► Causal ► Drugs
► Construct
Answer: D
Answer: C
142. While studying supervisor-
subordinate relationship in an
organization, what is the unit of
analysis? ► Respondents may

► Individual inadvertently omit key terms in
► Dyad the question.
► Employer-employee ► Respondents may not give an
► Organization honest reply to what they see as
a threatening question.
Answer: D ► Respondents may be
unwilling to reveal information
143. Which of the following as they believe they are
types of survey research is often likely to be identified.
used for program evaluation or
accreditation purposes? Answer: D
► Developmental surveys
► Followup studies 145. What should the
► Public opinion polls researcher do if they have
► No survey research is achieved a low response rate?
appropriate ► Copy responses and paste
them again.
Answer: D ► Abandon the research
project entirely.
144. Which of the following is ► Recognize and accept the
NOT an example of a problem possible limitations of a low
with using survey research to response rate.
investigate behaviour? ► Fill in some more
► Respondents tend to answer questionnaires themselves.
by giving the most socially
desirable answer. Answer: C
146. Which of the following 148. The most critical area of an

statements is correct about article to read is;
questionnaire? ► Introduction
► A questionnaire should run ► Abstract
to at least twenty pages. ► Results section
► The questions should have ► Limitations
no spaces between them so that
the whole questionnaire Answer: C
looks small.
► Only questionnaires that are 149. Mr. Ali has conducted an
A3 size achieve high response extensive review of the
rates. literature and has deductively
► Clear presentation is more reasoned
important than overall size. a hypothesis about his problem
on the basis of this review.
Answer: D Which type of a research plan
is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
147. Critical decision area in ► Qualitative
questionnaire construction is ► Ethical
which of the following? ► Both quantitative and
► Question content qualitative
► Question wording ► Quantitative
► Response strategy
► All of the given options Answer: A
150. Which of the following

Answer: D represent a good qualitative
problem statement?
► Defines the independent and 152. How would you explain

dependent variables. "Research Proposal" and its
► conveys a sense of emerging different sections?
design. Ans - activity for practice
► Specifies a research Part-3
hypothesis to be tested.
► Specifies the relationship Answer: B
between variables that the
researcher expects to find. 153. Which of the following
is/are advantage(s) of the self-
Answer: B completed questionnaire?
► Inability to confirm who
151. Which of the following completed the questionnaire
makes research questions very ► Its unsuitability for some
crucial? kinds of respondents
► Guide your decisions about ► Inability to ask many
what data to collect and from questions that are not directly
where. relevant to the respondent
► Help you decide which ► Easy to justify the answer
research area interests you.
► Ensure that your findings Answer: D
have external validity.
► Prevent you from thinking 154. Time consumed in mall
about research strategies. intercept interview is
representing which of the
Answer: A following type?
► High
► Moderate
► Low d. Statistical conclusion validity

► Nill
Answer: A
Answer: B
157. Which type of validity
155. Which of the following refers to the ability to infer that
similarity is found in Qualitative the independent and
research and Survey research? dependent variables are related
► Examine topics primarily ant that the measured strength
from the participants' of the relationship
perspectives. is accurate?
► They are guided by a. Internal validity
predetermined variables to b. Population validity
study. c. Ecological validity
► They are descriptive research d. Statistical conclusion validity
methods.
► Have large sample sizes. Answer: D
Answer: C 158. An extraneous variable

that systematically varies with
156. Which type of validity the independent variable
refers to the degree to which and also influences the
you can infer that the dependent variable is known as
relationship between two a _______________.
variables is causal? a Confounding variable
a. Internal validity b. Third variable
b. Population validity c. Second variable
c. Ecological validity d. Both a and b are correct
161. ___________ refers to

Answer: D physical or mental changes that
may occur within
159. The use of multiple individuals over time, such as
observers to allow cross- aging, learning, boredom,
checking of observations to hunger, and fatigue.
make a. Instrumentation
sure that the investigators agree b. History
with what took place is known c. Maturation
as _______. d. Testing
a. Interpretive validity
b. Researcher bias Answer: C
c. Multiple operationalism
d. Investigator triangulation 162. What type of validity refers
to the extent to which the
Answer: D results of a study can be
generalized across time?
160. _____________ is the a. Ecological validity
lowest inference descriptor of b. External validity
all because it uses the c. Internal validity
participant’s own words. d. Temporal validity
a. Participant feedback
b. A verbatim Answer: D
c. Data triangulation
d. Investigator triangulation 163. Which of the following best
describes interpretive validity?
Answer: B
a. Factual accuracy of an 165. Which of the following is

account as reported by the not considered one of the
researcher criteria for inferring
b. Accurately portraying the causality?
meanings given by the a. Evidence that the
participants to what is independent and dependent
being studied variables are related
c. Degree to which a theoretical b. Evidence that the
explanation fits the data relationship between the
d. Ability to generalize the study variables being investigated is
results across settings not
due to a
Answer: B confounding extraneous
variable
164. Which of the following c. Evidence that changes in
terms is a strategy where the variable A occur before changes
researcher actively in variable B
engages in critical self-reflection d. The temporal ordering of the
about his or her potential biases variables being investigated
and does not matter
predispositions. because a relationship is all that
a. Experimenter effect is really needed
b. Reactivity
c. Investigator triangulation Answer: D
d. Reflexivity
166. The use of multiple data
Answer: D sources to help understand a
phenomenon is one
strategy that is used to promote c. Third variable

qualitative research validity. d. Fourth variable
Which of the
following terms describes this Answer: C
strategy?
a. Data matching 169. Which of the following
b. Pattern matching refers to any systematic change
c. Data triangulation that occurs over time
d. Data feedback in the way in which the
dependent variable is assessed?
Answer: C a. Instrumentation
b. Maturation
167. What may happen when c. Testing
different comparison groups d. Selection
experience a different
history event? Answer: A
a. History effect
b. Selection-history effect 170. Which of the following
c. Selection effect terms describes the ability to
d. Group effect generalize from the
sample of individuals on which
Answer: B a study was conducted to the
larger target
168. What is another term that population of individuals and
refers to a confounding across different subpopulations
extraneous variable? within the larger
a. Last variable target population?
b. First variable a. External validity
b. Population validity 173. A physical or mental

c. Ecological validity change that occurs in
d. Temporal validity participants over time that
affects
Answer: B their performance on the
dependent variable is called
171. Which of the following is ________.
not a strategy used to promote a. Instrumentation
qualitative research b. Maturation
validity? c. Regression
a. Peer review d. None of above
b. Theory triangulation
c. Extended fieldwork Answer: B
d. Random assignment
174. Attrition generally occurs
Answer: D in research where ____.
a. You do demographic research
172. The use of several b. The study fails
measures of a construct is c. Some participants do not
called: complete the study
a. Multiple operationalism d. The study is very brief
b. Multiple construct
measurement Answer: C
c. Operationalism
d. Methods triangulation 175. Differential attrition occurs
when the people dropping out
Answer: A from one group are
different from the others in

their group or from the people 177. Which strategy used to
in the comparison promote qualitative research
group. validity uses multiple
a. True research methods to study a
b. False phenomenon?
a. Data triangulation
Answer: A b. Methods triangulation
c. Theory triangulation
176. Internal validity refers to d. Member checking
which of the following?
a. The ability to infer that a Answer: B
casual relationship exists
between 2 variables 178. Which type of validity
b. The extent to which study refers to the factual accuracy of
results can be generalized to an account as reported
and across populations by the researcher?
of persons, a. Ecological validity
settings, and times b. Temporal validity
c. The use of effective c. Descriptive validity
measurement instruments in d. None of the above
the study
d. The ability to generalize the Answer: C
study results to individuals not
included in the 179. Which of the following in
study not one of the key threats to
internal validity?
Answer: A a. Maturation
b. Instrumentation 182. Alteration in performance

c. Temporal change due to being aware that one is
d. History participating in a
study is known as ______.
Answer: C a. Operationalism
b. Reactivity
180. This type of validity refers c. Temporal validity
to the ability to generalize the d. Mortality
results of a study
across settings. Answer: B
a. Temporal validity
b. Internal validity 183. The idea that the more
c. Ecological validity times a research finding is
d. External validity shown with different sets of
people, the more confidence we
Answer: C can place in the finding and in
generalizing
181. Which is not a direct threat beyond the original participants
to the internal validity of a is known as ___________.
research design? a. Naturalistic generalization
a. History b. Methods generalization
b. Testing c. Data triangulation
c. Sampling error d. Replication logic
d. Differential selection
Answer: D
Answer: B
184.An operational definition is:
One that bears no relation to To test hypotheses in conditions

the underlying concept. those are condusive to its
A. An abstract, theoretical success.
definition of a concept. To formulate a research
B. A definition of a concept in problem and disprove the
terms of specific, empirical hypothesis.
measures. A. To formulate a research
C. One that refers to opera problem, test the
singers and their work. B. hypothesis in carefully
controlled
Answer: C C. conditions that challenge
the hypothesis.
185.If a researcher is studying D. To test hypotheses and if
the effect of using laptops in his they are disproved, they
classroom to ascertain should be abandoned
their merit and worth, he is completely.
likely conducting which type of
research? Answer: D
Basic
Applied 187.Which of the following is a
Evaluation concept?
Experimental A. Leadership.
B. Total Quality
Answer: A Management.
C. Human Resource
186.What is the basis of the Management.
Scientific Method? D. All of the given options
Answer: A B. Those in authority cannot

be challenged.
188.Meanings attached to a C. Those in authority rely too
concept create problems of much on objective
measurements. information.
A. Unambiguous D. Those in authority often
B. Vague have no common sense.
C. Clear
D. Dictionary Answer: D
Answer: B 191.If a researcher was studying

the use of various instructional
189.To explain, predict, and/or approaches to the
control phenomena are the goal "multiple intelligences" of his
of---------------------- students, he is likely to be
A. Tradition conducting which type of
B. Inductive logic research?
C. Deductive logic A. Basic
D. The scientific B. Applied
C. Evaluation
Answer: A D. Grounded theory
190.Why, as scientists, do we Answer: C

not want to rely on authority
for explanations? 192.A concept is a generalized
A. Those in authority are idea about------ .
often wrong. A. A class of objects
B. Attributes
C. Occurrences 195. Which of the following

D. All of the given statements is true?
a. A statistical relationship is
Answer: D sufficient evidence to infer
causality
193.The scientific method is b. Temporal order of the cause
preferred over other ways of and effect is not important in
knowing because it is more; inferring causality
A. Reliable c. A statistical relation of X and
B. Systematic Y is insufficient evidence for
C. Accurate inferring
D. All of the given options causality
d. Temporal order of cause and
Answer: D effect variables and statistical
relation are all that
194. When a extraneous are needed to infer causality
variable systematically varies
with the independent variable Answer: C
and influences the dependent
variable, it is called: 196. A school district examines
a. Another dependent variable a program that uses mentors to
b. A confounding variable help very poor
c. A moderating variable readers improve their reading
d. An unreliable variable performance. The children in
the program are at the
Answer: B 4th percentile at pretest. At
posttest they are around the
20th percentile. While it is
possible that the program made d. A maturation effect

the difference, another reason
for the change in Answer: C
scores could be:
a. History 198. A researcher examines a
b. Regression artifact program looking at the effects
c. Multiple-treatment of mentoring on poor
interference readers' reading achievement.
d. Differential selection He looks at two different
schools. One serves as the
Answer: B control and the other the
experimental group. Both
197. A group of researchers do a schools had reading
study where children from achievement that was around
particular classrooms the 50th percentile. During the
are assigned to treatment or time that the
control conditions. After the mentoring program is in place in
study, the researcher the experimental group, a
finds out that the students in statewide reading
the control group are higher initiative is started in randomly
achievers than those in selected schools. The
the experimental group. He experimental, but not the
found no treatment effect. The control school is involved in the
failure to find an effect initiative. At the end of the
may be due to: year, the
a. A treatment effect experimental group does better
b. A testing effect than the control. From the
c. A differential selection effect information presented
above, a likely threat to the Answer: A

internal validity of the study is:
a. Selection by mortality 201. When planning to do social
interaction research, it is better to:
b. Mortality a) Approach the topic with an
c. Selection-history effect open mind
d. Selection-maturation effect b) Do a pilot study before
getting stuck into it
Answer: C c) Be familiar with the literature
on the topic
199. conducted in shopping d) Forget about theory because
malls are known as: this is a very practical
a. Mall interviews undertaking can't have one
b. Mall intercept interviews without the other
c. Brief interviews
d. None of the given options Answer: C
Answer: B 202. We review the relevant

literature to know:
200. Service evaluation of hotels a) What is already known about
and restaurants can be done by the topic
the: b) What concepts and theories
a. Self-administered have been applied to the topic
questionnaires c) Who are the key contributors
b. Office assistant to the topic
c. Manager d) All of the above
Answer: D
203. A deductive theory is one 205. What is one of the main

that: disadvantages of using the
a) Allows theory to emerge out covert role in ethnography?
of the data a) It can be hard to gain access
b) Involves testing an explicitly to the social group
defined hypothesis b) It is difficult to take notes
c) Allows for findings to feed without arousing suspicion
back into the stock of c) The problem of reactivity:
knowledge people may change their
d) Uses qualitative methods behaviour if they know they are
whenever possible being
observed
Answer: B d) It is usually too time
consuming and expensive to be
204. What does 'sampling cases' a realistic option
mean?
a) Sampling using a sampling Answer: B
frame
b) Identifying people who are 206. Disadvantage of content
suitable for research analysis is .
c) Literally, the researcher's a. Researcher can increase the
brief-case sample size
d) Sampling people, b. Provides access on the
newspapers, television subjects to which researcher
programmes etc. does have physical access.
Answer: D
c. Sometime documents provide a. High

incomplete account to the b. Moderate
researcher c. Low
d. Spontaneous feelings can be d. Nil
recorded when they occurred
Answer: D
Answer: A
209. “Teacher should create a
207. Which of the following friendly environment in the
statement is incorrect with classroom” this is the
respect to “An type of .
experimental design is a set of a. Leading question
procedures specifying:” b. Loaded question
a. How the test units (subjects) c. Double Barreled
are to be divided into d. Burdensome question
homogenous sub samples.
b. What independent variables Answer: C
or treatments are to be
measured? 210. Departmental stores
c. What dependent variables selected to test a new
are to be measured? merchandising display system is
d. How the extraneous variables the example of .
are to be controlled? a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
Answer: A c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
208. Time consumed in mall
intercept interview is . Answer: B
Answer: B
210. What is a key informant?
a) A group member who helps 212. Is it okay to break the law
the ethnographer gain access to in order to maintain a "cover"?
relevant people/events a) Yes, provided it is not very
b) A senior level member of the serious
organisation who refuses to b) No, never under any
allow researchers into it circumstances
c) A participant who appears to c) Yes, because otherwise data
be helpful but then blows the on criminal activity would never
researcher's cover come to light
d) Someone who cuts keys to d) Yes, provided it doesn't cause
help the ethnographer gain physical harm to someone
access to a building
Answer: B
Answer: A
213. What is the difference
211. What is the name of the between "scratch notes" and
role adopted by an "full field notes"?
ethnographer who joins in with a) Scratch notes are just key
the group's activities words and phrases, rather than
but admits to being a lengthy descriptions
researcher? b) Full field notes are quicker
a) Complete participant and easier to write than scratch
b) Participant-as-observer notes
c) Observer-as-participant c) Scratch notes are written at
d) Complete observer the end of the day rather than
during key events
d) Full field notes do not involve Answer: D

the researcher scratching their
head while thinking 216. Which of the following is
not a type of qualitative
Answer: A interview?
a) Unstructured interview
214. What are the two main b) Oral history interview
types of data that can be used c) Structured interview
in visual ethnography? d) Focus group interview
a) Positivist and interpretivist
b) Qualitative and quantitative Answer: C
c) Nominal and ordinal
d) Extant and research-driven 217. Why is it helpful to prepare
an interview guide before
Answer: D conducting semi-structured
interviews?
215. Which of the following a) So that the data from
makes qualitative interviewing different interviewees will be
distinct from structured comparable and relevant to
interviewing? your research
a) The procedure is less questions
standardized b) So that you can calculate the
b) "Rambling" off the topic is statistical significance of the
not a problem results
c) The researcher seeks rich, c) In order to allow participants
detailed answers complete control over the
d) All of the above topics they discuss
d) To make the sample more c) Transcribe only selected parts

representative of the interviews
d) All of the above
Answer: A
Answer: D
218. What is a "probing
question"? 220. Which of the following is
a) One that inquires about a not a type of life story?
sensitive or deeply personal a) Naturalistic life stories
issue b) Researched life stories
b) One that encourages the c) True life stories
interviewee to say more about a d) Reflexive and recursive life
topic stories
c) One that asks indirectly about
people's opinions Answer: C
d) One that moves the
conversation on to another 221. Which of the following is
topic an advantage of qualitative
interviewing relative to
Answer: B participant
observation?
219. What can you do to reduce a) It allows you to find out
the time consuming nature of about issues that are resistant
transcribing interviews? to observation
a) Use a transcribing machine b) It is more biased and value-
b) Employ someone to laden
transcribe for you c) It is more likely to create
reactive effects
d) None of the above

Answer: D
Answer: A
224. What is the purpose of the
222. Which of the following is a conclusion in a research report?
disadvantage of qualitative a) It explains how concepts
interviewing relative to were operationally defined and
participant measured
observation? b) It contains a useful review of
a) It has a more specific focus the relevant literature
b) It is more ethically dubious, c) It outlines the methodological
in terms of obtaining informed procedures that were employed
consent d) It summarizes the key
c) It may not provide access to findings in relation to the
deviant or hidden activities research questions
d) It does not allow participants
to reconstruct their life events Answer: D
Answer: C 225. Which of the following is

not normally included in a
223. The introductory section of written account of qualitative
a research report should aim to: research?
a) Identify the specific focus of a) An introduction, locating the
the study research in its theoretical
b) Provide a rationale for the context
dissertation, or article b) An explanation of the design
c) Grab the reader's attention of the study
d) All of the above
c) A discussion of the main d) Research questions are more

findings in relation to the important than sampling
research questions
d) A decision to accept or reject Answer: C
the hypothesis
228. The two levels of sampling
Answer: D used by Savage et al. (2005) for
the Manchester study were:
226. Before submitting your a) Random and purposive
dissertation, you should ensure b) Convenience and snowball
that: c) Statistical and non-statistical
a) Your writing is free of sexist, d) Contexts and participants
racist and disablist language
b) Other people have read your Answer: D
final draft
c) You have proofread it 229. Which of the following is
thoroughly not a type of purposive
d) All of the above sampling?
a) Probability sampling
Answer: D b) Deviant case sampling
c) Theoretical sampling
227. Probability sampling is d) Snowball sampling
rarely used in qualitative
research because: Answer: A
a) Qualitative researchers are
not trained in statistics 230. The minimum sample size
b) It is very old-fashioned for qualitative interviewing is:
c) It is often not feasible a) 30
b) 31 d) All of the above

c) 60
d) It's hard to say Answer: D
Answer: D 233. What can be generalized

from a purposive sample?
231. Why is an ethnographic a) That the findings are true for
study unlikely to use a broadly similar cases
probability sample? b) That the findings are true for
a) Because the aim of the entire population
understanding is more c) That the opposite is true for
important than that of people who are the opposite of
generalization those in the sample
b) Because the researcher d) That purposive sampling is
cannot control who is willing to better than probability sampling
talk to them
c) Because it is difficult to Answer: A
identify a sampling frame
d) All of the above 234. Which of the following is a
problem associated with survey
Answer: D research?
a) The problem of objectivity
232. Apart from people, what b) The problem of "going
else can purposive sampling be native"
used for? c) The problem of omission
a) Documents d) The problem of robustness
b) Timing of events
c) Context Answer: C
c) It is difficult to gain access to

235. The key advantage of such social settings
structured observation over d) Researchers prefer not to use
survey research is that: random samples whenever
a) It does not rely on the possible
researcher's ability to take
notes Answer: B
b) The researcher is immersed
as a participant in the field they 237. Which of the following is
are studying not a type of sampling used in
c) It does not impose any structured observation?
expectations of behaviour on a) Focal sampling
the respondents b) Scan sampling
d) It allows you to observe c) Emotional sampling
people's behaviour directly d) Behaviour sampling
Answer: D Answer: C
236. It may not be possible to 238. One of the criticisms often

use a probability sample to levelled at structured
observe behaviour in public observation is that:
places because: a) It does not allow us to
a) The findings of such studies impose any framework on the
are not intended to have social setting
external validity b) It only generates a small
b) It is not feasible to construct amount of data
a sampling frame of interactions
c) It is unethical to observe a) It was conducted by a

people without an observation reputable researcher who can
schedule be trusted
d) It does not allow us to b) The measures devised for
understand the intentions concepts are stable on different
behind behaviour occasions
c) The findings can be
Answer: D generalized to other social
settings
239. What is a research design? d) The methods are stated
a) A way of conducting research clearly enough for the research
that is not grounded in theory to be replicated
b) The choice between using
qualitative or quantitative Answer: B
methods
c) The style in which you 241. In an experimental design,
present your research findings, the dependent variable is:
e.g. a graph a) The one that is not
d) A framework for every stage manipulated and in which any
of the collection and analysis of changes are observed
data b) The one that is manipulated
in order to observe any effects
Answer: D on the other
c) A measure of the extent to
240. If a study is "reliable", this which personal values affect
means that: research
d) An ambiguous concept whose

meaning depends on how it is Answer: B
defined
244. What is a 'grand theory'?
Answer: A a) One that was proposed by
one of the major theorists in the
242. What is a cross-sectional sociological tradition
design? b) One that is highly abstract
a) A study of one particular and makes broad
section of society, e.g. the generalizations about the social
middle classes world
b) One that is devised when the c) An intermediate level
researcher is in a bad mood explanation of observed
c) The collection of data from regularities
more than one case at one d) A particularly satisfactory
moment in time theory that makes the
d) A comparison of two or more researcher feel happy
variables over a long period of
time Answer: B
Answer: C 245. An inductive theory is one

that:
243. Cross cultural studies are a) Involves testing an explicitly
an example of: defined hypothesis
a) Case study design b) Does not allow for findings to
b) Comparative design feed back into the stock of
c) Experimental design knowledge
d) Longitudinal design
c) Uses quantitative methods c) How much time and money

whenever possible you have to conduct the
d) Allows theory to emerge out research
of the data d) Which colour of ring binder
to present your work in
Answer: D
Answer: C
246. The qualitative research
strategy places a value on: 248. You can manage your time
a) Using numbers, and resources best, by:
measurements and statistical a) Working out a timetable
techniques b) Finding out what resources
b) Generating theories through are readily available to you
inductive research about social c) Calculating a budget for likely
meanings expenditure
c) Conducting research that is of d) All of the above
a very high quality
d) All of the above Answer: D
Answer: B 249. How can you tell if your

research questions are really
247. An important practical good?
issue to consider when a) If they guide your literature
designing a research project is: search
a) Which theoretical perspective b) If they are linked together to
you find most interesting help you construct a coherent
b) Whether or not you have argument
time to retile the bathroom first
c) If they force you to narrow c) Negotiating access to the

the scope of your research setting
d) All of the above d) All of the above
Answer: D Answer: D
250. Which of the following 252. What practical steps can

should be included in a research you take before you actually
proposal? start your research?
a) Your academic status and a) Find out exactly what your
experience institution's requirements are
b) The difficulties you for a dissertation
encountered with your previous b) Make sure you are familiar
reading on the topic with the hardware and software
c) Your choice of research you plan to use
methods and reasons for c) Apply for clearance of your
choosing them project through an ethics
d) All of the above committee
d) All of the above
Answer: C
Answer: D
should you think about when 253. Why do you need to review
preparing your research? the existing literature?
a) Your sample frame and a) To make sure you have a long
sampling strategy list of references
b) The ethical issues that might
arise
b) Because without it, you could 255. What is the first stage of a
never reach the required word- systematic review?
count a) Assess the relevance of each
c) To find out what is already study to the research
known about your area of question(s)
interest b) Define the purpose and scope
d) To help in your general of the review
studying c) Appraise the quality of
studies from the previous step
Answer: C d) Survey all of the literature
contained within a single library
254. A systematic literature
review is: Answer: B
a) One which starts in your own
library, then goes to on-line 256. The term "secondary
databases and, finally, to the analysis" refers to the technique
internet of:
b) A replicable, scientific and a) Conducting a study of
transparent process seconds, minutes and other
c) One which gives equal measures of time
attention to the principal b) Analysing your own data in
contributors to the area two different ways
d) A responsible, professional c) Analysing existing data that
process of time-management has been collected by another
for research person or organization
d) Working part time on a
Answer: B project alongside other
responsibilities
Answer: A
Answer: C
259. The large samples used in
257. Why might secondary national social surveys enable
analysis be a particularly useful new researchers to:
method for students? a) Avoid using probability
a) It is relatively easy to do sampling
b) It saves time and money b) Identify any bias in the
c) It does not require any question wording
knowledge of statistics c) Evaluate the inter-coder
d) It only requires a half-hearted reliability of the data
effort d) Conduct subgroup analysis
Answer: B Answer: D
258. Which of the following is 260. Which of the following is

not an advantage of secondary not a disadvantage of using
analysis? secondary analysis?
a) It immerses the researcher in a) The researcher's lack of
the field they are studying familiarity with the data
b) It tends to be based on high b) It is a relatively expensive
quality data and time consuming process
c) It provides an opportunity for c) Hierarchical datasets can be
longitudinal analysis very confusing
d) It allows you to study d) The researcher has no control
patterns and social trends over over the quality of the data
time
Answer: B
263- A literature review

261- Hypothesis refers to requires
A. The outcome of an A. Planning
experiment B. Good & clear writing
B. A conclusion drawn from an C. Lot of rewriting
experiment D. All of the above
C. A form of bias in which the
subject tries to outguess the Answer: D
experimenter
D. A tentative statement about 264- A literature review is based
the relationship on the assumption that
A. Copy from the work of others
Answer: D B. Knowledge accumulates and
learns from the work of others
262- Statistics is used by C. Knowledge disaccumulates
researchers to D. None of the above option
A. Analyze the empirical data
collected in a study Answer: B
B. Make their findings sound
better 265- A theoretical framework
C. Operationally define their A. Elaborates the r/s among the
variables variables
D. Ensure the study comes out B. Explains the logic underlying
the way it was intended these r/s
C. Describes the nature and
Answer: A direction of the r/s
D. All of the above
Answer: D
Answer: B
266- Which of the following
statement is not true? 268- Conducting surveys is the
A. A research proposal is a most common method of
document that presents a plan generating
for a project A. Primary data
B. A research proposal shows B. Secondary data
that the researcher is capable of C. Qualitative data
successfully D. None of the above
conducting the proposed
research project Answer: A
C. A research proposal is an
unorganized and unplanned 269- After identifying the
project important variables and
D. A research proposal is just establishing the logical
like a research report and reasoning in
written before the theoretical framework, the next
research project step in the research process is
A. To conduct surveys
Answer: C B. To generate the hypothesis
C. To focus group discussions
267- Preliminary data collection D. To use experiments in an
is a part of the investigation
A. Descriptive research
B. Exploratory research Answer: B
C. Applied research
D. Explanatory research
270- The appropriate analytical the questions and records the

technique is determined by answers himself is known as
A. The research design the:
B. Nature of the data collected a. Interview schedule
C. Nature of the hypothesis b. Questionnaire
D. Both A & B c. Interview guide
E. Personal interviews d. All of the given options
Answer: B Answer: B
271. WATS lines provided by 273. One of the most critical

long distance telephone service stages in the survey research
at fixed rates. process is:
In this regard, WATS is the a. Research design
abbreviation of: b. Questionnaire design
a. West Africa Theological c. Interview design
Seminary d. Survey design
b. Washtenaw Area
Transportation Study Answer: B
c. Wide Area
Telecommunications Service 274. Question that consists of
d. World Air Transport Statistics two or more questions joined
together is
Answer: C called a:
a. Double barreled question
272. A list of questions which is b. General question
handed over to the respondent, c. Accurate question
who reads d. Confusing question
Answer: C
Answer: A
277. A small scale trial run of a
275. The number of particular component is known
questionnaires returned or as:
completed divided by the a. Pilot testing
total number of eligible people b. Pre-testing
who were contacted or asked to c. Lab experiments
participate in the survey is d. Both A & B
called the:
a. Response rate Answer: D
b. Participation rate
c. Inflation rate 278. Field testing of the
d. None of the given options questionnaire shows that:
a. Respondents are willing to
Answer: A co-operate
b. Respondents are not willing
276. To obtain the freest to co-operate
opinion of the respondent, c. Respondents do not like any
when we ask general participation
question before a specific d. All of the given options
question then this procedure is
called as the: Answer: A
a. Research technique
b. Qualitative technique 279. Which of the following is
c. Funnel technique the weakest experimental
d. Quantitative technique design?
a. One group pretest-posttest c. Arithmetic mean, median,

design mode
b. Quasi- experimental design d. Standard deviation, internal
c. Two group posttest only validity, mode
design
d. Ex post facto design Answer: A
Answer: A 282. In lab experiment the

effect of Variables is controlled
280. How many times the to evaluate the
students appear in the research causal relationship.
class is the example of a. Extraneous
_________. b. Moderate
a. Intensity c. Intervening
b. Space d. All of the above
c. Frequency
d. Direction Answer: B
Answer: D 283. Internal validity refers to .

a. Researcher’s degree of
281. Which one of the following confidence.
sets is the measure of central b. Generalizability
tendency? c. Operationalization
a. Mean, standard deviation, d. All of the above
mode
b. Mean, median, standard Answer: D
deviation
284. The most powerful He concludes that the

research tool is a (an) gravitational pull of the moon
a.clinical study. influences human behavior. He
b.experiment. has committed
c.survey. what error?
d.correlational study. a.He incorrectly inferred
correlation from causation.
ANSWER: B b.He incorrectly inferred
causation from correlation.
285. A major disadvantage of c.He failed to measure the
the experimental method is that gravitational pull to test his
a.private funding can never be hypothesis.
obtained. d.He has overlooked the
b.APA Ethical Review placebo effect.
Committees often do not
approve of the research ANSWER: B
techniques.
c.there is a certain amount of 287. Students who do better in
artificiality attached to it. high school tend to do better in
d.subjects are difficult to find college. This is an example of
for research projects. a.a negative correlation.
b.a zero correlation.
ANSWER: C c.a positive correlation.
d.a perfect correlation.
286. A researcher determines
that the crime rate in a large ANSWER: C
city fluctuates with the phases
of the moon.
288. In the traditional learning a.the identification of a cause-

experiment, the effect of and-effect relationship.
practice on performance is b.similar to the correlational
investigated. method in that causality is
Performance is the __________ determined.
variable. c.that the surroundings are
a.independent always similar to real life
b.extraneous experiences.
c.dependent d.that it is an informal way to
d.control investigate behavior.
ANSWER: C ANSWER: D
289. Collection of observable 291. Which of the following

evidence, precise definition, and describes single-blind
replication of results all form experiments?
the basis for (A) They are experiments in
a.scientific observation. which the subjects don’t know
b.the scientific method. whether they are
c.defining a scientific problem. receiving a real or fake drug or
d.hypothesis generation. treatment
(B) They help reduce placebo
ANSWER: B effects
(C) They help reduce bias in
290. An advantage of the research
experimental method in (D) All of the above
psychology is
ANSWER: A
(A) It produces the same result

292. What does it mean if two when it is given at different
variables have a positive times to the same
correlation? group of people
(A) As one variable increases, so (B) It produces the same result
does the other no matter which version of the
(B) As one variable increases, test is used
the other decreases (C) It measures what it is
(C) The correlation between the supposed to measure
two variables is 0 (D) All of the questions on it can
(D) The correlation between the be answered accurately by the
two variables is greater than 1.0 subject
ANSWER: A ANSWER: C
293. In what type of study does 295. What is the variable called
a researcher study an individual that a researcher manipulates in
subject in depth? an experiment?
(A) Naturalistic observation (A) Dependent variable
(B) Laboratory observation (B) Independent variable
(C) Case study (C) Extraneous variable
(D) Survey (D) None of the above
ANSWER: C ANSWER: B
294. How can we determine if a 296. What is the difference

test has good validity? between the highest and lowest
scores in a data
distribution called?
(A) Mode ANSWER: D
(B) Standard deviation
(C) Range 299. What is a common way of
(D) Median controlling extraneous variables
in an experiment?
ANSWER: C (A) Random assignment
(B) Double-blind procedure
297. The social desirability bias (C) Single-blind procedure
can affect which of the (D) Using animal subjects
following?
(A) The validity of a test ANSWER: A
(B) The reliability of a test
(C) Self-report data 300. When doing research
(D) None of the above involving deception with human
subjects, researchers have an
ANSWER: C obligation to do which
of the following?
298. Which of the following is a (A) Tell subjects the truth about
research method that allows a the study’s purpose and
researcher to get methods after the study is
information about a large completed
number of subjects relatively (B) Prevent mental and physical
inexpensively and easily? harm to subjects
(A) Naturalistic observation (C) Let subjects withdraw from
(B) Case study the study at any time if they
(C) Laboratory observation don’t want to keep participating
(D) Survey (D) All of the above
(C) Only (R) is correct.

ANSWER: D (D) None of the (A) and (R) is
correct.
variances is not controlled or ANSWER: B
manipulated in a research
design? 303. Which of the following is
(A) Variance of independent not a criterion for the statement
variable. of a good research problem?
(B) Variance of dependent (A) Expression of relationship
variable. between/among variables.
(C) Variance of extraneous (B) Clarity and
variables. unambiguousness.
(D) Error variance. (C) Possibility of empirical
testing.
ANSWER: B (D) Possibility of use of
statistical analysis.
302. Assertion (A): Longer tests
are more reliable than shorter ANSWER: D
ones.
Reason (R): Each item adds to 304. Which of the following
test reliability. variables is continuous?
Which of the following is (A) Attitude towards school
correct? (B) Family size in a locality
(C) Marital status of College
Codes: students
(A) Both (A) and (R) are correct. (D) Religious affiliation of
(B) Only (A) is correct. workers.
(C) Reasoning Test – Content

ANSWER: A validity
(D) Personality test –
305. Read the following Concurrent validity
statements about a laboratory
experiment. ANSWER: C
I. It has relatively complete
control of extraneous variables. 307. Read the following two
II. Its results are applicable to lists of items:
real life situations. List – I List –
II
Which of the following is a. Historical Research 1.
correct? Current status
(A) Both I and II are correct. b. Action Research 2.
(B) I is incorrect, but II is correct. Control of variables
(C) Neither of I and II is correct. c. Survey Research 3.
(D) I is correct, but II is Natural setting
incorrect. d. Experimental Research 4.
Local problem
ANSWER: D 5. Past oriented
306. Which of the following is Which of the following

not correctly matched? matching is correct?
(A) Achievement Test – Content a b c d
validity (A) 3 4 1 2
(B) Aptitude Test – Predictive (B) 5 4 1 2
validity (C) 4 3 2 5
(D) 1 2 3 4
ANSWER: B
310. An investigator wants to
308. In the context of a Survey study the vocational aspirations
Research, the following steps of visually challenged children
are taken in a certain order: in a wide geographical area. He
1. Sampling should select his sample by
2. Inference using
3. Data analysis (A) Sample Random sampling
4. Data collection (B) Stratified sampling
(C) Purposive sampling
Which of the following is the (D) Convenient sampling
right order of these steps?
(A) 2, 3, 1, 4 ANSWER: C
(B) 1, 4, 3, 2
(C) 3, 2, 4, 1 311. A study in which direct
(D) 4, 1, 2, 3 perception of an incident or
object made is
ANSWER: B (A) Naturalistic research
(B) Practitioner research
309. Which of the following is a (C) Phenomenological research
measure of location? (D) Descriptive research
(A) Mode
(B) Mean ANSWER: C
(C) Percentile
(D) Standard Deviation 312. A simple correlation was
calculated between two
ANSWER: C variables after removing the
effect of a third variable from

both, the resulting correlation is 314. The consistency of
called evaluation-results is measured
(A) Partial correlation by
(B) Part correlation (A) Objectivity
(C) Multiple correlation (B) Reliability
(D) Canonical correlation (C) Predictability
(D) Usability
ANSWER: A
ANSWER: B
313. Reorganise the following
steps of descriptive research in 315. Stratified sampling is
a correct sequence: adopted when
(a) Collection and processing of (A) the universe is
data homogeneous
(b) Interpretation of results (B) the universe is
(c) Identification of a problem heterogeneous
(d) Drawing conclusions (C) selected groups need to be
(e) Drafting of the report studied
(f) Formulation of hypothesis (D) data about the universe is
not available
Codes:
(A) f c a b d e ANSWER: B
(B) f c a e b d
(C) c f a e b d 316. Which of the following is
(D) c f a b d e the first step in starting the
research process?
ANSWER: D
(A) Searching sources of (C) predict relationships

information (D) explain variation in
(B) Survey of related literature measurements
(C) Identification of a broad
area of research ANSWER: A
(D) Searching for solutions to
problem 319. The ‘standard error of a
statistic’ is a measure of
ANSWER: C (A) Sampling Fluctuation
(B) Errors of Measurement
317. A researcher commits Type (C) Errors of Prediction
I Error when he (D) Systematic Variation
(A) accepts Null hypothesis
when it is false. ANSWER: A
(B) rejects Null hypothesis when
it is false. 320. Which of the following
(C) accepts Null hypothesis gives a more accurate measure
when it is true. of relationship than the other
(D) rejects the Null Hypothesis three?
when it is true. (A) Spearman’s Rho
(B) Biserial Correlation
ANSWER: D (C) Kendall’s Tau
(D) Product-moment Method
318. The major objective of a
qualitative research study is to ANSWER: D
(A) understand a process or
concept 321. A Ph. D scholar conducted
(B) study group-differences a study with a view to address
the language problems of tribal (C) Random measurement error

children at elementary level. (D) Systematic measurement
This study can be categorised as error
(A) Action Research
(B) Applied Research ANSWER: B
(C) Basic Research
(D) None of the above 324. The size of sample for a
study mostly depends on
ANSWER: B (A) Gravity of the population
(B) Geographical area of the
322. A study on the topic study
“perception of tribal people (C) Homogeneity and
about formal education” comes heterogeneity of the population
under the type (D) Type of population
(A) Ethnographic
(B) Historical ANSWER: C
(C) Experimental
(D) Expost facto 325. Which of the following is
the incorrect pair?
ANSWER: A (A) Rank correlation
– Spearman
323. Errors in the findings of an (B) Product moment correlation
experimental study caused by – Pearson
deliberate selection of some (C) Split-half correlation
bright students for – Kuder Richardson
experimental group is known as (D) Contingency correlation
(A) Random sampling error – Cramer
(B) Systematic sampling error
(C) –1 to 0
ANSWER: D (D) +1 to 0
326. When a non-directional ANSWER: A

hypothesis is stated, the test of
significance would be 329. Which of the following
(A) One tailed statements is true for the
(B) Two tailed relationship between reliability
(C) Both (A) and (B) and validity of a research tool ?
(D) None of the above (A) A reliable test is always
valid.
ANSWER: B (B) A valid test must be reliable.
(C) A valid test may not be
327. The critical difference reliable.
between naturalism and (D) A reliable test is never valid.
pragmatism is in the importance
accorded to ANSWER: B
(A) aims
(B) methods 330. Reorganize the following
(C) social context steps of Descriptive Research in
(D) evaluation a correct sequence:
1. Collection and processing of
ANSWER: A data
2. Interpretation of results
328. The coefficient of 3. Identification of a problem
correlation lies from 4. Arranging of generalizations
(A) +1 to –1 5. Drafting of the report
(B) 0 to –1
6. Formulation of the (B) Implied behaviour pattern

hypothesis (C) Activities necessary to
(A) 6, 3, 1, 2, 4, 5 measure it
(B) 6, 3, 1, 5, 2, 4 (D) Other equivalent words in
(C) 3, 6, 1, 5, 2, 4 the dictionary
(D) 3, 6, 1, 2, 4, 5
ANSWER: C
ANSWER: D
333. Which of the following is
331. Which of the following is not a characteristic feature of
not common to experimental research process ?
and Ex-post Facto designs of (A) Empirical approach
research ? (B) Systematic endeavour
(A) Cause and Effect (C) Uncontrolled conditions
relationship (D) Critical analysis
(B) Manipulation of
independent variable ANSWER: C
(C) Controlling extraneous
variables 334. Read the following
(D) Observation of dependent statements about field studies:
variable I. A field study is conducted in a
real life setting.
ANSWER: B II. It effectively uses scientific
method.
332. An operational definition
of a construct is the one which Which of the following is true ?
defines it in terms of (A) I is correct, but II is not.
(A) Other constructs (B) II is correct, but (I) is not.
(C) Both I and II are true.

(D) None of the two is true. ANSWER: C
ANSWER: C 337. Which of the following is

NOT a measure of dispersion ?
335. Read the following : (A) Range
I. Correlation coefficient may be (B) Mode
negative as well as positive. (C) Mean Deviation
II. Reliability of a test can be (D) Standard Deviation
negative.
ANSWER: B
Which of the following is correct
? 338. The variance reflecting a
(A) I is wrong, but II is correct. systematic difference between
(B) Both I and II are correct. groups of measures is termed as
(C) I is correct, but II is wrong. (A) Total Variance
(D) Both I and II are wrong. (B) Error Variance
(C) Experimental Variance
ANSWER: A (D) Within Groups Variance
336. Which of the following is ANSWER: C

not correctly matched ?
(A) Test-Retest : Stability 339. The difference between a
(B) Split-Half : Internal statistical average based on the
consistency entire population and the one
(C) KR-20 : Stability based on a sample is known as
(D) Parallel Form : Equivalence (A) Standard Error
(B) Mean Difference
(C) Sampling Error used with appropriate Statistics

(D) Mean Deviation in List – II:
ANSWER: C List – I List – II

a. Nominal Scales i.
340. The standard deviation of Geometric Mean
sampling distribution of a b. Ordinal Scales ii.
statistic is known as Frequency Distribution
(A) Sampling Variance c. Interval Scales iii. Median
(B) Standard Error & Rank Correlation
(C) Sampling Error d. Ratio Scales iv. Mean, SD
(D) Standard Variance & Correlations
ANSWER: B Codes:
a b c d
341. Which one of the following (A) iv iii ii i
tests can be used to examine (B) i iii ii iv
the differences in Mathematics (C) ii iii iv i
achievement of boys and girls? (D) i iv iii ii
(A) Correlational Test
(B) ‘t’ Test ANSWER: C
(C) Chi-square Test
(D) Anova 343. There is a significant
positive correlation between
ANSWER: B variables X and Y. This means
that:
342. Match the Measurement (A) X causes variation in Y.
Scales in List – I which can be (B) Y causes variation in X.
(C) X and Y vary together in

opposite directions. 346. Pre-test-post-test
(D) X and Y vary together in the randomized matching control
same direction. group design is an example of
(A) True experimental design
ANSWER: D (B) Pre- experimental design
(C) Quasi-experimental design
344. Which of the following (D) Post-facto experimental
terms is related to the idea of design
validity of a test?
(A) Errors of measurement ANSWER: A
(B) True score variance
(C) Common factor variance 347. Which of the following is
(D) Random errors not assessed by using essay
type questions?
ANSWER: C (A) Thinking skills
(B) Knowledge of wide content
345. One of the appropriate area
statistics that can be used for (C) Supplying suitable
Solomon four experimental arguments
designs is (D) Detailed description of an
(A) Correlational Analysis event
(B) One-way ANOVA
(C) Chi-square ANSWER: B
(D) Median Test
ANSWER: B is the stable measure of
dispersion?
(A) Range 351. The control of extraneous

(B) Quartile Deviation variables in experimental
(C) Average Deviation research after the treatment is
(D) Standard Deviation given can be done through a
technique called
ANSWER: D (A) Statistical Regression
(B) Post-Test
349. The method of drawing (C) One-way ANOVA
conclusions based on the (D) Analysis of Co-variance
observation of each and every
instance of a population is ANSWER: D
called
(A) Scientific Method 352. Which of the following is
(B) Deductive Method incorrect pairing?
(C) Inductive Method (A) Product moment coefficient
(D) Dialectic Method of correlation - r
(B) Chi Square - χ2
ANSWER: C (C) Multiple correlation - R
(D) Standard deviation - ρ
350. Positivistic research
approach was advocated by ANSWER: D
(A) Francis Bacon
(B) Stanley & Compbell 353. A survey of population is
(C) Auguste Comte equivalent to
(D) Babbit (A) Census Survey
(B) Sample Survey
ANSWER: C (C) Group Survey
(D) None of the above
(A) Control of extraneous

ANSWER: A variables.
(B) Study of cause and effect
354. Which of the following relationship.
types of studies results in (C) Observing variation in the
findings which could not be dependent variable.
generalized to other situations? (D) Manipulation of treatment
(A) Descriptive variable.
(B) Historical
(C) Experimental ANSWER: D
(D) Causal Comparative
357. Equating through matched
ANSWER: B pairs is the method used in
(A) Survey Research
355. Which of the following (B) Experimental Research
terms is Brelevant to a (C) Sociological Research
qualitative study? (D) Trend Research
(A) Comparison
(B) Prediction ANSWER: B
(C) Correlation
(D) Exploration 358. When a researcher checks
the genuineness and
ANSWER: D authenticity of the source
material, it is known as
356. Which of the following is a (A) External validity
characteristic feature only of (B) External criticism
experimental studies? (C) Concurrent validity
(D) Internal consistency
and validity of a measuring

ANSWER: B instrument?
(A) Reliable test is also valid.
359. An investigator studied the (B) Validity does not ensure
census data for a given area and reliability.
prepared a write up based on (C) Validity and reliability are
them. Such a write-up is called not related.
(A) Research Paper (D) Valid test must be reliable.
(B) Article
(C) Thesis Answer: D
(D) Research Report
362. When the findings of an
ANSWER: B experimental research are
generalized to target
360. An intensive investigation population, the research is said
of a slow learner undertaken in to possess
a research project by a teacher (A) Internal validity
can be termed as (B) Concurrent validity
(A) Action Research (C) External validity
(B) Survey (D) Predictive validity
(C) Case study
(D) Ethnography Answer: C
ANSWER: C 363. The status-quo of a

situation in research can be
361. Which of the following studied through:
statements is true for reliability (A) Experimental research
(B) Survey research
(C) Historical research (A) Test

(D) Phenomenological research (B) Interview
(C) Rating Scale
Answer: B (D) Observation
364. Which of the following is Answer: B

incorrect as a measure of
dispersion? 367. Deductive reasoning helps
(A) Quartile Deviation in
(B) Range (A) Sample Selection
(C) Standard Deviation (B) Hypothesis Generation
(D) Sampling Error (C) Problem Identification
(D) None of the above
Answer: D
Answer: B
variables is controlled in 368. Which of the following
experimental research? factors does not affect internal
(A) Independent variables validity of an experimental
(B) Moderate variables design?
(C) Dependent variables (A) Statistical regression
(D) Extraneous variables (B) Maturation of subjects
(C) Pre-testing
Answer: D (D) Noise during experiment
366. One of the tools that can Answer: D

be used for in-depth data
collection is
369. A researcher compared the

mean IQ scores of randomly Codes:
selected government and (A) (b), (a), (d), (c)
private school students and (B) (c), (d), (a), (b)
arrived at conclusion that (C) (d), (a), (b), (c)
private school curriculum has (D) (a), (d), (c), (b)
significant positive effect on
intelligence of students as Answer: A
compared to that of the
government school. This study 371. The type of grading that
can be categorized as asserts fixed proportion of
(A) Experimental learners at different grade
(B) Ex-post facto points is known as
(C) Historical (A) Direct grading
(D) Case study (B) Indirect grading
(C) Relative grading
Answer: B (D) Absolute grading
370. Rearrange in proper order, Answer: C

the following activities related
to test standardization: 372._______ refers to inferring
(a) Preparation of test items about the whole population
(b) Planning the test based on the observations
(c) Assessment of reliability and made on a small part.
validity
(d) Tryout of the test (A) Deductive inference
(B) Inductive inference
(C) Pseudo-inference
(D) Objective inference methods

(C) Table used in statistical
Answer: B investigations
(D) All the above
373. Sampling is advantageous
as it Answer: D
(A) Helps in capital-saving
(B) Saves time 376.Type-I Error occurs if
(C) Increases accuracy
(D) Both (a) and (b) (A) the null hypothesis is
rejected even though it is true
Answer: D (B) the null hypothesis is
accepted even though it is false
374. Random sampling is helpful (C) both the null hypothesis as
as it is well as alternative hypothesis
are rejected
(A) An economical method of (D) None of the above
data collection
(B) Free from personal biases Answer: A
(C) Reasonably accurate
(D) All the above 377._________ is a preferred
sampling method for the
Answer: D population with finite size.
375. Tippit table refers to (A) Area sampling

(B) Cluster sampling
(A) Table of random digits (C) Purposive sampling
(B) Table used in sampling
(D) Systematic sampling Answer: C
Answer: D 380.The longitudinal approach

of research deals with
378.Research and Development _________.
become the index of
development of country. Which (A) Horizontal researches
of the following reasons are (B) Long-term researches
true with regards to this (C) Short-term researches
statement? (D) None of the above
(A) Because R&D reflect the true
economic and social conditions Answer: B
prevailing in a country
(B) Because R&D targets the 381. Phenomenological
human development Research is a
(C) Because R&D can improve (A) Qualitative Research
the standard of living of the (B) Quantitative Research
people in a country (C) Trend Research
(D) All the above (D) Descriptive Research
Answer: D Answer: A
379. The data of research is 382. Which one of the following

(A) Qualitative only is not a type of Descriptive
(B) Quantitative only Research method?
(C) Both (a) and (b) (A) Correlational
(D) Neither (a) nor (b) (B) Causal Comparative
(C) Survey
(D) Developmental study (C) Descriptive Research

(D) Philosophical Research
Answer: D
Answer: B
383. The process of assigning
numerals to objects according 386. ‘Internal criticism’ is a
to some rules is termed as required step in
(A) Observation (A) Experimental Research
(B) Measurement (B) Historical Research
(C) Analysis (C) Descriptive Research
(D) Statistics (D) Philosophical Research
Answer: B Answer: B
384. While conducting 387. Which sampling technique

experimental research a will be most appropriate to
researcher should control the draw a representative sample of
(A) Independent variables heterogeneous population?
(B) Dependent variables (A) Stratified Random
(C) No variables (B) Quota
(D) Extraneous variables (C) Purposive
(D) Incidental
Answer: D
Answer: A
385. ‘Subject Mortality’ leads to
internal invalidity of 388. Chi-square test is an
(A) Historical Research example of
(B) Experimental Research (A) Parametric test
(B) Non-Parametric test (B) Sensory level

(C) Descriptive test (C) Concrete level
(D) Survey test (D) None of these
Answer: B
Answer: A
389. A highly reliable test is
required for the purpose of 392. Which of the following
(A) Using teacher made test does not belong to the category
(B) Testing for research purpose of non probability sample?
(C) Dividing students into ability
groups (A) Quota sample
(D) Providing guidance services (B) Multi-stage sample
(C) Purposive sample
Answer: C (D) Incidental sample
390. Deductive Reasoning helps Answer: B

in
(A) Research Reporting 393. The research proposals
(B) Formulation of Hypothesis sent to research institutes for
(C) Data Analysis financial assistance must have
(D) Tools Preparation (A) The whole plan and
procedure
Answer: B (B) Budget requirements and
time schedule
391. Which is the highest level (C) Definite objectives of
of concept formation? research
(A) Formal level (D) None of the above
(C) Scientific approach to new

Answer: B truth
(D) Conducting experiment
394. Which of the following is
not an approach of analysis of Answer: C
qualitative data?
(A) Logical Analysis 397. Which of the following is
(B) Criterion Analysis the first step in the research
(C) Content Analysis process?
(D) Inductive Analysis (A) Searching sources of
information.
Answer: B (B) Survey of related literature.
(C) Identification of a broad
395. Internal criticism is done area of research.
(A) To verify the accuracy of the (D) Searching for solution to
source. problem.
(B) To verify the authenticity of
the source. Answer: C
(C) Both of these
(D) None of these 398. If a researcher conduct a
research on finding out which
Answer: A administrative style contributes
more to institutional
396. Research means effectiveness, this will be an
(A) Searching again and again example of
(B) Finding solution to any (A) Ex post facto research
problem (B) Action research
(C) Applied research
(D) Fundamental research

Which of the following
Answer: C sequence is correct?
(A) 3, 2, 4, 1, 5, 6
399. A researcher is generally (B) 1, 3, 2, 5, 6, 4
expected to (C) 3, 2, 4, 1, 6, 5
(A) Study the existing literature (D) 3, 2, 5, 1, 6, 4
in a field.
(B) Generate new principles and Answer: A
theories.
(C) Synthesize the ideas given 401. Which of the following
by others. statements is not true in the
(D) Evaluate the findings of a context of participatory
study. research?
(1) It recognizes knowledge as
Answer: B power.
(2) It emphasises on people as
400. The process of educational experts.
research involves the following (3) It is a collective process of
steps: enquiry.
(1) Collection of data (4) Its sole purpose is
(2) Statement of objectives production of knowledge.
(3) Selecting the problem
(4) Method/Procedure Answer: 4
(5) Analysis and Interpretation
of data 402. A researcher is interested
(6) Reporting the results in studying the prospects of a
particular political party in an
urban area. What tool should he (4) Ex-post-facto method

prefer for the study?
(1) Rating scale Answer: 4
(2) Interview
(3) Questionnaire 405. Which of the following is
(4) Schedule an initial mandatory
requirement for pursuing
Answer: 3 research?
(1) Developing a research design
403. Ethical norms in research (2) Formulating a research
do not involve guidelines for: question
(1) Thesis format (3) Deciding about the data
(2) Copyright analysis procedure
(3) Patenting policy (4) Formulating a research
(4) Data sharing policies hypothesis
Answer: 1 Answer: 2
404. A researcher intends to 406. The format of thesis

explore the effect of possible writing is the same as in
factors for the organization of (1) preparation of a research
effective mid-day meal paper/article
interventions. Which research (2) writing of seminar
method will be most presentation
appropriate for this study? (3) a research dissertation
(1) Historical method (4) presenting a workshop /
(2) Descriptive survey method conference paper
(3) Experimental method
Answer: 3 (iii) Research findings are made

the basis for policy making.
407. In qualitative research (iv) Conduct of practitioner is
paradigm, which of the screened in terms of reported
following features may be research evidences.
considered critical? (v) A research study is
(1) Data collection with replicated with a view to verify
standardised research tools. the evidences from other
(2) Sampling design with researches.
probability sample techniques. (vi) Both policy making and
(3) Data collection with bottom- policy implementing processes
up empirical evidences. are regulated in terms of
(4) Data gathering to take place preliminary studies.
with top-down systematic Codes:
evidences. (1) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(2) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
Answer: 3 (3) (ii), (iv) and (vi)
(4) (i), (iii) and (v)
408. From the following list of
statements identify the set Answer: 3
which has negative implications
for ‘research ethics’: 409. In a research on the effect
(i) A researcher critically looks of child-rearing practices on
at the findings of another stress-proneness of children in
research. completing school projects, the
(ii) Related studies are cited hypothesis formulated is that
without proper references. ‘child rearing practices do
influence stress-proneness’. At
the data-analysis stage a null in school programmes. This

hypothesis is advanced to find endeavour may be related to
out the tenability of research which type of research?
hypothesis. On the basis of the (1) Evaluation Research
evidence available, the null (2) Fundamental Research
hypothesis is rejected at 0.01 (3) Action Research
level of significance. What (4) Applied Research
decision may be warranted in
respect of the research Answer: 3
hypothesis?
(1) The research hypothesis will 411. In doing action research
also be rejected. what is the usual sequence of
(2) The research hypothesis will steps?
be accepted. (1) Reflect, observe, plan, act
(3) Both the research hypothesis (2) Plan, act, observe, reflect
and the null hypothesis will be (3) Plan, reflect, observe, act
rejected. (4) Act, observe, plan, reflect
(4) No decision can be taken in
respect of the research Answer: 2
hypothesis.
412. Which sequence of
Answer: 2 research steps is logical in the
list given below?
410. The principal of a school (1) Problem formulation,
conducts an interview session of Analysis, Development of
teachers and students with a Research design, Hypothesis
view to explore the possibility making, Collection of data,
of their enhanced participation
Arriving at generalizations and a. i. Using

conclusions. Experimental primary and
(2) Development of Research method secondary
design, Hypothesis making, b. Ex post- sources
Problem formulation, Data facto ii.
analysis, Arriving at conclusions method Questionnaire
and data collection. c. iii.
(3) Problem formulation, Descriptive Standardized
Hypothesis making, survey tests
Development of a Research method iv. Typical
design, Collection of data, Data d. Historical characteristic
analysis and formulation of method tests
generalizations and conclusions.
(4) Problem formulation, Codes:
Deciding about the sample and a b
data collection tools, c d
Formulation of hypothesis, (1) ii i
Collection and interpretation of iii iv
research evidence. (2) iii iv
ii i
413. Below are given two sets – (3) ii iii
research methods (Set-I) and i iv
data collection tools (Set-II). (4) ii iv
Match the two sets and indicate iii i
your answer by selecting the
correct code: Answer: 2
Set – I (Research Set – II (Data
Methods) Collection Tools) 414. The issue of ‘research
ethics’ may be considered
pertinent at which stage of (2) Applied Research

research? (3) Action Research
(1) At the stage of problem (4) Experimental Research
formulation and its definition
(2) At the stage of defining the Answer: 3
population of research
(3) At the stage of data 417. A researcher attempts to
collection and interpretation evaluate the effect of method
(4) At the stage of reporting the of feeding on anxiety -
findings. proneness of children. Which
method of research would be
Answer: 3 appropriate for this?
(1) Case study method
415. In which of the following, (2) Experimental method
reporting format is formally (3) Ex-post-facto method
prescribed? (4) Survey method
(1) Doctoral level thesis
(2) Conference of researchers Answer: 3
(3) Workshops and seminars
(4) Symposia 418. In which of the following
arrangements a wider spectrum
Answer: 1 of ideas and issues may be
made possible?
416. Which of the following (1) Research Article
research types focuses on (2) Workshop mode
ameliorating the prevailing (3) Conference
situations? (4) Symposium
(1) Fundamental Research
Answer: 3 (b) Applied perceived

research impact of an
419. Which of the following is (c) Action intervention
susceptible to the issue of research (ii)
research ethics? (d) Developing
(1) Inaccurate application of Evaluative an effective
statistical techniques research explanation
(2) Faulty research design through
(3) Choice of sampling theory
techniques building
(4) Reporting of research (iii)
findings Improving an
existing
Answer: 4 situation
through use
420. There are two sets given of
below. Set - I specifies the types interventions
of research, while Set - II (iv) Exploring
indicates their characteristics. the
Match the two and give your possibility of
answer by selecting the a theory for
appropriate code. use in
Set - I Set - II various
(Research types) (Characteristics) situations
(v) Enriching
(a) (i) Finding
technological
Fundamental out the
resources
research extent of
Code:
(a) (b) (c) (1) Suggested solution of the

(d) problem, Deducing the
(1) (ii) (iv) consequences of the solution,
(iii) (i) Perceiving the problem
(2) (v) (iv) situation, Location of the
(iii) (ii) difficulty and testing the
(3) (i) (ii) (iii) solutions.
(iv) (2) Perceiving the problem
(4) (ii) (iii) (iv) situation, Locating the actual
(v) problem and its definition,
Hypothesizing, Deducing the
Answer: 1 consequences of the suggested
solution and Testing the
421. Which of the sets of hypothesis in action.
activities best indicate the cyclic (3) Defining a problem,
nature of action research Identifying the causes of the
strategy? problem, Defining a population,
(1) Reflect, Observe, Plan, Act Drawing a sample, Collecting
(2) Observe, Act, Reflect, Plan data and Analysing results.
(3) Act, Plan, Observe, Reflect (4) Identifying the causal
(4) Plan, Act, Observe, Reflect factors, Defining the problem,
Developing a hypothesis,
Answer: 4 Selecting a sample, Collecting
data and arriving at
422. Which of the following generalizations and
sequences of research steps is Conclusions.
nearer to scientific method?
Answer: 3
425. Prime Minister Research

423. The problem of ‘research Fellowship is for students
ethics’ is concerned with which pursuing Ph.D programme in:
aspect of research activities? (1) State and Central
(1) Following the prescribed Universities
format of a thesis (2) Central Universities, IISc,
(2) Data analysis through IITs, NITs, IISERs and IIITs
qualitative or quantitative (3) IISc, IITs, NITs, IISERs, IIITs,
techniques State and Central Universities
(3) Defining the population of (4) IITs and IISc
research
(4) Evidence based research Answer: 4
reporting
426: Who said that members
Answer: 4 of the same species are not
alike ?
424. In which of the following A.Darwin
activities, potential for B. Herbert Spencer
nurturing creative and critical C. Best
thinking is relatively greater? D.Good
(1) Preparing research summary
(2) Presenting a seminar paper Option: A
(3) Participation in research
conference 427: A researcher divides the
(4) Participation in a workshop populations into PG, graduates
and 10 + 2 students and using
Answer: 4 the random digit table he
selects some of them from each.

This is technically called 430: Attributes of objects,
A.stratified sampling events or things which can be
B. stratified random measured are called
sampling A.qualitative measure
C. representative sampling B. data
D.none of these C. variables
D.none of the above
Option: B
Option: C
428: A researcher divides his
population into certain groups
and fixes the size of the sample
from each group. It is called
A.stratified sample
B. quota sample
C. cluster sample
D.all of the above
Option: B
429: Field study is related to

A.real life situations
B. experimental situations
C. laboratory situations
D.none of the above
Option: A

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Unit-II Research Aptitude

As per Updated Syllabus

1. Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics, Positivism

2. Methods of Research: Experimental, Descriptive, 17-61

5. Application of ICT in research.

Meaning and Definition:

Research is a scientific and systematic search for various information

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 2

Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to

According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to

D. Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of

According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent

.J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavour to discover,

Clifford Woody, defines “Research is a careful enquiry or examination in

The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful

The main objectives of Research are:

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 3

1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon.

2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual,

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures

Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on

Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.

1. The fields to which applied-Education, Philosophy, Psychology.

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study

Pure research (Fundamental) involves developing and testing theories

Applied research (Action Research) is done to solve specific, practical

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial

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Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.

From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as

Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is

In practice, most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

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Based on Inquiry Mode:

Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually

Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or

e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of

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In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and

For example, suppose you have to find the types of

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves

Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance

Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented

For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the

Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by

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problem-solving method uses applied research to find solutions to the

Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about