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Over-Current Protection in Transmission

Systems using Analog and Digital Relays - Case
Study and Comparison

Mohamed Ibrahim Awaad and Zinab Elsayed Afifi

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August 1, 2021
 Over-Current Protection in Transmission Systems
using Analog and Digital Relays - Case Study and
Comparison
Mohamed I. Awaad Zinab E. Afifi
Electrical Power Department – Benha Faculty of Engineering Electrical Power Department – Benha Faculty of Engineering
Benha University Benha University
Benha - Egypt Benha – Egypt
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract: This paper focuses on studying a complete occurring. This protection action guarantees that the healthy
comparison between analog and digital overcurrent relays. section of the electrical power system can continue in
Analog term is given to the first generation of the electro- operation and secures system from further hazards.
mechanical relays whereas digital term is associated with the
up-to-dated relays. Digital relays are presently used for A successful protective relay must characterize by
secured, dependable and efficient operation of power systems. selectivity, high speed, sensitivity, and accuracy [2].
In power systems, overcurrent protection is essentially
Overcurrent relay is considered one of the most important
required against short circuit faults. The parameters of
type of protective devices as it protects against overcurrent
overcurrent relays are critical and sensitive as incorrect
settings of them can cause improper tripping leading to a big dynamic and thermal effects. It is triggered when the sensed
problem. Accordingly, these parameters must be tested in current overtakes a pre-setting magnitude. In response, trip
order to validate the relay performance subjected to different signal must be sent to clear the fault very fastly. It is
fault cases. Thus, a radial power system with different fault qualified with high speed in clearing high faults because it is
conditions is taken as a case study using both analog and inversely proportional to the faulty current value. It means
digital relays individually. The whole proposed system is that it needs shorter time to clear higher faulty currents[2][4].
designed, implemented and simulated using MATLAB
Digital relays have smart algorithms in monitoring the
program software. The most suitable overcurrent relay
adequate with radial power systems is based on time definite
current and voltage of the power system via using CTs and
characteristics. The overall model is then simulated twice to VTs respectively. Protection relays should be tested to
analyze, study and differentiate the performance of both digital confirm their reliability before commissioning them in a
and analog relays when subjected to short circuit faults. substation[2]. In this paper, digital and analog overcurrent
Finally, A complete summarized comparison is executed relays are provided to be used in protection of a radial power
between the analog and digital overcurrent relays showing the system taken as a testing circuit. This testing model is used
features and benefits of digital overcurrent relays over the to evaluate the performance of both overcurrent relays in
analog relays. clearing faults. The whole system is designed and simulated
by using Matlab software. The results obtained by analog
Keywords: Digital relays , Radial Network Protection , Over and digital relays for the same test system are then compared
current protective relays, short circuit faults as it is the main objective of this paper.
Acronyms: The paper is organized as follows. Section I includes the
CT Current transformer introduction about protective relays and its importance.
Section II illustrates the basic concept of overcurrent relays.
VT Voltage transformer Section III discusses the standards of selecting and setting
OR Overcurrent relay the overcurrent relay in brief. Section IV presents the
assumed radial network used for testing both analog and
OCR Over current relay digital over current relays . Section V introduces the details
CB Circuit breaker of the analog overcurrent relay modelled by Matlab/Simulink
Sim-Power Systems in order to validate the operation of the
TL Transmission line analog overcurrent relay. Results are discussed proving the
F-# Fault number correct behavior of the proposed relay. A detailed digital
overcurrent relay is also modelled by Matlab/Simulink Sim-
I. INTRODUCTION Power Systems and Then using a radial network testing
A power system faults may cause everlasting damage to model in order to validate the operation of the analog
power system components resulting in financial burdens for overcurrent relay. Also its results are discussed and
their replacement or maintenance and in long interruption validation is explained in section VI. Section VII summarizes
periods of power supply to consumers, which is highly un- a complete comparison between the two relays handling
recommended. The power systems should be supplied with various sides and features. Finally in Section VIII,
strong protective elements to make it able to withstand the conclusions are drawn and outlined.
faults and minimize the hazards on its components also II. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAY
provide satisfied service to customers[1][2].
As expected from its name, this protective relay is
Thus, a protection relay is essentially used to disconnect utilized to secure the power system from over currents. The
a faulty part from the electrical power system after the fault principal methodology of overcurrent protection is to sense

XXX-X-XXXX-XXXX-X/XX/$XX.00 ©20XX IEEE

the current by CT then compares it with the threshold C
values[5]. The protection algorithm decides that the T  
TMS (1)
overcurrent has occurred when the sensed current surpasses  I 
the preset value then sends trip signal to the circuit breaker.   1
 Is 
Circuit breaker opens its contacts to cut off the protected
device and damage is averted[3][5]. Fault pick up state is Where T is the operating time of the relay, C and α are
reached when the relay detects a fault. At the instant of the IDMT relay characteristic constants, Is is the threshold
picking up the fault, the relay can send a trip signal setting of current, I is the measured current and finally TMS
immediately in the case of instantaneous overcurrent relays is the abbreviation for time multiplier setting which controls
or after a specific delay time in the case of time overcurrent the relay tripping time accommodate to the protection
relays. This time delay is calculated according to the used network grade[7][8].
algorithm and it is also called operation time. Fig. 1 presents
The inverse characteristic curves of different types are
the simplified protection function block diagram of
obtained depending on α and C constants, listed in Table I
overcurrent relays[6]. Overcurrent relays classified as
[5], which selected also based upon the position of the relays
instantaneous, inverse time, inverse definite time, very
and coordination strategy for the relays[9].
inverse and extremely inverse overcurrent relays.

Fig. 1. Simplified function block diagram of protective overcurrent relay.

TABLE 1. CONSTANTS OF INVERSE TIME CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

A. Instantaneous overcurrent relay OF DIFFERENT TYPES

These relays are used nearby the system power supply Relay Characteristic Curve α C
where the value of fault current is very high and any delay Standard Inverse 0.02 0.14
time in clearing fault will cause a great damage. Very Inverse 1 13.5
Instantaneous overcurrent relay offers zero time delay and Extremely Inverse 2 80
Long Inverse 1 120
sends trip signal to the circuit breaker immediately at the
instant of fault occurrence.
B. Definite time overcurrent relay III. OVERCURRENT RELAY SPECIFICATIONS
Definite time overcurrent relays is mostly suitable for The input current of the selected relay should be
backup protection in which if the assigned relay fail to accommodated with the output of the used current
operate then buck up relay should operate and send a trip transformer CT. Also the pick-up current and time delay
signal to the breaker. Its time delay is greater than the settings must meet the requirements of the location of a
principal relay time added to the breaker operating time. given relay. In case of definite time relay, the coordination
Definite time overcurrent relay algorithm is used for delayed setting begins at the farthest relay from the supply moving
tripping of over currents. relay by relay towards the source.
C. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent A. Pick-up curren
Relay The pick-up current is commonly at 120–150 % of the
The operating time of this relay is inversely proportional maximum load current after applying the CT ratio[9].
to the level of short circuit fault current. It responds faster for B. Time delay
higher fault currents[5]. The operating time of specific
overcurrent relay given in (1) is calculated corresponding to The time delay setting is computed by equation (2)[9] :
a particular characteristic curve. This relation is expressed as Time delay = maximum time delay of the relay
follows; downstream + maximum CB operating time + security
margin (2)
The security margin ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 s as it relies
on the installed relays accuracy of and the operating time of
the CB.
 IV. THE PROPOSED RADIAL NETWORK USED FOR V. MODELLING AND TESTING OF ANALOG
TESTING ANALOG AND DIGITAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS OVERCURRENT RELAY
The circuit used for testing the analog and digital relays Analog concept is assigned to the first generation of
is a radial network contains system source, two transmission electro-mechanical commercial relays.
lines and three bus bars feeding several loads as shown in
Fig. 2. The radial networks to be protected from faults, A. Analog Overcurrent relaying principle
coordination and selectivity require certain time delays Applying overcurrent relaying principle on the testing
which are satisfied by using definite time overcurrent relay circuit shown in Fig.2, it is found that;
type. The time delays of overcurrent relays in protection Case 1: When the fault is detected at load 3 (F-3) by CT
system of the proposed network are developed based on the 3, OR 3 operates and trips CB 3 removing load3 and the rest
definite-time overcurrent relaying principle which clarified of the network continue in operating.
in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. The proposed radial network used for testing overcurrent relays

Fig. 3. Time delay of definite-time overcurrent protection principle used in radial networks

A. The performance sequence of definite time OCRs is Case 2: CT 2, OR 2, CB 2 are assigned to protect
summarized in the following; transmission line 2 but it cannot differentiate between F-2
 The current transformer and circuit breaker, and F-3. Thus OR-2 should have a specified time delay
used to protect certain element, are connected to longer than the clearing time associated with elements fed by
that element from the source side terminal to be bus bar 3. Accordingly, the relay OR 2 will operate when the
capable of cutting it off at fault case. fault downstream from transmission line 2 or when OR 3
failed to operate as buck up protection.
 The current magnitude is sensed by CT and
compared to the threshold setting by the Case 3: similarly, CT 1, OR 1, CB 1 are assigned to
overcurrent relay. protect transmission line 1. OR 1 should be coordinated with
downstream relays OR 2 and OR 3 in order to guarantee
 The fault is cleared in a protected element after selectivity of operation.
both periods of relay and CB operating times.
B. Analog overcurrent relay testing MATLAB/SIMULINK
 Moving from the farthest relay of the source model
towards the nearest one, a delay time must be In this section, analog OCR testing model for three-phase
added so that the nearest relay to the fault power system designed by MATLAB/SIMULINK program
operates first.
is shown in Fig. 4. It consists of three bus bars and loads are C. Simulation results for the analog overcurrent relay
connected at each one of them. There are two transmission The simulation results of the power system performance
lines connecting between them. Table II introduces the
parameters’ values used in the simulation of the testing validate and observe how the given protection system
power system using analog ORs. The detailed model of using definite time overcurrent type displayed in Fig. 4
analog overcurrent relay based a definite-time type is shown works in accurate and correct manner. The relays operate as
in Fig. 5. There are three fault locations to be tested, one at expecting and verified by simulation results.
the end of the line 3 at load 3, the other fault to be tested is at
bus bar 1, short circuit in the middle of transmission line one
as shown in Fig.4. basic functions are used to model the
analog relay.

Fig. 4. Analog overcurrent relay MATLAB model

Fig. 5. The functional model of analog overcurrent relay based a definite-time type

TABLE 2. TESTING POWER SYSTEM DATA (ANALOG

MODEL) Back-up protection principles are also checked and verified
by the testing cases included by the testing model. It means
Testing Power System Data (Analog Model) that the relays’ operation and coordination are checked with
System voltage 158 kV, 114% of 138 kV / 0 phase angle / 50 Hz
failure of the prospective protective relay or CB. Thus
System 1+ j 10 Ω
simulation of the radial network protected with overcurrent
impedance relays is carried under the following cases which are a fault
Fault location
TL 1 impedance 2+ j 20 Ω occurs at the connected load and the other is the same but
Transmission 0.5
Fault location with circuit breaker failure.
Lines TL 2 impedance 2+ j 20 Ω
0.5
1. Single line to ground fault at load 3
Load-1 138 kV 100MW 30 MVAR
Load-2 138 kV 100MW 30 MVAR Single line to ground fault occurs at 0.1 second, which is
Loads Load-3 138 kV 50MW 15 MVAR then detected by the overcurrent relay nearest to the fault.
Load-4 138 kV 50MW 15 MVAR The analog relay OR 3 sends trip signal immediately to CB3
Fault 0Ω Fault occurrence 10 ms once the fault is detected to clear it as shown in Fig.6.
CB-1 operating time 15 ms
Circuit The currents through the CT1 and CT2 are affected at the
CB-2 operating time 20 ms
Breaker CB-3 operating time 25 ms instant of fault occurrence but they continue in these
CT-1 1600/1 transmission lines, after clearing the fault by disconnecting
Current CT-2 1000/1 CB3, but with smaller values than before because the loads
Transformer CT-3 500/1 after CB3 are disconnected.
OR-1 Pick up 1.134 A delay 90 ms
Over current OR-2 Pick up 0.907 A delay 50 ms
Relay OR-3 Pick up 0.907 A delay 5 ms
 Fig. 6. The analog overcurrent relay’s performance when a fault occurs at the connected load.
Circuit breaker 1 is still operation properly and loads are
connected after it so after clearing the fault current continues
2. Single line to ground fault at load 3 with circuit to flow in the circuit but with smaller value than before
breaker 3 failure because some loads are disconnected.
The fault occurs at 0.1 second, so the current starts to 3. Single line to ground fault at the middle of the
increase. At this instant, the overcurrent relay nearest to the distance of transmission line 1
fault detects the fault and starts breaking the circuit by
The fault occurs at 0.1 second, when it occurs it draws
opening the circuit breaker which is connected to it. But due
all the current from the power source leaving no current to
to failure of CB3 associated with this case, the short circuit
current lasts longer time until backup relay OR 2 starts flow in the rest of the system, that’s why current rests at
working after delay time and clear the fault as shown in zero at 0.1 second.
Fig.7. Same as before, when fault occurs, it is detected by
overcurrent relay and the breaker is opened to clear the fault.
The trip signal of CB2 is introduced after some delay to
accomplish coordination between circuit breakers so that VI. MODELLING AND TESTING OF DIGITAL
circuit breaker 2 is the backup for circuit breaker 3 in case of OVERCURRENT RELAY
failure that’s why it takes longer to send trip signal to circuit The digital overcurrent relay is basically similar to the
breaker 2, and that is also reflected on the current waveform ordinary overcurrent relay as it uses function in detecting the
seen already before. faulty current and as a result it sends the information signal
Due to failure of Circuit breaker 3, circuit breaker is used to trip the CB in order to cut off the faulty part. It is also used
to clear the fault, that’s why the current rests at zero after as principal and back-up protective relay to minimize the
clearing the fault because circuit breaker 2 is now open and damage.
the loads connected after it is isolated from the power source The major difference of digital relay is that it is
so no current flows. implemented using microprocessor, DSP or FPGA to make
the protection operation faster, more reliable, flexible and
controllable[10].
 Fig. 7. Analog overcurrent relay’s performance when a fault occurs at the connected load with failure of CB3.

A. The components of digital overcurrent relay B. Digital overcurrent relaying principle

Fig.9 presents the basic components of the digital

Applying overcurrent relaying principle on the testing
overcurrent relay. It consists of three parts[9]; circuit shown in Fig.2, it is found that;
 The data acquisition part: it interfaces the analog Case 1: When the fault is detected at transmission line 2
input and connects it to the digital processing bit of (F-2) by CT 2, all upstream relays OR 2 and OR1 will pick
the relay. up and start timing out. The nearest relay OR 2 operates and
trips CB 2 as it has the lowest time delay and the remaining
 The measuring part: it measures specified upstream relays OR 1 will stop timing and reset. The
parameters like magnitude, phase angle, resistance downstream part of the network will be disconnected while
and reactance, active and reactive power considered the upstream will continue normally.
as input signals in order to make the tripping
decision. Case 2: When the fault is detected at transmission line 3
(F-3) by CT 3 but OR 3 or CB 3 fails to operate, the next
 The decision-making part: it compares the signal upstream relay OR 2 will clear the fault as a back-up
parameters obtained from the measuring unit with protective relay and the downstream part is disconnected and
the thresholds settings. Then uses the time delays cutting off healthy part which is undesired.
and logic functions so as to send the trip and alarm
signals.
 Fig. 8. The analog overcurrent relay’s performance when a fault occurs at the middle of transmission line 1.

Fig. 9. Basic parts of a digital overcurrent relay

Fig. 10. The detailed input interface part of a digital relay

C. The digital overcurrent relay testing

MATLAB/SIMULINK model D. Simulation results for the digital overcurrent relay
In this section, digital OCR testing model for three-phase The simulation results show, study and validate how the
power system designed by MATLAB/SIMULINK program protection system using definite time overcurrent relays
is presented in Fig.11. It consists of definite-time overcurrent shown in Fig. 11 operates in accurate and correct manner
relays used as primary protection for the three transmission under the following assumed cases which are a fault occurs
lines. The upstream relays are used as back-up relays for the at the connected load and the other is the same but with
downstream elements. circuit breaker failure.

The input parameters of The relay’s block include pickup

current, time delay and current threshold and the output
parameter is the trip terminal sent to the CB as shown in Fig.
11. Table III presents the parameters’ values used in the
simulation of the testing power system using digital ORs.
 Fig. 11. Digital Overcurrent Relay Matlab Model

fault is detected to clear it. Phase A at which fault occurs

TABLE 3. TESTING POWER SYSTEM DATA (DIGITAL is shown in red in Fig.12.
MODEL)
The CT1 and CT2 sense the fault and the currents are
Testing Power System Data (Digital Model) continued in these transmission lines after clearing the fault
System 230 kV, 194.367 V / 0 phase angle / 60 Hz but with smaller values than before because some loads are
voltage disconnected (the loads in the same side as the fault).
System 2π × 60×(3.4878 + j 0.1323 )Ω 2. Single Line to Ground Fault at the Connected Load
impedance
R=0.0815 R0= 0.3666 with Failure of CB3
TL resistance The fault occurs at 0.1 second, so current of phase A
Ω/mile Ω/mile
L=2.1e-3 starts to increase as shown in Fig.13 but due to failure of
TL inductance L0=6.5e-3 H/mile
Transmission H/mile CB3, it lasts longer until backup relay OR 2 starts working
Lines TL C=31.6e-9 C0=12.7e-9 after delay time and clear the circuit. The trip signal is
capacitance F/mile F/mile
delayed to accomplish coordination.
Line length =
40 miles Since there are no loads connected after CB 2 and before
230 CB 3, current rests at zero after CB 2 is opened.
Load Load
kV
54 kW 26 kVAR

Fault 0.01 Ω
Fault location Fault time [9 10 The CT 1 sense the fault and the current is continued in
0.9 p.u. 11 12 13] s transmission line 1 after clearing the fault but with smaller
Operating time 0.02 ms value than before because some loads are disconnected (the
Breaker resistance Ron =0.01 Ω
Circuit CB loads in the same side as the fault).
Snubber resistance Snubber Capacitance
Breaker RS = 1e6 Ω CS = inf F
VII. COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Initial state (Closed)
OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Current CT 100/1
Transformer A. Similarities
Voltage Both require Current transformers to obtain current value
VT 2000/1
Transformer of the current, which based on it the decision is made
Pick up Residual whether to send trip signal or do nothing.
OR-1 delay 1 ms
3.8 A threshold 0.1A
Over current Pick up Residual B. Differences
OR-2 delay 0.6 ms
Relay 2.6 A threshold 0.1A The current signal obtained from current transformer is
Pick up Residual used differently in each type
OR-3 delay 0 ms
1.4 A threshold 0.1A
 Analog overcurrent relay uses the current itself to
generate attraction force that changes the state of
E. Simulation results for the digital overcurrent relay the switch used to send trip signal
The simulation results show, study and validate how the  Numerical overcurrent relay doesn’t use the current
protection system using definite time overcurrent relays itself but the value of the current, so it adds
shown in Fig. 11 operates in accurate and correct manner additional stage of converting the value of the
under the following assumed cases which are a fault occurs current to numerical value processed by the
at the connected load and the other is the same but with processor of the relay.
circuit breaker failure.
1. Single Line to Ground Fault at the Connected Load
Single line to ground fault occurs at 0.1 second, which is
then detected by the digital overcurrent relay. The digital
relay OR 3 sends trip signal immediately to CB3 once the
 Fig. 12. The digital overcurrent relay’s performance when a fault occurs at the connected load.

Fig. 13. The digital overcurrent relay’s performance when a fault occurs at the connected load with failure
of CB3.
 C. Working Principal The following table summarizes all the features, pros and
1. Analog Overcurrent Relay cons mentioned above in more ordered fusion.

The analog overcurrent relay uses the current itself to TABLE 4. COMPLETE COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL
generate electromechanical force that change the state of a RELAYS

switch when current exceeds certain value. Characteristic El. Mech. Relay Digital Relay
This switch is connected in series in the tripping signal Technology Present generation
1st generation relays.
circuit, normally it is open and it closes when fault occurs Standard relays.
sending trip signal to the breaker. They use
They use principle of microprocessor.
The current and the time it takes to change the switch can Operating
electromagnetic Within built software
be changed mechanically so to adjust the relay to perform Principle
principle. with predefined
coordination based on pre-calculated curves of pickup values
current and time. Induction disc,
Measuring Microprocessors,
electromagnets,
2. Numerical Overcurrent Relay elements/ digital ICs, digital
induction cup,
Hardware signal processors
A code that evaluates the current value of the current balance beam
(after using analog to digital converter to obtain the Electrical qtys
A/D conversion,
numerical value) and determines whether to trip or just send Measuring converted into
numerical algorithm
alarm signal. method mechanical force,
techniques
torque
The whole process and logic are accomplished in the Depend upon
CPU of the relay and no need for any electromechanical gravitation and the
Surrounding
components, only solid-state devices. value changes to the
Environment
surrounding
D. Adjustment of critical values magnetic fields also.
1. Analog Overcurrent Relay Relay Size Bulky Small
Speed of
The values such as pickup current and time settings affect Slow Fast
Response
mechanical components that are places inside the relay such Mechanical clock
as springs and spaces between contacts. Timing function Counter
works, dashpot
Mechanical components are inaccurate (may cause Time of
Temp. dependent Stable
different trip times for same conditions) and wear out Accuracy
overtime or undergo behaviors that is related to mechanical Reliability High High
problems which consequently will affect the breaking Vibration Proof No Yes
process. Characteristics Limited Wide
Requirement of
Required Not required
2. Numerical Overcurrent Relay Draw Out
CT Burden High Low
The adjustments required can be made digitally and will
CT Burden 8 to 10 VA < 0.5 VA
be kept the same overtime, no loss or change of information
Reset Time Very High Less
may occur of the power source of the relay is maintained Required Required
Auxiliary supply
operating all the time. Limited Wide
Range of settings
Same performance is expected every time as the values Isolation Voltage Low High
are logically analyzed. Function Single function Multi-function
Maintenance Frequent Low
Resistance 100 milli ohms 10 Ohms
E. Tripping Signal and Coordination Output > 20 Pico Farads
< 1 Pico Farad
Capacitance
As shown in simulation results above, the tripping signal Deterioration
can be adjusted for both types, each by its own way, Yes No
due to Operation
however, the accuracy is different. Relay
No Programmable
Digital overcurrent relays tend to have higher accuracy Programming
regarding timing, for example once the fault is detected, trip SCADA
No Possible
signal can be sent immediately while the same action may Compatibility
take longer time in analog relays for the contacts to move Operational
Not Possible Possible
value indication
and complete tripping circuit.
Visual indication Flags, targets LEDs, LCD
Time delays required to achieve coordination can be Self-monitoring No Yes
easily set using digital overcurrent relays because it is Plug setting, dial
Keypad for numeric
Parameter
numerical values that can be entered meanwhile for analog values, through
setting setting
overcurrent relays it may be more inaccurate and harder computer
because timing curves are required for each relay and more Fault
analysis is required based on certain factors and other criteria Disturbance Not possible Possible
that may affect the calculations such as current transformer Recording
ratio.
 VIII. CONCLUSION
The paper introduces the modeling and simulation of
digital and analog overcurrent relays based definite time
overcurrent principle using MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
The testing model is used to differentiate and validate the
operation principles of both digital and analog overcurrent
relays. Also discusses the behaviors of both over current
relays under various scenarios. Proving their effectiveness in
fast and correct responding either as primary or back-up
relays. Additionally, a complete comparison between digital
and analog over current relays are carried showing the
benefits of recent digital relays over the analog
electromechanical ones.
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