Arrival of the Europeans.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, India became a center of attraction to many European nations such as
Portuguese, Dutch, English and France.
 By the close of the 18th century, India from being a bulk exporter turned into one of the biggest
importers of industrially manufactured goods.

PORTUGUESE.
 They were the first to reach the seashore of India.
 The Portuguese under the leadership of Vasco Da Gama landed at Calicut 1498.This is considered a
landmark in the history of India's Maritime trade.
 During this period, India's seaborne trade with the countries of the west fell into the hands of Arabs.
Moreover, the Indian ocean and the Red sea which were supplying goods to the merchants of Venice
and Genoa in Italy came under their control. This arrangement was disturbed by the geographical
discoveries of the Spaniards and Portuguese. As a result, the seaborne trade of the Arabs in the Indian
ocean and red sea was paralyzed by the encroachment of the Portuguese.
 He was sent out from Lisbon in 1497 to find direct sea route to India. At this time, the Malabar coast
was divided among the Petty Hindu chiefs and one of them was the ruler of Calicut whose hereditary
title was Zamorin. The Arabs merchants resented appearance of a new commercial rival but the Armed
guards of Zamorin protected the Portuguese.
 Vasco da Gama voyage proved to be a good exercise in Reconnaissance (military observation). He
encouraged the Portuguese to equipped themselves to a new fled for a fresh voyage to India.
 It Again set out from Lisbon in march 1500 under Alvarez Cabral and reach Calicut.
 Alvarez Cabral provoked hostilities with the Arab Merchants by seizing one of their ships and offended
the Zamorin by destroying the city.
 The Voyage prove to be disastrous but taught the Portuguese two important lessons-
1.They found out the cochin harbor, the best port on the Malabar coast was a far better
encouraged than Calicut.
2.They realized the possibility of utilizing their political rivalry, especially the hostility of the
Raja of Cochin against the Zamorin for their own advantage.
Their main aim was to seize the spice trade.
 After the Cabral Voyage, the Portuguese decided to divert all the trade with Europe.
 Meanwhile, hostilities broke between the Zamorin who supported the Arab Merchants and the Raja of
Cochin who supported the Portuguese.
 At this time, a Portuguese fleet led by Alfonso De Albuquerque arrived in 1503 and adopted a new
policy i.e. a viceroy was to be appointed for three years.
 Francisco De Almeida was appointed the viceroy and he was forced to build a fortress at Kilwa,
Anjadiva, Cannanore and Cochin.
 Almeida was also invested with full power to wage war, conclude treaty and regulate commerce.
 Almeida arrived in India in September 1505 and built a fortress at Anjadiva.
 During this period, the Muslim monopoly of trade in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea deprived Egypt
and Turkey of their duties on Indian Goods passing through the Sea Route and across Egypt to
Alexandria. Moreover, the sultans of Gujarat and Bijapur feared that the Portuguese would extend their
net from the southern port to the northern Port and encroach upon their interest. This brought an alliance
against Egypt, Turkey and Gujarat against the Portuguese intruders.
 In a Naval battle, which was fought at Chaul (Jan. 1507), the combined Muslims fleet killed Almeida
Son in the Encroachment.
 Another Naval battle was fought at Diu (Feb 1508), where Almeida defeated the combined Muslims
fleet.
 This victory secured to Christiandom and Naval Supremacy in South Asia and turned the Indian Ocean
for the Next Century into a Portuguese sea.
 In November 1509, Albuquerque took over the vice royalty from Almeida.
 In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from the Sultans of Bijapur.
 After his departure in 1515, his successor achieved nothing.
 It was Nuno Da Cunha, who shifted the Portuguese headquarters from Cochin to Goa.
 After 1540, the Portuguese government came to be dominated by the priest i. e. Franciscans,
Dominicans and Jesuits.
 In 1611, the English squadrom under Middleton defeated the Portuguese fleet and sent them off to
Bombay. Their decline was due to external as well as internal factors.
Impacts.
1.They spread Catholicism in the eastern and western regions.
2.They brought the cultivation of tobacco to India.
3.They set up the first printing press in India at Goa in 1556.

DUTCH.
 Inspired by the benefits gained by the Portuguese, the Dutch turned towards India and east indies.
 The first Dutch citizen to successfully reach India was Cornelius Houtman in 1596.
 He came to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
 He concluded a treaty with the ruler of Bantam of Java and opened up the spice Archipelago to the
Dutch. Between 1595 to 1601, the Dutch made 15 expeditions to India for the purpose of trade.
 In 1602, the Dutch east India company was established and they were given the permission to trade with
India for 21 years. But they were more interested in Indonesia than in India.
 Admiral Van Der Haghen made an attempt to establish a trade center at Surat, Malabar coast,
Coromandel coast and planned to establish a factory at Masulipatnam.
 The Dutch founded a factory at Pettapoli (Nizampatam).
 Another factory was founded at Devanampatam (Tegnapatam), which was also known as St. Fort David
came under the English occupation.
 The Dutch also established a factory at Pulicat.
 In Bengal, they established a factory at Pipli, which was abandoned for Balasore, which was further
abandoned for Chinsuria in Hughli.
 In Bengal they also established a factory at Qasim Bazaar and Patna.
 In 1652, the Dutch increased their control over Sri Lanka and crushed the Portuguese interest in India.
 The Dutch succeeded in establishing their monopoly upon Indian Trade. But the Dutch being more
interested in South East Asian trade, they lost their significance upon Indian trade.
Impact.
1.They dislodged the Portuguese from India’s Maritime trade.
2.They gave a new direction and commodity structure to India’s foreign trade.
Instead of the Spices, Dutch promoted the export of Textiles.

ENGLISH.

 On 31st Dec 1600, the English obtained a Charter from Queen Elizabeth I to start trading with India.
 The English started trading with India by establishing their company known as East India Company
(E.I.C.).
 They were given the permission to trade with India first for 15 years.
 They succeeded in establishing their Monopoly upon Indian Trade and also interfered in Indian Politics.
 In 1608, Captain William Hawkins obtained a charter of permission from King James I and came to the
court of Jahangir for trading facilities in India.
 In 1613, they established a trade center at Surat.
 In 1615, Sir. Thomas Roe came to the court of Jahangir for Trading purposes.
 In 1617, Thomas Roe succeeded in getting valuable trade rights from Jahangir on the grounds that the
British would protect the Mughals Ships against the Portuguese attacked.
 In 1618, Thomas Roe got 2 Farman -one from Jahangir and the other from prince Khurram (Shah Jahan)
confirming the trade as well as its continuance and the exemption from inland tolls and duty.
 They also got the permission to establish a trade center at Agra, Ahmedabad, Ajmer and Burhanpur.
 In 1620, the English gained a victory over the Portuguese, which earned for them a great influence in the
Persian Gulf Countries.
 Between 1614 -24, the English competed with the Dutch for trade a Masulipatnam-Chief Port of Sultan
of Golcunda.
 The English got into serious conflict with the Dutch to win the local ruler over their side.
 In 1628, the English abandoned Musilipatnam, but again return to Musilipatnam in 1630.
 In 1632, The English got a golden Farman from the sultan of Golcunda.
 In 1640, they established a strong fort at Madras.
 In 1668, they got Bombay from the Portuguese as a part of Dowry i. e. Princess Catherine of Braganza
on her marriage with Charles II.
 In 1686, the English established a trade center at Calcutta. They got into commercial conflicts with the
Dutch and the French, but it was the English who emerged victorious.
 Only French remained in the Field, with whom the English fought till 1763.

FRENCH.
 In 1616, the French came to India with the objective of Trade.
 They first established their Trade center at Travancore and Seringapattana.But as Circumstances did not
favor them, they sold their trade center to the English and went back to their own country.
 In course of time, the first French Vassal was a normanship which anchored at Diu.
 The French desires to establish friendly commercial and Maritime relations with India took a definite
shape in the 17th century.
 In the last decade of the 17th century, the merchants and Mariners of French became to share with the
Dutch and the English the lucrative business of bringing to Europe the precious goods of India.
Colbert, the famous Minister of Louis XIV of French proposed for the creation of the French Company
to trade with India. His proposal let to the creation of the French company known as Compagnie Des
Indes Orientales.
 In 1664, a French expedition was sent under Francois Caron, who established the first French trade
center at Surat.
 In 1669, Marcara founded another French factory at Masulipatnam.
 Till the year of 1674, the French had their trade center only at Surat and Masulipatnam.
 Between 1692 to 1713, the French got involve into war with the Dutch at Europe. During the course of
the wars, the Dutch Occupied the place of Pondicherry in 1693 and ruled for 6 years.
 By the Treaty of Ryswick (1687) the place of Pondicherry was to be given to the French but it was not
handed to them till 1699.
 In 1701, Pondicherry became the Hq. of all the French possessions in the east and Martin was appointed
as the Director General of the French affairs in India.
 Martin was the founder of Pondicherry.
 Martin tactful diplomacy earned for the French a good treatment at the courts of the local Indian Rulers.
 Martin not satisfied with his work in Pondicherry decided to extent the French factory elsewhere.
 As a result, another French Factory was founded at Chandranagar, but the French could not compete
with the English.
 The French at Chandranagar were only small traders. Their Factory at Surat was abandoned in 1714 and
even their factory at Masulipatnam started Declining.
 The Naval supremacy of the English, Poor Organizations of the French company, lack of support from
Home Government and Anglo-French rivalry let to the virtual closure of French commercial venture in
India.

British Expansion.

Carnatic Wars.
The name Carnatic was given by the Europeans to the coromandel course of India and its hinterlands. It
was the scene of a long-drawn contest between the French and the English that lasted for about 20 years.
The contest led to the ultimate overthrow of the French power in India.

The First Carnatic War.

1740-48.
 It was the extension of the Anglo-French rivalry in Europe.
 In the Austrian war which broke out in 1740, the French and the English were on opposite camps. The
French being conscious of their weak position in India did not favor to extent of their hostilities towards
India. Meanwhile, the English navy under Barnett seized some of the French ships to provoke the
French. But the French retaliated by seizing Madras with the help of a Fleet from Mauritius Admiral La
Bourdaunairs. The war is remembered for the battle of St. Thome(madras) which was fought between
the French Forces and Anwar Ud-din (nawab of Carnatic). At this time, the French forces under Captain
Paradise defeated the strong Indian Army under Mahfuz Khan at St. Thome on the banks of River
Adyar.
 This was an eye-opener for many of the Europeans in India. The war also brought out the importance of
Naval power in the Anglo-French conflict in the Deccan.
 The war came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which brought the
Austrian War of Succession to an end. Under the treaty, the madras were handed back to the English,
and the French in turn got their territories in North America.

Second Carnatic war

1749-54.
It was provided by the rivalry in India.
Dupleix who led the French forces decided to increase his political power by interfering in the local
dynastic disputes to weaken the English. This opportunity was provided by the Death of Nizam Ul Mulk
and also by the release of Chandra Sahib.
 The French Supported the Muzzarfar Jang and Chandra Sahib claims in the Deccan as well as the
Carnatic. On the other hand, the English supported Nasir Jung and Nawab Anwar Uddin. It was the
combined French forces, Muzzafar Jang and Chandra Sahib who defeated and killed Anwar Uddin at the
Batlle of Ambur near Vellore in 1749.
 After the defeat of Anwar Uddin, Muzzafar Jang was made the subedar and Dupleix was appointed as
the Governor of all the Mughal territories extending to the south of river Krishna. But the appointment
of General Saunders as the British Governor of Madras in 1759 changed the entire Situation.
 In 1751, the English decided to support Md. Ali (son of Anwar Uddin) who had taken refuge in
Trichinopoly. In the same year, the rulers of Mysore, Tanjore, and Maratha Chiefs Morarirao Decided to
support Md. Ali and the English.
 In 1752, the strong English forces under Stringer Lawrence occupied the place of Arcot and
Trichinopoly. At this time, the French authorities being conscious of the heavy financial loss that
Dupleix policy involved, decided to recall him in 1754.
 Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu who started negotiations and made a peace treaty between them. The
war proved to be inconclusive as the English proved their Naval Superiority on land by installing Md.
Ali was the Nawab of Carnatic.
 The French remained powerful in Hyderabad, but their position in the Deccan peninsula was definitely
undermined in the war.

Third Carnatic war

1758-63.
The war known for the Battle of Wandiwash was an ego of the struggle in Europe. The short Peace that
existed between the French and the English came to an end with the outbreak of a year's war in Europe.
In the course of the war, the French forces Under Count De Lally succeeded in occupying the English
fort of St. David and Vizianagaram. This reversal alarmed the British and the decisive battle took place
on 22nd Jan 1760.
 The English send Sir. Eyre Coote who succeeded in defeating the French forces under Count de Lally
captured the place of Jinjie as well as its capital Pondicherry.
 As a result, the war came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Under the Treaty, the
French factories were restored, but their political powers completely disappeared after the war.
Thereafter the French like the Dutch and the Portuguese remained confined to their own country trade.

CONQUEST OF BENGAL.
During the reign of Md. Shah Rangeela, Alivardi Khan the Mughal Governor of Bengal declared his
independence in 1741 and made Murshidabad his capital.
 After the death of Alivardi Khan, his grandson Mirza Mohammad ascended the throne and was
popularly known as Siraj Ud Daula.
 As soon as Siraj Ascended the throne, a serious conflict arose between him and the English over the
fortification of Fort William College at Calcutta. The Fort was besieged on 15 June 1756 and the Nawab
was placed under the control of Manikchand.
 Siraj imprisoned 146 English foreigners who were lodged in a very tiny room and out of which 123 died
of suffocation. This incident is known as the Black Hole tragedy -1757.
 To save the Calcutta fort, the English sent Robert Clive who formed an alliance Mir Jafar (commander
in chief of the army), Jagath Seth (influential banker of Bengal), Rai Durlabh, and Umichand. Under
secret alliance, Mir Jafar was to be made the Subedar who in turn would reward the company for its
service.
 Siraj ud daula was defeated in the battle of Plassey (22 June 1757) by Robert Clive and Mir Jafar
was made the Subedar of Bengal.
 Siraj was murdered by Miran the son of Mir Jafar.
 The battle of Plassey established the military supremacy of the English in Bengal and virtually
monopolized the trade and commerce of Bengal.
 As a reward for Mir Jafar services to the British against Siraj ud Daula he was given the title of Colonial
Clive Jackal and was also granted the Nawabship of Bengal.
 Under the pleasure of the company, Mir Jafar resigned in favor of Mir Qasim.
 Mir qasim was the ablest Nawab among all the successor of Alivardi Khan.
 He shifted the capital from Murshidabad to Munger/Munghyr (Bihar).
 On 27 September 1760, a secret treaty was concluded with Mir Qasim by the English. Under the treaty,
Mir Qasim agreed to pay the Outstanding dues to the Company and cede Burdwan, Midnapore and
Chittagong to the English. The English in turn offered him Deputy Subedar and grant his ascension to
the throne.
 By an Imperial Farman, the English were permitted duty free trade in Bengal. As the practice went on
increasing, it created a serious conflict between Mir Qasim and the English in 1763.The English gained
successive victory at Murshidabad, Munger, Giria, Scooty, Katwah and Udaynala. Seeing the successive
victory of the English, Mir Qasim escaped to Awadh and formed a confederacy with Emperor Shah
Alam II and Shuja Ud Daula (Nawab of Awadh) to recover Bengal. But the combined forces of Mir
Qasim, Emperor Shah Alam II and Shuja Ud Daula were defeated by the British forces led by Major
Hector Munroe in the battle of Buxar fought on 22 October 1764.
 This victory made the English the supreme contenders of the whole country.
 After the battle of Buxar, Mir Jafar was brought to the throne of Bengal. He gave the three Districts of
Burwan, Midnapore and Chittagong to the English for the maintainance of their army. The English were
also permitted duty free trade in Bengal.
 At this time, Robert Clive came back as the Governor of Bengal in 1765 and concluded a treaty
with Shuja Ud Daula and Shah Alam II known as Treaty of Allahabad (1765).

 1.Treaty with Shuja ud daula and Robert Clive.

Under the treaty, shuja agreed to pay Rs. 50 lakhs as war indemnity, cede Kora and Allahabad to Shah
Alam II, Grant Pawan Singh zamindar of Banaras with his full estate and render military help to the
company in times of need. In return the English agreed to help him with the troops for the defense of his
kingdom.
2.Treaty with Shah Alam II.
Under this treaty, the following decisions were taken.
a. Shah Alam II was taken under the Company protection.
b. Kora and Allahabad given by Shuja Ud Daula were placed under the control of Shah Alam II.
c. Shah Alam II granted the company the perpetual rights of the Diwani of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa in
return for an annual payment of Rs 26 lakhs.
d. Shah Alam II provided the company Rs. 53 lakhs for performing the Nizamat(administrative)
functions.
 After the battle of Plassey and Buxar, the English became the real masters of Bengal.
 It was Robert Clive who introduced the Dual System of Government in Bengal i. e. Diwani and Nizamat
which were under the control of the company. The Company exercised the Diwani rights as the Diwan
and the Nizamat rights through its rights to nominate the Subedar of Bengal.
 The Company got the Diwani rights from Shah Alam II and the Nizamat rights from the Deputy Subedar
of Bengal.
 The System had a great advantage for English for Exercising the Diwani rights, the company appointed
two deputy Diwani i. e. Md. Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitab Roy for Bihar.
 The System led to administrative breakdown and prove disastrous for the people of Bengal. As a result,
the dual system was abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

English in south India (Mysore and Maratha).

Mysore.
 During the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Hyder Ali, Tibu sultan and their
alliance with the French became a source of danger to the English in India.
 By 1761, Mysore came under the control of Hyder Ali.
 Hyder Ali extended his kingdom by conquering Bednore, Sunda, Sera, Cannanore, Gutti and by
subjugating the petty Puligars of south India.
 The rise of Hyder Ali aroused the jealousy of the Nizams, the marathas and the English who entered into
a triple alliance against Hyder Ali.
First Anglo Mysore war.
1766-69.
 In the war the Nizams with the help of the British Troops under General Joseph Smith invaded Mysore
in 1767.But Hyder Ali Fought back by defeating the British Troops sending them off to Bombay and
recovered Mangalore.
 In the war, Hyder Ali won and it came to an end with the signing of the treaty of Madras in 1769.As
per the treaty, the British promised to help Hyder Ali with troops for the defense of his Kingdom but the
English never kept their Promise.

2nd Anglo Maratha War.

 1780-84.

 In 1771, the Marathas attacked Hyder Ali territory i. e. Mysore.

 In 1779, Hyder Ali formed a confederacy with the Nizams and the Marathas to defeat the English.
 In 1770, he occupied the place of Arkot after defeating the English detachment under Colonel Baillie.
 In 1781, the Dutch in the Coromandel Coast concluded a secret Treaty with Hyder Ali.
 In the Meantime, the English captured Mahe which was a small French settlement withing the
jurisdiction of Hyder Ali.
 In the war, Hyder Ali was defeated at Porto Novo in 1781 by the British forced led by Sir Eyre Coote.
 On 7 Dec, 1782, Hyder Ali died and his son Tipu Sultan continued the war against the British.
 Tipu Sultan captured Brigadier Matthewa the supreme commander of the British forces and all his men
in 1783.
 As a result, the war came to an end with the signing of the treaty of Mangalore in 1784.

Third Anglo-Mysore War.

1789-92

 Tipu Sultan the ruler of Mysore and a friend of the French invaded the state of Travancore in 1790 and
this was the main reason which led to the outbreak of the war. The war lasted for 3 years and was a
resounding defeat for the Mysorean territory.
 In the course of the war, the Nizam, Marathas and English entered into a triple alliance against Mysore.
 The war was carried out in 2 campaigns. The first was led by Colonel Meadows which proved to be
very decisive. The other 2 campaigns were led by Lord Cornwallis, who captured the civil strongholds
of Tibu Sultan.
 As a result, the war came to an end with a signing of the treaty of Seringapatam in 1792.Under the
terms of the treaty, Tipu Sultan agreed to give half of his territories to the British and her Allies i.e.
Nizams and the Marathas.
 Lord Cornwallis and Tipu sultan signed the Treaty of Seringapatam.

4th Anglo-Mysore War.

1799.

 The Final war saw the defeat of Tipu Sultan and further Reduction in the Mysorean Territory. At this
time, Mysore alliance with the French became a source of Danger to the English and as a result of which
Mysore was attacked from all the 4 sides.
 In the course of the war, the British won a decisive victory in the battle of Seringapatam fought in 1799.
 In the battle, Tipu Sultan was killed along with the defeat of the city.
 Tipu sultan was the member of the Jacobian club and also planted a tree of liberty at Seringapatam.
 After the death of Tipu sultan the remaining Mysorean territory Waa annexed by the British, the Nizams
and the Marathas.

MARATHA.
First Anglo-Maratha war.
1775-1782.
 In the case of the Marathas, the first British Intervention was at the time dispute of succession to the
Peshwaship after the death of Narayan Rau.
 Raghunath Rau was made the Peshwa, but his authority was challenged by a strong party at Pune under
Nana Phadnavis. Having failed in his efforts, Raghunath Rau approached the British for help. The
British agreed to help him with the prospects of acquiring certain maritime territories adjoining Bombay.
 The war began with the signing of the treaty of Surat between Raghunath Rau and the English which
was concluded in 1775.Under the treaty, the English agreed to help Raghunath Rau. In
return, Raghunath Rau agreed to pay the outstanding the dues to the company, give Salsette and
Bassein with a part of the revenues of Broach and Surat District to the English, Raghunath Rau agreed
not to form any alliance with the enemies of the English and to include the English in any of the peace
treaty that he concluded with the pune regency. But the Majority of the British supreme council at
Calcutta were opposed to the Surat treaty. As a result, the council send Colonel Upton to conclude a
peace treaty with the Pune Regency. Accordingly, Colonel Upton concluded the treaty of Purandhar in
1776.This Treaty annulled the treaty of Surat but it could not have a long-term impact due to opposition
from the British government. In 1777, Nana Phadnavis receive a French adventurer name Chivalier De
St. Lubin which created suspicion in the minds of the English about the French designs in southern
India. Moreover, Mahadji Scindia who had been long aiming at the confederacy of the Marathas
changed his attitude and started supporting the British. As a result, it led to the continuation of the Anglo
Maratha wars. The war came to an end with the signing of the treaty of Salbai in 1782.This treaty was
rectified by Nana Phadnavis in 1783.The treaty marked a turning point in the history of the British
supremacy in India. By this treaty, it established the status quo of the Marathas and peace was made
between the English and the Marathas for about 20 years.

2nd Anglo Maratha war.

1803-05.
Bajirao II was made the peshwa and Nana Phadnavis became the Chief Minister. The disagreement
among the Marathas provided an opportunity for the English to interfere in the Maratha Affairs.
 The Death of Nana Phadnavis provided the English and additional opportunity to interfere in the affairs
of the Marathas.
 During this period, Holkar the powerful Maratha Chief totally rooted the combined armies of Scindia
and Peshwa at Pune and also destroyed the City. In such a situation, Bajirao II approached Lord
Wellesley, who agreed to help him by making him sign the treaty of Bassien (1802) which was based
on a subsidiary alliance. The British force led by Arthur Wellesley conducted the Peshwa (Bajirao II) to
his former possession in 1803.After the Bajirao II accepted the subsidiary alliance, both scindia and
Bhonsle made an attempt to save Maratha Independence. But the British forces Under Arthur Wellesley
defeated both Scindia and Bhonsle and forced them to conclude a separate subsidiary treaty with the
English.
 In 1804, Jaswant Rau Holkar formed a coalition of the Indian rulers to fight against the British. But his
attempts, proved to be unsuccessful. In the war, the Marathas were defeated and Isolated from each
other.
Third Anglo-Maratha War.
1817-18
In the final war, Bajirao II made an attempt to bring all the Marathas rulers together to fight back against
the British.
 Bajirao II attacked the British Residency at Pune and Appa Sahib attacked the British residency at
Nagpur. While Holkar made, preparation for wars. But by this time, the Marathas had lost all those
elements which were needed for the growth of a power.
 After the death of Holkar, Tulsi Bai the favorite mistress of Holkar came to manage the Pune affairs. But
she could not carry it out in an efficient manner.
 At this time, the Bhonsle and Nagpur and the scindia at Gwalior had also began to fall weak. In such a
situation, the English took the opportunity of not allowing Bajirao II to exert his authority again on the
Maratha confederacy. The Peshwas were defeated in the battle of Khirki, the Bhonsle at Sitabaldi and
the Holkar at Mahidpur. After the Peshwas, Bhonsle and Holkar were defeated, the Maratha's
confederacy was dissolved and the peshwaship was abandoned.

English in North India.

 Anglo Sikh war.
The contacts between the English and the Sikh were made in 1800.
 In 1801 Ranjit Singh, became the Sikh ruler of Punjab. He belonged to Sukkerchakia
misls(confederacy). The occasions for the contact was made when India was threatened by the invasions
of an Afghan ruler named Zaman Shah, who was invited by Tipu Sultan a bitter enemy of the English.
As a precautionary measure, the English send Munshi Yusuf Ali to the court of Ranjit Singh with Rich
Presents to win the Maharaja over their side. The regular contact was made in 1805 when Holkar entered
Punjab for help from Ranjit Singh. But Ranjit Singh refused Holkar help against the British.
 In 1806, Ranjit Singh signed the treaty of Friendship with General Lakeam aggreging to force Holkar
to leave Punjab. In returned the English agreed not to form any plans for the seizure of Ranjit Singh
Possession. But the English adopted a stern policy towards Ranjit Singh who was given a note of letter
of the Governor General by Charles Metcalfe. As per the note, Ranjit Singh was asked to give back all
the possession to the former owner that he had taken control since 1806.At first, he refused and later on
he agreed and signed the treaty of Amritsar. Under this treaty, the British were unable to bring the
Sutlej states under its control. With Ranjit Singh's death in June 1839, there was Political instability and
rabid changes of Government in Punjab.

First Anglo-Sikh war

1845-46.
The war took place at Sobroan on 10th February 1846.
 In the war the Sikh under Ranjit Singh Majithia were totally defeated by the British. Thereafter, the
English crossed the Sutlej river and captured its capital Lahore on 20th February.
 In the war, the Sikhs were defeated and it came to end with the signing of the treaty of Lahore on 9th
march 1846.
 The treaty left the Sikh with no capacity for resisting the English. Another treaty was concluded in 16 th
December 1848 known as Second treaty of Lahore (treaty of Bhairowal).

Second Anglo-Sikh war

1848-49.
 The immediate reason which led to the outbreak of the war was the rebellion of Mulraj (governor of
Multan) against the company.
 The rebellion of Mulraj provided Lord Dalhousie an opportunity to interfere in the affairs of Punjab and
to annex Punjab to the British territory.
 The English and the Sikh fought at Ramnagar, Chillianwala and Gujarat. The Battle fought at Gujarat
proved to be decisive under Sir. Charles Napier as it was here that Punjab was annexed to the British
dominion on 29th March 1849.Thereafter, Dalip Singh the Minor son of Ranjit Singh and his Mother
Rani Jindan were pensioned off to London.

Administration OF THE BRITISH RULE IN India.

The Regulating Act of 1773.

It was passed during the tenure of PM Lord North.
 It is the first legislative interference in Indian affairs by the British parliament.
 During the Rule of East India company, there were a court of directors who were required to submit to
the Governor General all information about civil and military affairs received from Bengal as well as the
Revenues from India.
 The British cabinet for the first time got the right to control Indian affairs.
Main Features-
1.The status of Governor of Bengal was raised to Governor General of Bengal. Warren Hastings was
named the Governor General of Bengal. His council was to consist of four Members representing both
Civil and Military affairs.
 2.The Governor General was given the Power to Superintend and control the Presidency of Madras and
Bombay in matters of War and Peace. In return, the governors of both Provinces were required to submit
to the governor general all information connected with their Government.
3.The Governor General was brought under the direct control of the Directors.
4.A provision was made for the establishment of a Supreme Court consisting of One chief justice and
three other judges to be appointed by the King. The supreme court came out at Calcutta in 1774 and
Elijah Impey became the first Chief Justice of The Supreme Court. The Governor General was granted
the legislative powers to make rules and ordinances for the administration of Fort William and other
sub-ordinate factories.
5.The act was the first step towards taking Political direction out of the hands of the company and of
securing a unified overall Nation.

Pitt's India act, 1774.

The radical measures put forward by Sir Charles James Fox to transfer the 7 Commissioners to the
control of the Territory of India in the hands of the Company were challenged in the house of lords in
1783.
 However, in 1784 the issue was solved when the Parliament passed the PM William Pitts India act. Its
implications were the establishment of a dual control. i. e. the company Directors were political
executants with the charge of Commerce, but Politically they were supervised by a new Board of
Control. By this act the President of the Board of Control Henry Dundas became the Minister of India.
Main Features-
1.It Provided for a Board of control consisting of Six Members i. e. Chancellor of Exchequer, Secretary
of state and Four members of the Privy Council to regulate all the matters of civil and military
government of the British territories in India.
2.The Government was brought under the control of the Governor General and a council of three,
including the commander in chief.
3.the governor general was given a casting vote. Bombay and Marda’s presidency were to remain
subordinate to the presidency of Bengal in all matters of wars, Peace and diplomatic relations.
4.The governor general and the councils were not allowed to declare war or enter into any treaty without
the sanction of the court of Directors.
5.The Governor general and governors were given the Right to override their councils.
6.The Governor General could be recalled by the Crowns.
7.There was to be a Parliamentary inquiry before each 20 years renewal if the Company Charter

THE ACT OF 1786.

It gave the Governor general the right to override his council in an extraordinary situation and directed
the court of Directors to combine the 2 posts of the Governor General and the Commander in Chief.
Charter act of 1793.
1.It renewed the charter of the company for 20 years, giving it possession in Indian Territory.
2.In the Indian Adm. the power of the Governor General over his council was extended and Madras and
Bombay also came under its control.
3.A code of all regulations for the internal govt. of the British territories in Bengal was to be framed.
4.All the Laws were to be printed with translations in Indian Language, so that the people would know
their rights privileges and immunities.
5.It introduced in India the concept of "Civil Laws".

Charter Act of 1813.

1.It abolished the company Monopoly over Indian Trade. But the East India Company still enjoyed the
monopoly of the Tea trade with China.
2.The Christian Missionaries were allowed to enter into India and Propagate Christianity. But they had
to obtain a license either from the Court of Directors or from the Board of Control.
3.For the first time, provided a sum of Rs. 1 lakh for Education. But Controversy arose whether the
 money was to be spent for Modern of Indigenous Education. Through Macaulay Minute of 1835, the
controversy was brought to an end favoring Modern Education.

CHARTER ACT OF 1833. /St. Helena act.

1.It abolished the company monopoly of Tea Trade with China.
2.It raised the Status of Governor General of Bengal to Governor General of India. Lord William
Bentick was named the Governor General of India.
3.It increased the number of Governor General executive Councils to Four. The fourth Member was a
law member. Thomas Babington Macaulay became the first member of The Governor General
Executive council and under him a Law Commission was set up.
4.Equal Job Opportunities for all the Indians.
5.It asked the Government to abolish Slavery. Slavery was abolished in 1843 during the time Of Lord
Ellenborough through Act V /Indian Slavery Act.

Charter ACT OF 1853.

1.The company was allowed to retain the indian possession in Trust for her majesty, her heirs and
successors to keep the door open for future takeover.
2.It provided for the separation of executive and legislative functions of the Governor General in council
by adding new members for legislative functions.
3.The company control over appointment was curtailed by the introduction of competition for
recruitment of the Indian Civil Services (I. C. S).

GOVT. OF INDIA ACT 1858.

1.The President of the Board of Control was replaced by the Secretary of State, who became subordinate
to the Cabinet as the fountain of Authority as well as the Director of Policy in India. The Secretary was
to be assisted by a council of India consisting of 15 members.
2.The Governor General of India was to be known as Viceroy, who would retain all his powers and he
would be answerable only to the Secretary of State. The same Examination method introduced in 1853
was carried on.
3.India passed from company rule to crowned rule.

Indian council act of 1861.

It strengthens the viceroy authority over his executive council by substituting portfolio for corporate
functions.
and imperial Darbar (a court held by an Indian prince) was held in Jan 1877, where queen Victoria
assumed the title of empress of India.
 Imperial Darbar was organized by Lord Lytton.

Civil Services.
The termed civil services were first used by Europeans to distinguish their civilian Employees from their
Military counterparts.
 Its main aim is translating Law into Action and collection of Revenue.
 It was Lord Cornwallis (Father of Civil Services) who laid down the basis of the company civil services.
He raised the salary of the company servants who in course of time became the highest paid civil
servants in the world.
 He said that, promotion in the civil services would be on the basis of Seniority.
 However, all his efforts failed to solve the twin problems of corruption and inefficiency in Bureaucracy.
There After, Lord Wellesley came to India in 1798 and gave the Idea of suitable training to the civil
servant of the Company.
 On 24th November 1800, Wellesley came up with the Fort William college at Calcutta to provide the
civil servants training in Indian languages, science and Literature.
 However, the court of Directors were opposed to Wellesley action and came up with their own East
India College established at Hailey Bury in England in 1806. As a result, the Indian civil servants for the
next 50 years became a product of This college.
 The system of Competition was not introduced properly because only those candidates who were
nominated by the court of Directors were made eligible to write the Competitive exams.
 It was the charter act of 1853 which did away with the power of court of directors and made provision
for open competition.
 It also decreed that all the recruits to the civil services would be elected only on the basis of open
competition.
 Moreover, a Law commission was set up under Macaulay to deal with matters relating to age,
qualifications and the subjects for the competitive exams. As a result, the east India college was
abolished in 1858 and the recruits of the civil services became the responsibility of the Public Service
Commission.
 The Members of the Civil Services were recruited both in Control Offices and districts.
In 1863/1864, Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first India to enter into Civil Services. In 1869 three
more Indians i. e. Surendra Nath Banerjee, Biharilal Gupta and Romesh Chandra Dutt became
successful.

ARMY.
 It was the second most important pillar of the British Administration in India.
 It comprised both Indians and Europeans. It was mostly officered by the Europeans.
 Lord Wellesley first utilized the services of the Abled civilians in the army, it was of two types i. e.
Soldier Civilian and Soldier Politician which played an important role in both the civil and military
administration.
 The Indian soldiers formed the bulk of the company army. Higher promotion was denied to the Indians
and the highest rank given to the Indians was that of a Subehdar.

POLICE.

 It was started by Lord Cornwallis.

 He relieved the Zamindars of their Police function and established a regular Police force in 1791.
 He created a system of Circles or Thanas each headed by a Daroga.
 In course of time, the authority of the Daroga (police officials) were extended to the village watchmen
who performed the duties of the Police in the villages.
 In the Big Cities, the office of the Kotwal (town magistrate) continued and a Daroga was appointed in
each of the wards of the city.
 Later, the District collector was entrusted with the tasks of Police Functions in the Districts.

JUDICIAL System/JUDICIARY.
 It was given a start by Warren Hasting.
 The British Judicial System was based on Civil and Criminal court which was established through a
code known as Cornwallis Code of 1793.
 However, the efforts of Cornwallis involved separation of Executive and Judiciary functions as well as
the Multiplication of Judicial court in India.
 In the Hierarchy of Courts in India, the Sardar Diwani Adalat and Sardar Nizamat Adalat formed the top
of the pyramid. Both the Adalats were setup at Calcutta. Below these two Adalats were the court of
Appeal dealing with civil cases and the Circuits dealing with Criminal cases. Both the court were setup
at Calcutta, Daulatabad, Patna and Madras.
 In 1833, Lord William Bentick abolished both this court and assigned their works first to the
commissioner and later on to the district Magistrate and collectors. Below this two courts were the court
of Registrar.
 All these courts were officered only by the Europeans.
 The participation of Indians in these courts were confined to subordinate position such as Munsifs and
Amins.
 In 1833, a Law commission was setup under T. B. Macaulay to qualify the Indian laws. The
Commission work led to the codification of Indian Penal Code (IPC).
In the same year, all the law making was invested to the Governor general of council.
 The British judicial system was based on two principles: -
1.Rule of Law.
2.Equality before Law.
The system made the realization of Justice very difficult for the Indians. The System became more
complicated and complex. The British made Justice out of reach for the common people. As a result, the
system did not have the process of the unification of India.

IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RULE INDIA.

 During the 17th century, Indian was the largest importers of Industrial goods in the world.
 India's principle export consisted of Fine Cotton, Silk Fabrics, Sugar, Spices, Indigo, Drugs, Precious
Stones and diverse works of Art.
 During this Period, the balance of trade was in favor of India.
 The Indian Products were sent to Europe and the Europeans merchants paid in terms of Precious Metals.
 After the Battle of Plassey and Buxar, when the east India company established its hold over the rich
province of Bengal, the Indian economy changed form a surplus and Self-Sufficient economy into a
colonial economy.
 The nature of the English trade also changed from Competitive to Monopolistic.
 There was a steady increase in both the Imports and Exports of the Company.
 After 1757, there was a large scale of English run on Bengal Inland trade.
 At this time, the company servants captured the trade in commodities like Salt, Betel Nuts and Coconut.
The battle of Plassey laid down the foundation of The British colonialism in India.
 From 1813, the company was forbidden to trade with India and in 1833 a complete ban was imposed on
all the commercial activities of the Company. From this time onwards, India was thrown open for
exploitation at the hands of the British Mercantilists-industrialists capitalist class.
 The British took away the raw materials from India and brought back their Manufactured goods for
being marketed in India. As a result, it led to the drain of wealth in India. There were three sources that
led to the drain of wealth in India-
1.Home Charges
2.Interest on Foreign capital investment
3.Shipping, Banking and Insurance Companies. This was the main source of Drain of wealth and
it stopped the Growth of Indian Enterprises.

 It was Dadabhai Naoroji who acknowledged the drain theory by putting forward his views that Britain
was Draining and bleeding India.
 He further said that, the drain was the main cause India's Poverty and the root of all evils of the British
rule in India.
 The Drain deprived India of its Productive Capital i. e. its agriculture and Industry which were needed
for the growth of an economy.
 During this Period, the Indians products were drained to Inland without an adequate return.
 Therefore, Dadabhai in his book’s “Poverty un-British rule in India” (1901) estimated 200 to 300
Million pounds loss of revenue to Britain that was not returned.
 He presented this theory in a paper called "England Dept in India “published in May 1867.
 Romesh Chandra Dutt made the Drain the main theme of his "Economic History of India".
Mahadev Govinda Ranade wrote an essay on the Indian Economy. In his essay, he has given an
estimation of the annual economic drain. He said that the drain was 1/3rd of the total income. What was
worse was that a part of the British capital entered India as the finance capital which further led to the
Drain of Wealth. The Drain reduced India to a land of famine. The Drain attacked the economic essence
of Imperialism and it was through the Drain theory that the exploitative character of the British rule was
made known to the common masses.

LAND REVENUE SETTLEMENTS.

Land revenue was the traditional mainstay of the Govt. Finance.

Permanent Settlement/Zamindari Settlement.

 It was the first and Historically the most important of all the settlements introduced by Lord Cornwallis
in the Presidency of Bengal in 1793.
 It was also introduced in Bihar and Orissa.
 The author of this settlement is Sir John Shore, the President of the Board of Revenue.
 Under the Permanent Settlement, the Zamindars were made the owners of their whole zamindari as long
as they pay the land revenue to the state.
 They also acted as Government agents in collecting the land revenue.
 They gave 80% of what they received to the state and retained for themselves 11% for its services.
 Here, the land revenue was fixed on the basis of 10 years(decennial) on a permanent Basis.
 The Zamindars were given Hereditary rights on their Zamindaris.
 They were asked to issue written agreement called Patta to each of the cultivators specifying clearly
what the tenants had to pay.
 They could sell, Mortgage and transfer lands in their Zamindaris.
 If any cultivator fails to pay the land revenue in time, then his lands were taken away by the latter who
sold the land by auction and invested all the rights on the new owners.

RYOTWARI SETTLEMENT.

 Thomas Munroe (Governor of Madras from 1820-27) introduced Ryotwari Settlement in the
Madras Presidency.
 He extended the Settlement to different parts of the country on the basis of 1/3rd of Gross
produce of the holdings.
 It was also introduced mainly in Assam and Coorg Provinces.
 Under this system, the Settlement was made directly with the Ryots. (Cultivators).
The system was introduced for two reasons -
1.There was no zamindars with whom to affect a settlement.
2.It resulted in a larger revenue than any other system could have produced. Under this
settlement, the Ryots were free to cultivate or give up any particular field. There was no limit to
the amount of lands that a Ryots could hold.
 Here, the revenue for Dryland was 50% and for Wetland 60%.
 Here, the rents were periodically fix after every 20 to 30 years, but the British government
refused to enhance the land revenue at will.
 This settlement was a continuation of the Mughal Revenue system of administration.

MAHALWARI SETTLEMENT.
 This settlement was a brainchild of Holt Mackenzie introduced in 1822 in the Ganga Valley,
North West Frontier province, Parts of the Central India and Punjab.
  It was reviewed by Lord William Bentick in 1833.This system was a settlement which was made
village by village or estate by estate.
 Here, the village land jointly belongs to the village community called the body of co-shares who
were responsible for the payment of land revenue to the state.
 Under this settlement, a person could hold a number of villages.
 If any of the co-shares abandoned their lands then it was taken over by the village community.
 The village communities were the chief officers of the Village common lands.
 Under this settlement, if any of the cultivators continuously hold a land holding for 12 years,
then he was given hereditary rights on that particular land subject to the payment of judicially
fixed rents.

IMPACT.
1. Various settlements created a private form of property.
2.Lands all over the world came saleable
, Mortgageable and alienable.
3.The stability and Continuity of Indian villages were broken.
4.The Old body of custom was replaced by a new apparatus of Courts, Fees, Lawyers and other
Formal procedures.
5.Thier Arouse absentee landlordism in the lands as the new landlords.

Deindustrialization.

The destruction of traditional Indian industries was one of the earliest consequences of colonialism to be
noticed in this country. The beginning of deindustrialization lay in the mid-18th century, when the Indian
product of the cottage industry was still a valuable item of trade and commerce. In the early stages of
imperialism, the main sources of the benefits for the English were the difference between the cost prices in
India and the sale prices in England of Indian cotton and silk textiles. As long as the company traded in Indian
markets along with other European nations, the Indian artisans were in a good bargaining position. After the
elimination of other European nations, the British established a hegemony that allowed them to become
monopolists in the market and deindustrialize India. The British use hegemony for their own advantage. In the
last decade of the 18th century, the English reduced the prices which were paid to the Native artisans of the
country to reap high profits from Sale in the Indian Markets. This Practice cut down the root of our handicraft
industry by reducing the artisans to a low level of income. It also reduced the possibility of accumulation of
resources to Invest in the industry and to improve its technology. Moreover, the industrial revolution which
broke out in Europe wiped out the markets for the Indians because the economies of large-scale production in
the newly English markets made it impossible for the artisanal products to compete with factory products. The
English adopted the policy of one-way free trade in India. During this period, the high import duties and other
restrictions impose on Indian goods passing into Britain as well as other European nations led to the virtual
closure of European markets to the Indian manufacturer after 1823.Among the Indian Industry, the cotton
weaving and spinning industry was the worst hit. Till 1813, the Indian Industry especially the textile industry
was adversely affected because it reduced the weavers to low endangered Laborers. The Company itself became
a focus of attack from the Indian traders who had been excluded from a share in the Indian trade. At this time,
the whole consumption of Indian Calicoes and Muslin became very heavy. So, the Parliament imposed an
increase in consolidated duty on Indian Calicoes and Muslin. But due to the discriminatory colonial economic
policy, India was reduced to a status of Raw or Processed Agricultural goods. Thus, India stopped being an
exporter of cotton goods and instead became an importer of ordinary cloth and yarn. In the meantime, the
English stopped importing cotton clothes from India. In the 19th century, there was an increase in the import of
industrial manufacturer and export of agricultural goods. The unfortunate situation was that the destruction of
indigenous industry took place without the development of modern industry. Even after the modern industry
aroused, the process of Deindustrialization in India continued. As a result, there was a decline in the percentage
of workers in Industry and an increase in the percentage of agricultural working force

RAILWAYS.

BRITAIN developed railway ports and irrigation facilities which sub-served the economic interest of
Britain and opposed the growth of modern industry within India. The Railways enabled the British
manufacturers to reach and uproot the traditional industries in the remotest parts of the country. In India, the
railways and irrigation canals were constructed by a private enterprise in Britain. In India, the risks of such
enterprises were borne by the Indian Cultivators. The Manufacturers who constructed the Railways and Canals
were offered Government guaranteed fixed rents on Return so as to attract them to India from profitable
ventures to Europe. The Indian Railways became the 4th largest in the world by 1910, though construction
began in the year 1853.The Railways were built at a higher cost but had no benefits for the Indians.
By 1869, the princely states, the provincial and the local governments has also set in to construct Railway lines.
As late as 1921, the Indians occupied only 10% of the higher cost in the Railways and 700 locomotives were
made Preceding India's Independence.
The Railways were instrumental in speeding up the commercialization of India under the British Rule.
With the advent of the Railways in the 19th century, it also encouraged the growth and export of commercial
crops. (Tea, Coffee and rubber).
The Railways enabled the British imported goods to reach the interior parts of India.
During the last decade of the 19th century, Cheap and Hardy food grains in large quantities became to be
exported by the railways to distant markets.
In the Meantime, the producers were burdened with enormous credit pressure that they had never experienced
before. As their local markets diminished, they were forced to put their goods on sale either to finance their
depts or lose their land. The food products which were exported by the Railways further led to Drain of Wealth
in India. Therefore, the Railways and the commercialization it encouraged took a heavy toll of human lives and
livelihood. Further, India went into deeper poverty. During this period, the Ruins of Indian Handicrafts were all
reflected on the disappearance of towns and cities which were famous for their manufacturers. By the end of the
19th, the Indians formed only 10% of the total urban population. In the Urbanization that followed during the
British rule, two important trends emerged –
Decline and De-population of Old Urban Centers.
2.Growth of New towns and Cities such as Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
Along with these big cities, the small cities grew in size as Administrative centers for the import of Industrial
Manufacturers and export of Agricultural goods.
At this time, the Old cities of Delhi, Patna, Murshidabad, Agra and Hyderabad witness a decline due to a shift in
the Political Centers of these Cities to a new colonial metropolis. Another reason was the decline in the mart
and the rechanneling of trade to new Routes and Networks. Finally, De-Urbanization have been marked in the
heartland of Northern India.
INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AND WESTERN EDUCATION.
For the first 60 years of its rule, the east India company took no interest for the spread of Education in India.
The Traditional school of Indian learning suffered under the British rule. However, the efforts made by
Individuals helped in the development of Education.
The first was the Calcutta Madrasah started by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim law
and other related subjects.
Another one is the Sanskrit college started by Jonathan Duncan (a resident of Beneras/Varanasi) in 1791
for the study of Hindu law and other Philosophy. Both the Institutes were set up to provide a regular supply
of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the company courts. At this time, the knowledge of
classical Sanskrit and vernacular languages became essential in correspondence with Indian States. The
Enlightened Indians and the Christian Missionaries started Pressuring the Government to promote Modern,
Secular and Western Education.
The Serampore Missionaries were very enthusiastic about the spread of Education.
Even the English Missionaries activists like Charles Grant and William Wilberforce requested the British
government to give up its policy of Non-Interference in Education.
For the first time, the Parliament included in the Charter Act of 1813 a clause by which the Governor-General
was bound to give a sum of not less than Rs. 1 lakh for education. However, the amount was not available till
1823 because of the controversy that aroused on the direction that this expenditure should take place.
An Important feature of the Act of 1813 was that the company for the first time acknowledged the state
responsibility for the spread of education in Indian. During this period, the efforts of Enlightened Indians like
Raja Ram Mohan Roy bore the fruit and grant was sanctioned for the establishment of a Hindu College which
was set up in 1817 by educated Bengalis imparting western Science and Humanities with English as the
medium of instructions.
In 1823, a general committee of Public Instructions was appointed to look after the development of Education in
India. When things were developing in the Educational front a major controversy erupted on the questions of
the kind of Education to be imparted on colonial India. As a result, Views were split into 2 groups- *On the one
hand was the Orientalists who advocated Oriental learning and Literature. *On the other hand, was the
Anglicists or the English Party promoted Modern Education with English as the medium of Instructions.
At this time, the knowledge of Classical Sanskrit and Vernacular languages could not be ignored because those
people who were well versed with it was required for administrative proposes as well as for communicating
with the Uneducated.
But in course of time, the knowledge of Western education and English became essential for competing in
various offices as well as for earning emoluments.
Among the Indians, Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated for Modern Education.
The Orientalist said that while Western science and Humanities should be taught to the students to prepare them
to take on Jobs, emphasis should also be laid on Vernacular education.
Even the Anglicists were divided among themselves over English as the Medium of Instructions. Unfortunately,
a great deal of confusion aroused over Modern and Vernacular education.
In 1835, T. B. Macaulay became a member of the Governor General. Soon, He became the President of the
General Committee of public Instructions. He presented his educational policy(minute) to the Governor
General in 2nd February 1835 which ended the controversy favoring the Anglicists with English as the
Medium of Instructions. His policy was approved by the Governor General Lord William Bentick. Under his
policy, Persians was substituted and was replaced by English.
Under T. B. Macaulay policy, the following educational development took place.
1.As many as 42 schools were set up by 1842.
2.Bengal was divided into 9 educational zones by Lord Auckland. Each Zones was to have a Government
School.
3.Foundation of Calcutta Medical Collage was setup in 1835.
4.Indian Education Commission at Bombay was abolished in 1840 and was replaced by the Education board.
5.Grant Medical College was setup at Bombay in 1854.
6.Roorkee Engineering College was setup Thompson in 1847.
7.Lord Hardinge setup the Teachers Training College at Calcutta in 1847.
The British planned To educate only a few sections of the Indians, thus creating a class Indians in blood
and color, but English in Morals, Intellect, Tests and opinions who would act as interpreters between the
Government and the Masses and would filter down the knowledge of Western Science and Humanities to
reach the Masses. This Process is known as Downward Filtration Theory.